Biomineralization[edit]

Ballast minerals[edit]

Part of a series related to

Biomineralization

show

General

show

Exoskeletons (shells)

show

Endoskeletons (bones)

show

Teeth, scales, tusks etc

show

Geologic forms

show
 Other

 v
 t
 e

Observations have shown that fluxes of ballast minerals (calcium carbonate, opal, and lithogenic
material) and organic carbon fluxes are closely correlated in the bathypelagic zones of the ocean.
[48]
 A large fraction of particulate organic matter occurs in the form of marine snow aggregates
(>0.5 mm) composed of phytoplankton, detritus, inorganic mineral grains, and fecal pellets in the
ocean.[51] Formation and sinking of these aggregates drive the biological carbon pump via export and
sedimentation of organic matter from the surface mixed layer to the deep ocean and sediments. The
fraction of organic matter that leaves the upper mixed layer of the ocean is, among other factors,
determined by the sinking velocity and microbial remineralisation rate of these aggregates. Recent
observations have shown that the fluxes of ballast minerals (calcium carbonate, opal, and lithogenic
material) and the organic carbon fluxes are closely correlated in the bathypelagic zones of the
ocean. This has led to the hypothesis that organic carbon export is determined by the presence of
ballast minerals within settling aggregates.[52][53][54][48]
Mineral ballasting is associated with about 60% of the flux of particulate organic carbon (POC) in the
high-latitude North Atlantic, and with about 40% of the flux in the Southern Ocean. [55] Strong
correlations exist also in the deep ocean between the presence of ballast minerals and the flux of
POC. This suggests ballast minerals enhance POC flux by increasing the sink rate of ballasted
aggregates. Ballast minerals could additionally provide aggregated organic matter some protection
from degradation.[56]
It has been proposed that organic carbon is better preserved in sinking particles due to increased
aggregate density and sinking velocity when ballast minerals are present and/or via protection of the
organic matter due to quantitative association to ballast minerals. [52][53][54] In 2002, Klaas and Archer
observed that about 83% of the global particulate organic carbon (POC) fluxes were associated
with carbonate, and suggested carbonate was a more efficient ballast mineral as compared to opal
and terrigenous material. They hypothesized that the higher density of calcium carbonate compared
to that of opal and the higher abundance of calcium carbonate relative to terrigenous material might
be the reason for the efficient ballasting by calcium carbonate. However, the direct effects of ballast
minerals on sinking velocity and degradation rates in sinking aggregates are still unclear. [54][48]
A 2008 study demonstrated copepod fecal pellets produced on a diet of diatoms or coccolithophorids
show higher sinking velocities as compared to pellets produced on a nanoflagellate diet. [57] Carbon-
specific respiration rates in pellets, however, were similar and independent of mineral content. These
results suggest differences in mineral composition do not lead to differential protection of POC
against microbial degradation, but the enhanced sinking velocities may result in up to 10-fold higher
carbon preservation in pellets containing biogenic minerals as compared to that of pellets without
biogenic minerals[57][48]
Minerals seem to enhance the flocculation of phytoplankton aggregates [58][59] and may even act as a
catalyst in aggregate formation. [60] However, it has also been shown that incorporation of minerals
can cause aggregates to fragment into smaller and denser aggregates. [61] This can potentially lower
the sinking velocity of the aggregated organic material due to the reduced aggregate sizes, and,
thus, lower the total export of organic matter. Conversely, if the incorporation of minerals increases
the aggregate density, its size-specific sinking velocity may also increase, which could potentially
increase the carbon export. Therefore, there is still a need for better quantitative investigations of
how the interactions between minerals and organic aggregates affect the degradation and sinking
velocity of the aggregates and, hence, carbon sequestration in the ocean. [61][48]
Remineralisation[edit]
Remineralisation refers to the breakdown or transformation of organic matter (those molecules
derived from a biological source) into its simplest inorganic forms. These transformations form a
crucial link within ecosystems as they are responsible for liberating the energy stored in organic
molecules and recycling matter within the system to be reused as nutrients by other organisms.
[5]
 What fraction does escape remineralisation varies depending on the location. For example, in the
North Sea, values of carbon deposition are ~1% of primary production [62] while that value is <0.5% in
the open oceans on average. [63] Therefore, most of nutrients remain in the water column, recycled by
the biota. Heterotrophic organisms will utilize the materials produced by
the autotrophic (and chemotrophic) organisms and via respiration will remineralise the compounds
from the organic form back to inorganic, making them available for primary producers again.
For most areas of the ocean, the highest rates of carbon remineralisation occur at depths between
100–1,200 m (330–3,940 ft) in the water column, decreasing down to about 1,200 m where
remineralisation rates remain pretty constant at 0.1 μmol kg−1 yr−1.[64] This provides the most nutrients
available for primary producers within the photic zone, though it leaves the upper surface waters
starved of inorganic nutrients.[65] Most remineralisation is done with dissolved organic carbon (DOC).
Studies have shown that it is larger sinking particles that transport matter down to the sea
floor[66] while suspended particles and dissolved organics are mostly consumed by remineralisation.
[67]
 This happens in part due to the fact that organisms must typically ingest nutrients smaller than
they are, often by orders of magnitude.[68] With the microbial community making up 90% of marine
biomass,[69] it is particles smaller than the microbes (on the order of 10−6) that will be taken up for
remineralisation.[70]

