PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Professorial Lecturer in Chemical Engineering ‘Cave Institute of Technalony McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY Auckland Bogoté Guatemala Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico New Delhi Panama Paris San Juan Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney TokyoPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘To my wife INTERNATIONAL EDITION 1965 NATALIE W. KERN for her real b Exclusive rights by MeGras-Hill Book Co-Singapore er Teal help for mansfacrre and export. This book cannot be recesporl fom the country t which i it consigned by McGrew Hil 12345678920 SIP98765 the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. AML rights etserved. blication may be reproduced, stored in a retneval syxtem, or tansmited, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior writen permission of the publisher. ‘When ordering this title use ISBN 0-07-085353-3PREFACE in the object of this text to Provide fundamental instruction in heat z 2 has obtained additic ional information frm industial epplcati ion.PREFACE ‘The author has been inffuenced in his ows profesional dev velopment by slo extonded to Richard L, Cawood, President, and Arthur E, Kempler, ‘Vieo-President, for their personal assistance and for the cooperation of ‘The Patterson Foundry & Machine Company. Donard Q. Kuen Naw Yous, NY. ‘April 1960 CONTENTS, Pzrace. as BESSSR seer. 2888INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS ‘Todular hester, unbafled (sugar solution-stoam) SECEURREND gBUeEeELERUEEeReEEESeEEEsxii INDEX 70 THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS CALCULATIONS ‘Longitudinal fin double-pipe cooler (gas oil-water) ‘Tubular longitudinal fin cocler (oxygen-watet). “Transverse fix erossfiow cooler (air-water). - Bas BE 88 888 88 CHAPTER 1 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Heat Transfer. The science of thermodynamics deals with the quanti- tative transitions and rearrangoments of energy asheat in bodies of matter. Hea tronafer isthe science which deals with the rates of exchange of heat in process {s identical. ‘The rates at which either process can be made to progress with an independent source or receiver, however, are inherently very different, Vaporization is generally a much more rapid phenome- non than condensation, Heat Theories. ‘The stady of heat transfer would be greatly enhanced by a sound understanding of the nature of heat. Yet this isan advantage which is not readily available to students of hest transfer of thermo outside the critical region, a large amount of energy is involved in the ‘transition, For the same suibstance in its different phases tho various thermal proporties have different orders of magnitude. Ax an example, the ape- 40%, the total change in the tem- 2 (2 4 4 BH) am perature gradiont will be — 20029) ar or — Fax, ‘Then at = the 6 op \Bas © Oyi ™ oe . an ‘When the flow af heat into and out of the cube is constant asin the eleady aradicnt ia — 2, and ab x + dz the temperature gradient is stale, £ does not vary with time, and dé/de = 0, in Eq. (2.12). °dt/éz in a constant and d%/az* = 0. dQ = dQj, and Eq. (2.8) reduces to Eq. (2.5) 4 - Sa where dody = dA. Substituting ‘dQ for d0’/d#, both terms having12 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER dimensions of Bta/he, the oleady-sfate equation is a dQ = kdA (2.44) Equation (2.14) applies to many of the common engineering problems. ‘Thermal Conductivity’ from Electrical-conductivity Measurements. ‘The relationship between the thermal and electrical conductivities of metals demonstrates an application of Fourier’s derivation incorporated. bar of metal as shown in Fig. 24 thas its left and right cross-sectional temperature baths at f and t, r6- spectively. By fastening electric of heat leaving both ends of the bar in the stoady state must be equal to the amount of heat received as electrical energy, J*R», where Re is the resistance in ohms, From Ohm's law pains Aue GEA) ~ 6 oe whore E, — B; is the voltage difference, « the resistivity of the wire in ohmeft and K, the reciprocal of the resistivity, is the clectrieal conductivity. az T= KA 15) ody _ de pattie (2.16) Substituting Eqs, (2.16) and (2.16) for 1*R*, a9 = pr = eur(#) B= xa(Zl ee am But this is the same as the heat transferred by conduction and given by CONDUCTION 13 Eq, 29). When t = 4 and equating (2.9) and (2.17), a * Gia — x (2) d=0 (218) But dt _ a dk a Bas 19) Differentiating, Ses) am If and A are constant for the bar, then K(dK/dr) is constant. Since K does nat vary greatly with ¢ or z, d#f/dz is constant, d'E/ds? = 0, and from Eq. (2.18) substituting Eq. (2.20) for d¢/ds* kag K=0 @2n aK ae (2.22) #olmsogee, K 2 ” 4 (2.23) constant. Upon integration of Hq. (2.14) when all of the variable ‘are independent the steady-state equation is sebeee q= tan 24) Given the temperatures existing on the hot and cold feces of a w reapectively, the heat flow ean bo computed through the use af this equation. Since kA/L is the conductance, its reciprocal B is the resist. ance to heat flow, or R = L/kA (hr)(°F)/Btu, Example 21. Flow