NOTES

DIMENTIONS OF HEADER
P H Y S I C S

MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION AND
INTRODUCTION TO VECTORS

What you already know What you will learn

● Differentiation of a function ● Method of substitution

● Properties and formulae of differentiation
● Maxima and Minima
● Integration – properties and formulae
● Integration – area under a curve
● Definite and indefinite integration
● Vectors and Scalars
● Properties of vectors
● Vector addition laws– triangle law,
parallelogram law, polygon law

Method of Substitution

∫f(g(x)) × g’(x)dx

Step 1: Substitute u = g(x), du = g’(x)dx

∫f(g(x)) × g’(x)dx = ∫f(u)du

Step 2: Evaluate by finding an antiderivative F(u) of f(u).

∫f(u)du = F(u) + C, where C is constant of integration

Step 3: Replace u by g(x)

F(u) + C = F(g(x)) + C

Find ∫sin(ax + b)dx

Step 1: Substitute ax + b = u Step 3: Put the value of u

cos(ax + b)
Step 2: Differentiate both sides ∫sin(ax + b) dx = − +C
a
d(ax + b) du
dx = dx
du
a =
dx
du
dx =
a
du
The question becomes: ∫sin(u)
a
Which is equal to -cos(u) 1 +C
a
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 02

New Formulae
If ∫f(x) dx = F(x) + C, then

∫f(ax+b) dx = 1 F(ax + b) + C; where a, b, and c are constants.

a

1 ax + b
• ∫e(ax+b) dx = e +C
a
1
1
• ∫ (ax + b) dx = ln(ax + b) + C
a

Evaluate ∫cos(7θ + 5) dθ Evaluate ∫√(1 + y2).2y dy

1 Let u = 1 + y2 , du = 2y dy
∫f(ax + b) dx = a F(ax+b)+C;
u(1/2) + 1 2
I = ∫√(1 + y2)∙2y dy = ∫u1 ⁄ 2 du = = 3 u3/2
Let f = cosθ, dx = dθ, a = 7, b = 5 (1/2) + 1
sin(7θ + 5) Replace u by 1 + y2
I = ∫cos(7θ + 5) dθ = +C
7
sin(7θ + 5) I = 2 (1 + y2)3/2 + C
I= +C 3
7

cosx (lnx)2
Evaluate ∫ dx Evaluate ∫ dx
(5 + sinx)2 x

Let u = 5 + sinx, du = cosx dx 1

Let u = lnx , du = dx
cosx x
1 -1 (lnx)2
I = ∫ (5 + sinx)2 dx= ∫ 2 du = +C 2 u3
u u I=∫ x dx = ∫u du = +C
3
Replace u by 5 + sinx Replace u by lnx
-1 (lnx)3
I= +C I=
5 + sinx 3 +C

ADVANCED
How does integration work?

y axis

100
90
80
If we were to find the area 70
under a curve as shown. 60
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x axis

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 03

We can take many rectangles to estimate The estimation gets better as the width of
the area as shown: rectangle reduces like this:

100
90 100
80 90
70 80
f(x)

60 70
60

f(x)
50
40 50
30 40
20 30
10 20
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Δx x
Area of one rectangle = f(xi)Δx
Total area = A1 + A2 ………
= ∑A(xi) = ∑f(xi)Δx

Δx dx
∑ ∫
Area of one rectangle = f(x)dx
+
+ f(x) Total area, A(x)=∫f(x)dx
+
+
+
+
dx

Definite Integration or Integration with Limits

The function is the integrand

Upper limit of integration
b x is the variable of integration
Integral sign ∫f (x) dx
Lower limit of integration a

Integral of f(x) dx from a to b

b b
∫f (x) dx = [g (x)] = g (b) - g (a)
a a

Where g (x) is the antiderivative of f (x)

i.e., g’(x) = f (x)

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 04

π/2 10
Evaluate the integral ∫cosx dx Evaluate the integral ∫sec2(3x + 6) dx
-π/2 0