Key role of phytoplankton[edit]

Phytoplankton

Glass shell (frustule) of a diatom

Coccolithophores help power the carbonate pump by producing hard structures out of calcium carbonate which
eventually sink to the ocean floor

Part of a series on

Biogeochemical cycles

show

Water cycle

show

Carbon cycle

show

Nutrient cycle
 show

Rock cycle

hide

Marine cycle

 Marine biogeochemical cycles

 Biological pump 
o microbial loop
o viral shunt
 Calcareous ooze
 Siliceous ooze

show

Methane cycle

show

Other cycles

show

Related topics

show

Research groups

 v
 t
 e

Marine phytoplankton perform half of all photosynthesis on Earth  [71] and directly influence global
biogeochemical cycles and the climate, yet how they will respond to future global change is
unknown. Carbon dioxide is one of the principal drivers of global change and has been identified as
one of the major challenges in the 21st century.[72] Carbon dioxide (CO2) generated during
anthropogenic activities such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels for energy generation
rapidly dissolves in the surface ocean and lowers seawater pH, while CO 2 remaining in the
atmosphere increases global temperatures and leads to increased ocean thermal stratification.
While CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is estimated to be about 270 ppm before the industrial
revolution, it has currently increased to about 400 ppm  [73] and is expected to reach 800–1000 ppm by
the end of this century according to the "business as usual" CO 2 emission scenario.[74][41]
Marine ecosystems are a major sink for atmospheric CO2 and take up similar amount of CO2 as
terrestrial ecosystems, currently accounting for the removal of nearly one third of anthropogenic
CO2 emissions from the atmosphere. [73][74] The net transfer of CO2 from the atmosphere to the oceans
and then sediments, is mainly a direct consequence of the combined effect of the solubility and the
biological pump.[75] While the solubility pump serves to concentrate dissolved inorganic
carbon (CO2 plus bicarbonate and carbonate ions) in the deep oceans, the biological carbon pump
(a key natural process and a major component of the global carbon cycle that regulates atmospheric
CO2 levels) transfers both organic and inorganic carbon fixed by primary producers (phytoplankton)
in the euphotic zone to the ocean interior and subsequently to the underlying sediments. [75][34] Thus,
the biological pump takes carbon out of contact with the atmosphere for several thousand years or
longer and maintains atmospheric CO2 at significantly lower levels than would be the case if it did not
exist.[76] An ocean without a biological pump, which transfers roughly 11 Gt C yr−1 into the ocean's
interior, would result in atmospheric CO2 levels ~400 ppm higher than present day.[77][78][41]