of Heat through a Wall. Tho faces of « i. ota Peatneretane etait mt of Kaolin insulating brick. How much heat will escape through the wall? Selation. “The average temperature of tho wall willbe 900"F. From Table in the‘on ta OOO"F will not change this value appreciably. ° Siterent ro materials are placed toyetherindlsted by th ecbecriptao , nod icknose te the temperature difference across each layer to its resistance must same aa the ratio of the total temperature difference is to the total ‘For any composite eystem using actual temperatures conpuerion 15 Rearranging and substituting, atte = ty Oo RCFE Ue |) Rompe 4 ow of Het troughs Compose Wal The wall ofan oven con- sits slayer of bh nde be of Bia ot eal Wee ag) st he interfaces ofthe layers? ‘Seton; or the fbr, Re = Da/had = 8/18 X 0.68 % 1 = 0.98 (hiN"R)/(Ba) Anmulating brick, Ry = In/beA = 4/12 X 0.15 X 1 = 2.23 Boling brick, = L/h = 6/12 X 040 X t= 125 ‘Heat Joes of wall, @ = a/R = (1000 — 125)/4.45 = 822 Bta/hr or the individual layere: . Baample 25. of Heat through & Composite Wall with an Air Gap. To larteste the poor conduetivity ofa gas, mappone an air gap of 1 in. were ltt between ‘he inmalating brick and the icbiick. How much haat would be Jot through the ‘wall if the insito and outside temperatures are kent oonstant? atation, | From: Table 8 in the Appendix nf 572°F air bas a conductivity of 0.0985 ‘Bou/(he) NCH AE), and this tonaperatare is clone to the range of the problem, Rats ~ 0.35/12 X 8.0205 = 0.70 (hx) °F) (Btn. Bm AAS $0.70 om 54 te at any radius r is given by Qxrl if the heat flows out of the eylinder the temperature gradient for the16 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER incremental length dr is dt/dr. Fquation (2.14) becomes a= ore (- GZ) a/anint 229) Integrating, tm hint (2.30) When r= 7, (= 6; and when r = rq ¢ = yj whore ¢ and o refer to the inside and outside surfaces, respectively. ‘Thon 2xk( — b) 47 33 lgrdn 31) and if D is the diameter, te De nD s, 1. Big ig inal" ylindrcal resistance, i tent og 232) f= + 2B gt (2.33) Adding, 6 4 3H yyy De == 28 tog Bt + BEF tos Ft ea) ‘Bxampie' through a Pipe Well. |A glace pips has an outside diame- EeaiG AA ROUNT Gmaer of 80a be ud to traawort » ud sree cintains the nner suraee at 200°P. It is expectod that the outside of the Tipe wil be malntained at 175°E, What hest flow will veut? "Solution. k = 0.68 Btu /Chr) (fi) CB /tt) (see Appendix Table 2). <4). _ 2X 8.46 x 0.680000 — 170) oo BS, = PEE aio corse” See eustint If the inside diameter of a cylinder is greater than 0.75 of the outside Ginmeter, the mean of the tivo may be used. Then per foot of length At At hot (235) 9° * Dyed, ~ Da = Dye we ADs + DY/B where (D; ~ Di)/2 is the thickness of the pipe. Within tho plated haere eien ‘Da/Ds, Eq, (2.35) will differ from Bq. (2.34) by conpucrion Ww about I percent, Actually there are 1.57 ft? of external surface per linear foot and 1.31 ft? of internal surface. The heat loss per square foot is 343 @Btu/br based on the outside surface and 411 Btu/hr based on the inside surface. ‘Heat Lossfrom a Pipe. In the precoding examples it was assumed that, the cold external surface could bo maintained at a definite temperature. ‘Without this assumption tho examples would have beon indeterminate, since both Q and St would be unknown and independent in a single equa- tion. Tn reality the temporature ascigned to the outer wall depends not ‘only on the resistances betwoon the hot and cold surfaces but also on the ability of the surrounding eolder atmophere to remove the heat arriving, at tho outer surface, Consider a and carrying steam at a:tempers- (4 ‘ture & considersbly above that of desirable to report the data as s unit conductance torm k/L Btu/(hr)(ft? ofPROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 8 . connection 19 external surfs (°F of temperature difference). The unit conductance : een ara eo unt Feidance L/h intend of he reriproal ofthe Pipe wall: ork resistance for the entire surface L/kA. In other words, it is the con- 9" ree) (sy) Guetance por square foot of heat-flow surfsco rather than the oon- agulation: 71D, ductance of the total surface, ‘The unit resistance hae the dimensions insulation: orks , 9 = x37 Bo © ~ 4) @sy ‘Radiation and convection to air: = herDills — t.) 2) ‘or combining wo tun aga + Bk H+ BE oe Dh + dy) ‘The terms inside the parentheses are the four resistances, and of these the first two can usually be neglected. ‘The equation then reduces to ge ph 23), Ds, 2 35, 8 DP + RD; ‘From the abscissa of Fig. 2.9 it is seen that A, depends upon not only the temperature difference but the setual temperatures at the outside insulati the air, ia necessary for the’ calculation of the total temperature difference, and therefore tho mirtace coefficient h, eatmot be vomputed except by trial- and-error methods. o_o erin mai aba Brample 26. Heat Loss from ¢ Pipe to Air. A 2in. steal pipe (dimensions : * m 40 ®. TO ‘Table 11 in the Appendix) carries steam at 30°F. ‘bin igged eth to of rk ‘Teeperahire difference t-10),F wool, f ~ 0.038, and the surrounding air is at 70°F, What will bo tho beat loee per ‘pu. Boat camer by onveton en vdaton fom Bernt pip tempaatrk Enea foot? Paae ini es te ‘alien Anu b= LSP, f¢ — 70 = BOF, he = 2.98 Bea /Cn) RCP). ‘The reciprocal of the unit resstance, Jy sign oat rina/ (NEC) and is sometimes designated the eurface 104.8 Bea /(oe in 2 ‘Condensation of steam: a= hadi — ©) aay 1 RW, Ind, Eng. Chem, M6, 445-452 (1924). 