π/2 π/2 b b
I = ∫cosx dx = sinx ∫f(x) dx = IxI = I(b) – I(a)
-π/2 -π/2 a a

= sin (π2 ) ( π2 )- sin - 10

I = ∫sec (3x + 6) dx =
2
tan(3x + 6)
10

=1+1=2 0 3 0
1
= [tan(36°) – tan(6°)]
3

Properties of Definite Integration

The linearity property

b b b
∫[ αf (x) + βg(x)] dx = α∫f(x) dx + β∫g(x) dx; where α and β are constants.
a a a

3
Evaluate ∫(4x2+2x+1) dx
0

3
∫(4x2 + 2x + 1) dx
0
3 3
4x3 2x2 3 4(3)3 2(3)2
= 3 + 2 + x| = -0+ - 0 + 3 – 0 = 36 + 9 + 3 = 48
0 0 3 2

Graphical interpretation of
Find the area bounded by the line y = x
definite integration
between x = 2 and x = 6

y y
y = f(x)

y=x

x x
0 a b 0 2 4 6

b 6
Area bounded by the curve and x-axis is
A = ∫f(x)dx = ∫xdx
given by, a 2
b 6
x2 36 - 4
A = ∫f(x)dx = = = 16 cm
2 2 2
a

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 05

(ii) The additive property (iii) The inverting property

b c b where c is an intermediate b a
∫ f(x) dx = ∫f(x) dx + ∫f(x) dx; limit between a and b. ∫f(x) dx = -∫f(x) dx
a a c a b

Find the area bounded by the curve y = sinx and x-axis, when the limit is:
π
(i) x = 0 and x = 2
(ii) x = -π and x = π

(i) y
π/2 π/2
∫y dx = ∫sinx dx
0 0
π/2 π
I = [-cosx] = -[cos 2 - cos0]
0
I = -[0 - 1] = 1 -π
-π 2
x
(ii) π π
π π
2
∫y dx = ∫sinx dx
-π -π
π
I = [-cosx] = -[cos π - cos(-π)]
-π
I = -[-1 -(-1)] = 0

Find the area bounded by the curve y = x2 + x + 4, the x-axis and the lines
x = 1 and x = 3

y = x2 + x + 4 x1 = 1 and x2 = 3 y

x2 3
I = ∫y dx =∫(x2 + x + 4) dx
x1 1
3 3 3
I = ∫x dx + ∫x dx + ∫4 dx
2

1 1 1
3 3
[ x3 ]1 + [ x2 ] 1 + 4[x]31
3 2
I=

( 3 3- 1 ) + ( 3 2- 1 ) + 4(3-1)
3 3 2 2
I= x
1 3
26
I= + 4 +8
3
62
I=
3
62
Area = sq. units
3
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 06

What is a Vector ?

A physical quantity is a vector when,

• it has magnitude and units

• it has a direction
• it obeys laws of vector algebra

Representation of Vectors

Vectors

Symbolic representation Pictorial representation

A
Any vector quantity is denoted by a small right Head
B
arrow over it. If it is a vector quantity, it should Arrow - Direction
be denoted by A AB
Example:
A Length - Magnitude
Velocity - V
Tail
Speed - V

Representation on Cartesian Plane

To place a vector on cartesian plane

Magnitude of Angle with the axis

the vector (Generally x-axis)

θ
x

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 07

Properties of Vectors

If a vector is displaced If a vector is rotated If the coordinate axes are

parallel to itself, through an angle other translated or rotated, the
it does not change. than multiple of 2π (or vector does not change.
360°), it changes.

A A
A≠B
B S’
B O’
A B
θ S
A=B O

Angle Between Vectors

A
Angle between two vectors means smaller of the two
angles between the vectors, when they are placed
tail-to-tail by displacing either of the vectors parallel to
itself. (i.e. 0 ≤ θ ≤ π) θ B

D D D
D
θ θ

C C C C

Three vectors are arranged along sides of a triangle. Find the angle between the vectors.