1 ll, A, and N.C. Lae eginsring, 1%, 60-42 (1880)2 PROCRSS HEAT TRANSFER t= 1258" Cheek ‘The total heat loa g docs not appear to vary significantly for the diferent assumed ‘valaes off. This a bocauge the iurulstéon and not-the small surface coefiient affords the majorrecitance to heat How, | When the varistin in gis considerable for diferent ssiumed temperntares off, it indicates innufisient Snnuiation, ‘The Maximum Heat Loss through Pipe Insulation. It would scem at first that the thicker:the insulation the less the total heat loss. This is always true for flat insulation but not for euryed insulation. Consider a pipe with successive layers of cylindrical insulation. As the thickness of ‘the insulation is ineressed, the surface area from ahich heat may be removed by air than the resistance. Referring to Fig. 2.10, 7 the resistance of the insulation per linear foot, %., of pipe is, - iat Bem pein (236) Fro. 2.10. The eritioal rw Oaks sae and the resistance of the air per linear foot of ‘ips, slthongh a function of the surface and air temperatures, is given by R= ae (2.37) ‘The resisfance is a minimum and the heat loss a maximum when the derivative of the sum of the resistances’ with respect to the radius r is set equal to zero or aR ig Maint 4 Lat a alt hae ee 38) 1 1 ~~ ‘At the maximum heat loss r = r the critical radiua, or nop (2.39) Jn other words, the maximum heat loss from a pipe occurs when the critical radius equals the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the insula- tion to the surface coefficient of heat transfer. ‘The ratio has thedimen- sion of ft, It is desirable to keep the critical radius 2s small as possible conpuerion a were to cary @ hot fuid, there would be a certain hour hreniay could be determined from the cost. ot prota iat in lant heat-generating station. The tho ticles and initial ost of tho nae ne lost enter lation and the greater the annual fixed nomic thickness of the insulation, ‘Tho °t=#oo. form of such sn analysisis ahown in Fig. 2.11. ‘The most dificult partis * obtaining reliable initinl-installation-eoat date, ninco they vary peat ith plan to plant and with the amount ofimulting to be done ata at a i gb: J a2 F Schofield, Proc. Inter. Congr. Reri., th Cong. 8, 801-610a PROCESS HEAT TRANSPRR Since the drawing is symmettical about the vertical line BE, consider only the right half of the drawing bounded by ECF, Assume an arbi- traty auraber of isotherms 1, in the direction from B to B so thet, if & o 1 f* in constant, At = 2, Ata 1 vases wit thon ate = 2 kd, Tho greater the assumed number of isotherms the greater the precision of the renter ths Sent, coaldar Ui hat to fw from to oll ot fs rough ‘my lanes emanating from BC and forming the network indicated. Now pel. * conpueri0N 23 ‘The total heat flow from BC thus requires 1 = Qne/k(é, — 42) lanes, whore Q is the total heat flow. Figure 2.12 was constructed in this manner starting with six isotherms, ‘PROBLEMS 2.3. furnace ixencloood by walle made (fram inside out) of 8 in. of kaolin firebrick, 6 in, of kaolin innulsting brick, and 7 in. of fireclay brick. What ls the heat om per ‘equare foot of wall when the jaside of the fornaoy ia maintained at 2200°F and the outside at 200°F? ‘22. A fumace-wall is to consist in serin of Tin, of kaolin frebeck, 6 in, of Kaolin imagoente bricks cannot withsiaad » ise lemperatare above 1500°F, and the low {ade bricks cannot exoeed 600°F, What ¢hicknea of the wall wil give « hos! loan ot in excuse of 1500 Btu /(a2 (19) when tho extrome face temperatures ar 250 ant 200°, respectively? 24. A Gin TPS pipe ia covered with thse rsistancen in scion consisting from the inside outward of 3 i. of kapok, Lin. of rock wool, and 35 ia-of powdered magnesite applied os a plaster. If the inside surace in masitained at 600°F and the outside at 1OI°F, what i the heat loos pr oquare foot of outed pipe sutaco? 2A. A Din, IPS line to a drigerated procom covered with 3 in. of kapok caries 25% NaCl bri at °F and at » ow rat of 90,00 bfir. ‘The outer surface of tne ‘apok wil be maintained nt 00°F. Whats the equation for the Gow of best? —Calcu- late ‘the heat Loakage into the pipe and the temperature ris of the Suid for 60-f atructurally supported roof of the saane material when exposed to the name differenoe in temperature?er PROCESS HBAT TRANSFER 4 G,, Cy Go Satherand contest oe ‘Volumetric specific heat, Btu/(ft*)("F) Specific heat at constant pressure, Btu/Gb)°F) zt woes ot ‘Stroma fo loctromotive free Fanusecoticiet of heat transfer, Bra/(s)(0CF) 1 Garret, amp K ‘Flectrical conductivity, t/obm-ft k ‘Thermal conduetivity, Btu/(ar)(te*)(F/tt) L Thickness of wall or length of pipe, ft = @ Oe ¢ 4 & ‘ ‘ a r Hest, Boa “Heat ‘flow, Btu /(hr) in £2) Resistance to hoat low, (hi) °F) /Bta Resistance to electri flow, chs ‘Temperstare at any pot, “F Tamperetore difereace promoting ext fow, °F i 3 CHAPTER 3 CONVECTION Introduction. Hest transfer by convection is due to fluid motion. Cold fluid adjacent to s hot surface receives heat which it imparts to the ring, although in most process applications it is induced by circulating the hot and cold fluids at rapid rates on the opposite sides of pipes or tubes. Free- and forced-conveetion heat transfer oceur at very different speeds, the latter being the more rapid and therefore the more common. Factors which promote high rates for foreed convection do not necessarily have the eame effect om free convection. It is the purpose of this chapter to establish a genoral mothod for obtaining the rates of heat transfer particularly in the presenee of foreed convection. and the average temperature of the air, Since the distance from the pipe surfaeo to the region of averago air temporature is indefinite, the resist noe cannot be computed from R, = Ls/kad, using & for air. Tnstesd ‘and the heat transferred from the pipe as evidenced by the quantity of steam condensed in it. The resistance for the entire surface was then computed from RZ WICH /Bea Ji desired, Z, can also be calculated from this value of Rand would be the length of a fictitious conduction film of air equivplent to the eom- bined resistance of conduction, free convection, and radiatios. The length of the film is of little significance, although the concept of the fictitious film finds numerous applications. Instead it is preferable to 25 SVNOWLEd QO TONAL LUSHAAINA AUVASIT26 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER directly wit reciprocal of the unit resistanco A, whieh has an Ss Fr ae rouce the te of the unit resistance Z/k ia 90 Hi a weet ich Guide having a variety of physical propertios and under va re oof agitation traafer beat. ‘Other factors influence the CONPRCTION ‘oanaidered to be on the inside or outside of the pipe. With so many ‘The rate of shear is proportions! to the velocity gradient du/dy. Ap- plying Newton's rule, if ris the shear shreas, roe @3) ‘chore 1 is the proportionality constant or sti rele in deformation and is oquivlet8 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER by u = Vy/¥. Rate of shear = $= 5 3) roy os) where y is called the viscosity when V and Y bave unit values. ‘The actual force roquired to move the plate is +A. If F is the pound- force, L the length, and @ the time, the dimensions of the visoosity are a HPL FO BeTy "LE of using the pound-mass M, where F = Mg and 9 = L/¢, the accelera- tion of gravity, MLL Mw BS GOT 8 ‘When evaluated in cgs metrie units « is commonly called the absolute ‘viscosity. = —_Stammass__* ** centimeter X sevond ‘This unit’has been named the poise after the French scientist Poiseuille, ‘This ia ailarge unit, and it is customary to use and speak of the centi- ‘poise, or-one-hundredth poise. In engineering units ite equivalent is defined by = Pound-pass * foot X hour ‘Viscosities in centipoises can be converted to engineering units on multi- plying by 2.42. This unit bas no name, Another unit, the kinematic ‘viscosity, is also used because it occurs frequently in physical systems and produces straighter graphs of viscosity ve. temperature on logarithmic coordinates. The kinematic viscosity is the absolute viseosity in centi- poises divided by the specifi gravity. ss = Shsolute viseosity ‘inomatie viscosity ear ‘The unit of kinematic viscosity is the stokes, after the English mathe- rmatician Stokes, and tho'hundredth of the stokes is the centistokes. temperature, The commonest is the Sybolt viscometer, and the time of efflux from a standard cup into a standard receiver is measured in convection 29 seconds and recorded as Saybolt Seconds Universal, 88U. Conversi factors from the time of efflox to centistokes for the Saybolt and ether viseometers are given in Fig. 13," . and olher oat Transfer between Solids and Fluids: Streamline and Turbulent neha, Wo, BA. Turbulent fow in pipes Reynolds? observed that the type of flow assumod «tubo was influenced by the velocity, density, and 1 Figure numbers which are not preceded b; Reynolds, Papers : ® 0, *Betantific of Oxborne ” ie versity Pres, London, 1801, Osborne Reynolds,” p, 81, Cambridge Uni.30 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER CONVECTION Tine flow. Streamline flow is, in fact, s form of conduction whose study different groups of variables, each group having the net dimensions of ‘will be deferred to a later chapter. ‘The speed with which heat is the dependent variable. As » very simple Mlustration consider the con- Jarred to or from a given liquid to n tube is considerebly lese for stream ‘inuity equation which is frequently written in elementary physics and fine than for turbulent flow, and in industrial practice itis almost always thermodynamics texts in the form jjminable to aveid conditions such ss low liquid velocity which promote ws streamline flow. wt (as) ‘Dimentional Azalysis, A method of corrclating a number of varisbles where w = fluid flow rate, weight/time ato e engl equation expressing an effect is known as dimensional analy: wv = fluid velocity ia conduit, length time