(i) A and B (ii) B and C (iii) A and C

Angle between the vectors

A and B is 60°
B C
B and C is 105°
{ Parallel displacement of C vector } 60° 45°

A and C is 45°
A

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 08

30°
D
60°
B
Four vectors are arranged as shown in the C
figure below, find angle between the vectors.
A
(i) A and D (ii) A and C

Simple, just coincide the tails of all vectors at the intersection of both the axis by parallel shifting.

Angle between the vectors Parallel displacement of vectors

A and B is 90° A
C
A and C is 30° 30°
B and D is 30° 60°
A and D is 120° 30° B
60°
D

Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ gives a vector B (= λ A ) whose magnitude is

changed by the factor λ but the direction is the same as that of A

A 2A

Multiplying a vector A with a negative number λ gives a vector B whose direction is opposite to
that of A and whose magnitude is -λ times | A|

A -2A

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 09

Types of Vectors

Collinear Parallel

The vectors acting along the same line i.e., in
the same direction (or) opposite directions are
known as collinear vectors.
B
Two collinear vectors acting along the same
direction are known as parallel vectors. The
angle between the two vectors must be 0°. The
magnitude of two vectors need not be equal.
They are also known as like vectors.

A
B

C
A B

Anti-Parallel Negative vectors

Two collinear vectors acting along the opposite
direction areknown as anti-parallel vectors.
The angle between the two vectors must be
π. The magnitude of two vectors need not be
equal.
180°
Any two vectors of same type which are equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction are
known as opposite or negative vectors.
P -Q

Q
A B
| P | = |-Q|

Equal vectors Null vector

Two or more vectors having the same A vector having zero magnitude and undefined
magnitude and the same direction irrespective direction is known as a null vector or a zero
of their positions in space are known as equal vector. It is represented by 0 . Zero vector
vectors. cannot be represented graphically.

Q 10 N 10 N

P =Q

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 10

BOARDS MAIN
Vector Algebra

Vector Addition

Triangle Law Parallelogram Law Polygon Law

Triangle Law C

When two vectors are aligned head to tail, their ‘sum

AC = AB + BC
vector’ or ‘resultant vector’ is represented by the third
side on the completed triangle in the opposite order.
BC

Working with triangle

A B
Let’s say A and B AB

A B

Step 1 : Join tail of vector B to head of Step 2 : Resultant vector is obtained by joining
vector A tail of vector A to head of B

R=A +B
B
A B A B B

A A

Parallelogram Law
D AB C
If two vectors are oriented tail-to-tail, representing two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant
is represented by the included diagonal of the
completed parallelogram. AD AC
AD

Then the resultant AC = AB + AD, where AC is the

excluded diagonal. A B
AB
AB = DC : BC = AD

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 11

Triangle Law vs Parallelogram Law

D C C

AC
AD
AD AD

A B A B A B
AB AB AB

D AB C
C

AC AD AC
AD
AD

A B A B
AB AB

Thus we say Parallelogram Law is the extension of Triangle Law.

Polygon Law C

If every side of a polygon represents a vector, then

CA
their sum taken in a cyclic order is zero.
BC

A B
AB

AB + BC + CA = 0

C C C

CA CA AC
BC BC BC

A B A B A B
AB AB AB
AB + BC + CA = 0 AB + BC = -CA AB + BC = AC

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 12

Verify polygon law for pentagon.

Using Triangle Law in △ABC Using Triangle Law in △ACD

AB + BC = AC AC + CD = AD
D D

DE CD DE CD

E C E C
AD
AC AC
EA BC EA BC

A AB B A AB B

Using Triangle law in △ADE AB + BC + CD + DE = AE

AD + DE = AE
D D

DE CD DE CD

E C E C
AD AD
AC AC
EA BC EA BC

A AB B A AB B

AB + BC + CD + DE + EA = 0

We know that sum of all the angles in an n-gon is given by (n - 2)π

Quadrilateral: 2π
Pentagon: 3π

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