St cally cans pena ‘ensein te 4 = cross section of the conduit, length % length = length? i from basic laws deri example is 9 m= ppecifio vol : tan of ron of pda fms Nero's eto weight tumo, length X Fength X length/weight = length/ frevitational constant, Still other effects can be doscribed by difer Why doos Eq. (8.5) have this parti ‘ffjal equations, and the course or extent of the phenomons dediiced by ode tht their ef dimenion ae tho amen then ofthe depend moana of the caleulus, Numerous examples of this iype are encountered ent variable t, namely, weight/time. An eqt ine pe depend in elementary physics. ‘Tn still other types of phenomens there is ineufi- numbers and dimensions must be correct with respect nvok the end both. +e ot information to permit the formulation of either differential equations Checking the dimensions slone, writing for the variables in cen clear picture by which fundamental laws may be spplied. This last ‘their individual dimensions, Eq. 6.) {Gap mus: bo suid experinentally, and the corlaton of the ser Weieht tions is an empirical approach to ‘equation. ‘Equations which can Sygiakt — emai length’ weight be obtained theoretically oan also be obtained empirically, but the reverse time * Tengah = “imo Ge) 5 a pment has presented by far tho most extensive proof of the mathe Iti fdgmant has presented by far the . It in seen that the dimensions on the left side are identical wit matical principles underlying dimensional analysis. Because it operates dimensions of the group ouly when the auisbler ol the greupareaaneed aly upon the dimensions of the vasiables, it does not directly produce in the particular manner indicated by the formuls. The three inde- vakerical resulta from the variables but instesd yields s modulus by pendent variables above give an answer in weight/time only when winch the observed data can be combined and the relative influence of Reranged in a single way, ua/o. Consereely t may be dedueed thatthe Thevarisbles established. As such, itis one of the important comorstones of an equation ia determined only by its dimensions; ‘he form which oo. Gf empirical stady. Tt recognises that any combination of « sumber duces dimensional equality represents the Bro- Ghd dimonsion, such as 5 Ib or 5 ft, possesses two identifying aspects, one tho variables. Any physival aqustion may be writ Telationship among SF pure magnitude (numerical) and the other quantitative dimensional) ‘terms of & power series containing all the variables, Tl the forin were not Fundamental dimensions aro quantities such as length, time, and tempers Known in the llustration above and it was desirod to ind a relationshi fare which are directly measurable. ‘Derived dimensions are those /hich must exiet between the variables: ‘end ‘be . veh are expreaid in terms of fundamental dimensions such as veloo- by a power series such as may be expremted lengthtime or density ~ mase/length'. ‘The end results of & Fy casional analysis may be atatod 08 follows: If « dependent variable (0, 0, 9) = awutatr + aluruat +--+ = 0 B7) having given dimensions depends upon some relationship smong ® group ‘The factors a and a’ are dimensionless proportionality constants, Since we ha ins alg te on sn the dimension of al she cansecutre terms of the ewina wep idenlca: i ‘a way that the se group are identi not neoossary to consider 4 She dependent varialo, The independent variables may also bo relsted ‘one oan write ‘ny of the terme beyond the fist, Accordingly jnauch a way that the dependent variable is defined by the sum of several ewer) =1 as 1 Bridgman, P, W., “Dimensional Ansty," Yale University Prom, New Haven, where ¢ indicates the function, Axbi sng b= 100 tat bitrasily setting b= —1 « 1981,32 PROCKSS HBAT TRANSFER ‘will not appear in the final equation exised to a fractional exponent, w= vate @s) Substituting dimensions, Weight _ o( ley" X (lengthyé x (ose) (@.10) Time Time Ii a group of independent variables will establish numerical oquality ‘with @ dependent variable, tho samo is true of their dimensions. Equa- tion (3.6) imposes this condition, ‘The exponents ¢, d, and ¢ snay then assume such valves as are necessary to effect the dimensional equality Detween the loft and right sides. ‘The remainder of the solution is merely ‘to evaluate c,d, and e by simple algebra. Summing the expononts of the dimensions on both sides and recalling that an exponent of zero reduces & cumber to unity, Z length, 0 = c + 2d + 36 ‘Solving for the unknown, d is found to be +1. The three exponents are then e = +1,d= +1, ande = —1. Substituting these in Ea. (8.9), ws aati = at @1y) ‘Inasmuch 25 this is an exact relationship, the proportionality constant « fs equal to 1.0 and , w= ‘Thusby purely algubraie means the correct frm ofthe equation hasbeen to employ other dimensions suth as temperature and a derived heat unit H, the Btu or lorie, ‘a moshanial and seni! ngning 1 curacy ou of unitof foree and the unit of mass. Tn the preceding illustration the weight ‘was employed. The relationship would hold whether the pound-mass or Ggran-maas or the pound ores (poundal) or gram-force (dye) were used convection 33 Tapia 8.1. Dmevaions ax Users Pimensiona:* Force = 7, heat =H, length = Z, mass = M, temperature = 7, time = 0, The foree-pound is the poundal, the forcegrasa is the dyne TE in ihe pound the forcegram in the dyne Sym- a ‘Quantity: consisient engineering and metric unite Dimen- 4 | Acocteration of gravity, fer, em, 4. [ven otc, tyne ue Kx | Conversion from kinetic energy to beat mn Mian $y | Gonverin rom fr oa aie 5 aye ke z Lye a & E ® L ¥ a @ myo ’ ayers Fun P Bh Fits ? PL/s z ayer . be : Pas ‘ ma [Roast conde Blu /tanceyer/e, eatfomeyfemnec/ | H/tTe =| Thermal diffusivity, 1/hr, em?/eee ; Sian as T7170 ue Het (EVE) Oa Btu, 7C)fom) (ve) foal ire Lye ” Pais “ Mile 2 | Work, (orceb)f),(oree-) fem) x "Fore yet without beat change tha sutoraaliy dane we FER 8 long as the weight was always troated in the enme ‘gutem in whch the mas ea fundaneatal dimension 96 6, 8 ‘From the acceleration equation, force = mass X acceletation, F = Mie. In another set of dimensions it may be more convenient to consider forcea PROCESS HBAT TRANSPER fundamental ‘hich expressed by ON EeTOF 3 the dimension, in which case mass is " " Substituting dimensions and ar! itrarily Fr M = Fe. equal to 1, ‘teary sting the exponent of aP/at, ‘When some of the variables are commonly expressed in units of foree f- aur + MN! (aen\* such ae pressure FZ! and other variables by units of mass such as the B 4) Xt) \ta) rey G14) density MZ", it is necessary to introduce dimensional constant into the ; series expression before solving for the exponents. ‘The constant relating Summing exponents, ‘M and F naturally has the dimensions of the gravitational acceleration 2s constant L@*, A similar situation also arises when describing a phe- BL, -8 -a+b~ae~d+ ‘aomenon by which a work or kinstie energy change occurs in a system. 2M, O-eta+ ‘Some of the vatiables may ordinary be expreseed in terms of foot-pounds 0, b-d-2 (foree-pound X foot) and others in terms of hest energy such as the Solving simultaneously, Btu. A conversion factor which is the beat equivalent of work must be toa introdueed fo convert FL to H, or vice verse. ‘The constant isthe kinetic tral ‘energy equivalent of the heat HZ+/H¢. A number of common variables 4 and dimensional constants are given in Table 3.1 together with their net q- @) dimensions in a six-dimension system. Typical sets of engineering and Zé aetrie unite are included. : . . ‘Analysis for the Form of a Fiuid-flow Zquation. When an incompressi- Substituting back in Eq. (3.13), ble fiuid flows in a straight horisontal uniform pipe with a constant mass © rate, the pressure of the fluid decreases slong the length of the pipe Gf = admire = sae (Due) owing to friction. ‘This is commonly called the preanwre drop of the OR 2.15) system, AP. The pressure drop per unit length is referred to sa the where @ and —d must : pressure gradient, dP/dL, which haa been found experimentally to be Yesient tm of aimee iver ten ent a A con influenced by the following pipe and fluid properties: diameter D, veloo- which is identical with up and corresponds te the so eas SeityG, ity w, fluid density p, and viscosity 4. What relationship existe between foot of flow ares. To obtain the dep ieee flow per equare ‘the preesure gradient and the variables? aP by AR, dl by the length of pip ree ae 8) replace Sokition, ‘The pressure has dimensions of force/area, whereas the ‘equivalent g, ibetituting for Ky its density is exproseed by mass/volume 0 that a dimensions) constant relating Af to F must be included, Ky = ML/F@. The same result ap = Seu(bay* aay be seccmnplished by including the acceleration constant ¢ along with Dave @.16) ‘the variables above. While the viscosity is determined experimentally where Duo/u ot DG/u is the Reynolds nuunber. as a force offeot and has the dimensions F#/Z*, it isa very small unit, and Analysia for the Form of a Forced-convection it is more common in the engincering sciences to uso the absolute vis- heat transfer by forced convection to an i Zavation. |The rate of coaity M/L# in which the conversion from force to mass hss already been furboleat Bow in a pipe of uniform col A Content aeelngin made. found to be influenced by the focity u dont Using the sasoe method of notation aa before, Semen condetity By vty a8 wl oh nie dita af te nate relocity, vitoosity, density, end diameter fe DwomKn 6.19) ees of the fivid film the pipe wall through which the eat genet, a te condvoted, and they also influence the extent of Avid musing,” fis we : §~ Derek: 013) aiato a ee36 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER tion, What relationship holds between the film coefficient or rate of heat transfer, ky = H/@LA7 [euch as Btu/(hr)(ft*)}CF)], and the other number ha = 9.0, Dw Ke Bs ane briteeky na jana 7) ain=«C8) (2) (6h) © (aay Ga) Summing exponents, BH, ladt+f~i | BL, -2=a—~B+e—f-g+R BM, O=b—dto+i baa d=1-~f fmf g=l-fr-a@ i=0 Subwttting ack, hy = apt DW pK (3.19) or collecting termes, p-(@Q" am a, d 1 — ‘must be evaluated from a minimum of three sets of sae esta data ‘i Rbetitating ‘the mass velocity for up in the above, e-NG) em ‘The dimensionless groups AD/k and tu/k, like the Reynolds number convection ar Dup/ of DG/u, have been assigned names to houor earlier investigators in the field of ffuid mechanics and beat transfer. A list of the common ‘groups and the names assigned to them are included in Table 3.2. ‘Tanur 32, Comox Dumxsroxunes Gaovrs One of the useful aspocts of dimensional analysis is its ability to pro- vide a relationship among the variables when the information about a phenomenon is incomplote. One may have spoculated that both fluid {fiction and forced convection are influenced by the surface tension of the fluid, ‘The surface tension could have been inoluded as a variable and ‘same token, the equations obtained above may he considered to be prodi- cated on incomplete information. In either case a relationship ix obtainable by dimensional analysis. Consistent Units. In establishing the preceding formulas the dimen- sions wore referred to in general terms such as length, time, temperature, te.” In order that the not dimensions of the variables may be obtained by cancellation among the fundamental ard derived dimensions, all must employ the same basic measured units. Thusif several variables employ ‘dimensions containing length such as velocity L/@, density M/L', and ‘thermal conductivity H/0LT, each must employ the same basic unit of length such as the foot, Accordingly, when substituting values of the variables into « dimensionless group, it is not permissible to signify the38 ‘PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Slowntnn frome ante a Sys nish, sand etl others in ‘uted into the dinesoatm groupe Meee 20 | am algebraic solution. In general, it is desirable to solve for the dimension- Jess groups appearing in Table 3.2. * Buckingham, B,, Phys. Rev, 4 345-876 (1014). *Trdgman, 0. ot CONVECTION 30 Analysis for a Port-neerinEaaion he Theorem, ete.) =O = Sioncony) = 323) “(Gy us , GY GA) © Gey @y CRY a2 txpoosus atin catty umeaad oe Stn not be possible to obtain either a Reynolds number or a Prandtl number,40 PROCESS HEAP TRANSFER Assume f=1, ¢=0, ¢~0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, bed = 1,9 =0jm= 1,5 =, n=¢(P#) x ry Toprevent the hc tetm andi the velocity or density from appearing again, asume a= 0, = 1, f=0. All the exponents will have now ppoated in one or more eolutions, ‘Assume a= 0, ¢=1, f= 0. Solving the simultaneous equations above, b= 0,d =0,g=—I,m=1i=0, n-8 $) +Ch 2g) -9 29 AD ‘Dup' ou" . 4p = 0() (2) . Sterne ona tes ~ (22) @)-<2Y GY om where the proportionality constant and the exponents must: be evaluated from experimental data. ‘Development of an Equation for Streamline Flow. Since streamline flow is » conduction phenomenon, it is subject to rational mathematical analysis, On the ‘assumption that the distribution of velocities at any ‘cross section is parabolic, the indide surface ‘of the pipe is uniform, and the velocity at the wall is zero, Graetat obtained for radiel conduction {to a fluid moving in a pipe in rodlike flow Bohn —ay (@) Gan where t; and are the iilet and outlet temperatures of the fluid, ¢, is the Uniform inside pipe surface temperature, fy — fs the temperature differ- ‘The final expression is o Temperature of the fuid flowing in the pipe, ia considered to be infurnced 1 Grnote, Inj Ann. Phy, 8, 387 (1885). For areviow of the treatment of conduc tion in moving Btlds a0e'T. B. Drow, Trane, AICHE, %6, 32 (1931). convECTION 4 jin radial conduction by the length of path Z,-the rate of flow specific hhoat, thermal conductivity #, and the temperature dliference between the pipe inside surface and the fuid temperature 60 that Al; = ty — . feo t= alte at (6.28) Solving by the method of dimensional analysis, hohe (8) At (8.29) or aera @y (8.30) which is similar to Eq. (3.27). Now note that neither Ke (2.29) containe hor the Vsamnity go But Q = beds at ar (2) ner ‘wolts — 4) = hye DL Ate ‘and substituting @ = A in Eq, (3.30), Deb (DG Be GE ea Now synihetically introducing the viscosity by multiplyii i Be SN) by yas on Saiag LY Malvina thee torm and the temperature difference was simply the difference between any42 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER inside the pipet ‘Pferring to Fig. 3.6, the constant temperature of the inside pipe wall fs shown by the horizontal line f,. If the specific heat is assumed con- a 4 s i 4 \ ta] 1 i. Lo a ‘Temperature diference between a fxd and « pipe wall, Pena stant for the liquid, the rise in temperature is proportional to the total ‘heat repeived by the liquid in passing from the inlet temperature {1 to the ‘outlet temperature t, and if hy is considered constant dQ = heddca 633) ‘The slope of the lower line defining the temperature difference At a8 a function of Q is Ss = em) where Aly = & — hand Ah = 4 — te Eliminating 4Q from Eqs. (3.33) md G34), Spay [ME am ‘Integrating Q = BAGH hs 336) s/s “The expression f= isthe logarithmic mean temperature diference, abbreviated LMTD, and the value of hy, which has been computed from Q = hAcAte when Af; is the logarithmic ‘mean, ia a distinct value of convection 8 fa W the value of At; were arbitearily taken as the arithmetic mean of ‘Ais and At, the value of A; would have to be designated to show that it does not correspond to the logarithmic mean. This is usually accom- plished by affixing the subscript or m for arithmetic mean, a8 hy of ha. When A’, and Al, approach equality, the arithmetic and logarithmic means approach each other. Q = Welly — f) = Bidets (37 From the observed values of the experiment and the calculation fiven in Eq, (8:8), hs oan be computed from of Ah, a8 emt e (te — AEN tae B= wet (838) factors which affect h, are those encountered in the dimensional analysisconvection 45 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER “4 the pipe-turface thermocouples sto brought out throvgh the geakete en the ends of the test soction, The pestormance of the experiment requires the selection of an initial fs calming sections, Next the liquid passos through s ooolar where its termmerature ia returned to t. The annulus of the test section is con-WAY TRANSPEBR 46 PROCESS HUAT TRANSF! convacrion « and thermometers appear elsewhere.” ‘The same is true of equations to a aan entton id Row through standard orioes when the propertin of the |, 26 BBormonovene| | ane~wecennanson quid vary. FE t SERRSIZSSETR TBvaluaton of a Forced Convection Equation from Bxperimental Dela. sS ‘Anan example of correlation, data are given in Table 2.3 which, wee 2k ie an ed by Morris and Whitman? on heating ga oil and straw oll with Boa tna nT le wih i a te rg 3 oiaton, ae crea] conductivities may bo obtained from Tig. 1 B ti | cseveanaas: eee oe 2 eae epacic heats from Fig. 4. Both aro plotted in the Appendix = aaa | | REQRSEgeeskages E y|. | SERSESS8R8888 | | S888R2 | e ale | RRCSESSERESEE | | SAMARETSRENES ¥ | |seeeeegeeeees |,/ eeeeeseeeceeeee | HSA iif > emeniuaeg | +100} e 4 é aang eee 3 ae = 3e 30 pase | fap | ideas Stniaaebiamn Ae Ab 7 [iedezanaseens | afanneaveeses vat erm a ea Agp | sbasedasteses |§) agestsuacseccss with °APT as parameters. The thermal conductivity of the metal wor aa L . | sseseseseeses |!) sgegeseteegeass whoa by Moris and Whitman to be 35 Btu/ (hr) (2) CE/At and constant, ° ‘Sthough thi is higher than the value given ip Appendix Table 3- Only: rl sudcnsdacdeve |2| Sesavekenseeege Colatns 2, 8,4, ae 5 in Table 33 were observed where a = oS |) REXRASNSRERSRIT th = oil inlet temperature, be moscenasomcan meceneNanonene’ ty = cil outlot temperature, “F F - |Seggungegesss| | sggggaus' renenes 1. Gaeperatare of over pipe ouxace averaged from thermocouples [* LSRRRRRRRARERR |_RARRRERARSARERE | = weight flow, Ib far L = |ageenmeazanas| | isenzesneessnea «re Git oto in correlating a forood convection equation i to determine Senaceancusagay wee the date arein turbulent flow, otherwise on attempted correlation by Sees Ba G8) would be incorrect. In column 11 the Reyaolds aunbere p< Svebeo eal ing the ae nn el dare eeny be found in Table 11. Fluid properties have been obtained Le rae eza temperature (i + 4)/2. ‘The Reynolas numbers all exceed Pe |RESSSSS58e8¢3| | RRSzRazESgRISLY “Amaten ntt Pp, Tempe Te Menon sod Gila Le]. oe — ‘Science and industry, ‘aisha blag Corporation Non or 3 BERRRRERRRESE | | SVSSCSTSESESRES + Marts, F. H., aad W. G. Whitmn, /48 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘2100.in substantiation of turbulent flow. Equation (3.26) ieigiven aa Poe EF GY e w) NE and a, p, and g oan be found algebraically by taking the date for three test points i igebraic Solution. This method of correlation is demonstrated ‘by wa the three ‘points B4, #12, and C12 in Table 3.3 which include lange range of K,D/k, DG/s, and cp/k as calculated presonty from flow and uid properties and tabulated in columns 9, 11, and 12. C12: 191 Bid: 350 q = 0.407, end the final equation is » Px oosse "ey" ‘When the equation is to be used frequently, it can be simplified by fixing aa8 the eae oot of the Prandil number and solving for new values of aand p. ‘The simplified equation would bo AD. payee ( en " & = 0.0089 e t Graphical Solution. Yor the correlation of a lange number of points the gtapbical method is preferable. Rewriting Eq. (3.26), 2gy'y am which is an oqustion of the form yaar 8.40) CONVECTION 40 ‘Taking the logarithms of both sides, Tog y = log a + log 2 ‘which reduces on logarithmic coordinates to an equation of the form veatpe a1) On Togarithmie coordinates the entire group (hD/k)(o4/b)-* is the ondi- atte y in Ea. (8.41), the Reynolds number is z,p isthe slope of the data when plotted as y vs. z, and cis the value of the intercept when Plog 2 =0 which ooours when the Reynolds number is 1.0, To plot valuee of dz 5 RD/RCca/Y~, tho exponent ¢ must. be sasumed. "Tha eeost ‘satisfactory assumed valuo of the exponent will be the one which permits Observed teat data: Wight flow of gas ci, wo = 722 tb/hr ‘Temperature of ofl at pipe inlet, ty = 7.1°F ‘Temperature of oil at pipe outlet, fg = 106.9°F Average temperature of outside pipe surface, fw — 210.1°F Physical data and calculated results: Heat load, Btu/hr: Average oll temporature ~= 71 + 1069 yo gop Average specific heat, ¢ = 0.472 Btu/(Ib)(°F) = wells ~ ts) = 722 x 0.472(106.9 — 77.1) = 10,180 Bta/ae ‘Tomperature of pipe at inside surface, ty: . LD. of }4-in. IPS = 0.62 in; 0.D, = 0.84 in, Length, 10.125 %t; surface, 1.65 ft?