Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Strength improvement of expansive soil by utilizing waste

glass powder
Rizgar A. Blayia,* , Aryan Far H. Sherwania , Hawkar Hashim Ibrahimb ,
Rabar H. Farajc , Ako Daraeia
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Soran University, Soran, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
b
Civil Engineering Department, Salahaddin University-Erbil, 44002 Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
c
Civil Engineering Department, University of Halabja, Halabja, Kurdistan Region, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Expansive soils expand and lose their strength when wetted and shrink when dried, and
Received 12 April 2020 this makes a considerable volume change. Construction on expansive soils has made
Received in revised form 16 August 2020 problems around the world for different civil engineering projects such as highways,
Accepted 17 August 2020
railways, embankments, and foundations. Therefore, the improvement of expansive soils is
crucial, especially for road construction. The strength improvement of these types of soils
Keywords: can be gain by adding another material, and waste glass powder (WGP) was selected for this
Soil improvement
study. The WGP was crushed and mixed with the soil sample with various percentages:
Expansive soil
Waste glass powder
2.5 %, 5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 % by the dry weight of the soil. Various laboratory tests were
CBR conducted for the treated and untreated expansive soil with the different percentages of
Subgrade the WGP, including Atterberg limits, compaction, free swelling, unconfined compressive
strength (UCS), direct shear strength, and California bearing ratio (CBR) tests. According to
the test results, adding WGP to the expansive soils has a significant impact on the
consistency and shear strength of the soil sample. In addition, improving subgrade
expansive soil with 15 % of WGP decreases the thickness of the sub-base by about 63 %. The
optimum percentage of the WGP for enhancement this type of soil is around 15 %.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction

Expansive soils are widely distributed on the earth and some parts of most nations around the word covered by this soil
[1–3]. Expansive soils expand significantly with the increase in their moisture content and shrink when the moisture content
is decreased [4–6]. They are problematic soil for civil engineering projects because of their cyclic swell-shrink behavior and
low strength [7,8]. When projects built on expansive soil, especially highways, railways, and embankments, face many
difficulties [9–13]. In some situation, construction on such type of soil cannot be avoided, and the sources of suitable
materials may be not near to the site and transportation of them need significant effort. Therefore, the improvement of such
type of soil is crucial [14–16]. This improvement includes increasing the strength and durability of expansive soils, as well as
decreasing the consistency limits and the shrinking-swelling behavior [17–20].
One of the techniques used for improving the geotechnical properties of expansive soil is using various by-product
industrial solid waste materials [21–23]. These materials are produced from different industrial processes, and they have a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rizgar.omar@soran.edu.iq (R.A. Blayi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00427
2214-5095/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427

negative influence on the environment [18,24]. Therefore, during the last decades, different researchers tried to use these
waste materials for soil stabilization, and some of them have been proposed to be utilized as construction materials [25–29].
Currently, it has become clear that waste materials are used for various geotechnical properties and decrease their
environmental impact [30]. In addition, there is no factory for recycling waste materials in the Kurdistan Region, north of
Iraq. Therefore, a large amount of them is throwing annually [31–33]. Besides, the ecological and economic benefits, using
waste materials have unique properties for many geotechnical applications. The properties of waste materials such as
strength, durability, and high resistance are essential for the design of the highway and foundation of buildings [34–36].
Moreover, waste glass is an important waste material that could be considered for soil stabilization [37–41].
The use of WGP with other materials has been investigated by several researchers for different types of soils. Fauzi,
Rahman and Jauhari [26] assessed the use of glass and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) for stabilizing clayey soils. Various
percentages of HDPE and glass were used (4%, 8%, and 12 % by dry weight clay sample). Adorning to the results, by adding
HDPE and crushed glass, the geotechnical engineering properties and CBR of the samples were improved. In addition,
Olufowobi, Ogundoju, Michael and Aderinlewo [42] reported the effect of different percentages (1%, 2%, 5%, 10 %, and 15 %) of
glass powder (GP) with a base of 15 % cement to the total weight of soil sample. The test results showed that the maximum
dry density (MDD), improves up to 5% of adding GP and then decrease, whereas, the OMC reduces with adding GP. Besides,
the maximum CBR value obtained by adding 5% of GP for soaked and un-soaked conditions. However, the maximum
cohesion and internal friction angle were achieved at 10 % of GP. It was concluded that the preferable amount of GP with 15 %
cement stabilized for clay soil is about 5%–10% by soil mass. Furthermore, Ikara, Kundiri and Mohammed [17] studied the
effect of using different percentages of WGP (0%, 5%, 10 %, 15 % and 20 %) and cement (0%, 2%, 4%, 6% and 8%) on black cotton
soil to the dry weight of the soil sample. The tests showed that the addition of WGP and cement to soil sample decreases the
consistency limits. The optimum percentages (8% of cement and 20 % of WGP) were selected for achieving the maximum
values of CBR and UCS. In the same way, Baldovino, Izzo, Silva and Rose [40] experimentally studied the evaluation of using
different percentages of WGP (5%, 15 %, and 30 % by sample weight) for stabilizing high-plasticity silt (MH) with various
cement content (3%, 6%, and 9%) in different curing times. Test results showed that by increasing dry unit weight, curing time,
percentages of WGP, and cement, the UCS and durability improved. Moreover, Fauzi, Djauhari and Fauzi [43] studied the
effect of using waste HDPE and crushed glass for stabilization of the subgrade with different percentages of the additives (4%,
8%, and 12 % to the dry weight of the sample). It was noticed that by increasing the percentage of waste HDPE and crushed
glass leads to reduce the liquid limit and cohesion. On the other hand, the value of CBR and the angle of internal friction were
increased by increasing the percentages of additives.
Recently, different researchers have tried to use WGP for improving expansive soils [e.g., 39, 44, 45] and non-expansive
soils [e.g., [46,47,48]. Canakci, Al-Kaki and Celik [44] assessed the addition of various percentages (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12 % to the
dry weight of soil sample) of waste soda-lime glass powder (WSLGP) on low-plasticity clay (CL). Test results showed that
with increasing the additive, the plasticity index, OMC, and swell potential were reduced while the CBR and MDD values
were increased, and the soil strength was also improved. Furthermore, Parihar, Garlapati and Ganguly [45] investigated the
effect of adding crushed glass on the black cotton soil (MH). The experimental results showed a significant improvement in
the MDD, OMC, CBR, and free swelling Index at 6%–9% of the additive. Moreover, Ibrahim, Mawlood and Alshkane [39]
studied the effects of various percentages (6% up to 36 % of the sample dry weight) of WGP on the high-plasticity clay (CH).
According to the experimental results, the MDD and OMC increased and decreased, respectively, with the addition of WGP.
The UCS increased up to adding 27 % of WGP and then decreased. Besides, the liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), plasticity
index (PI), linear shrinkage (LS), and free swelling (FS) were decreased with increasing WGP.
According to the above literature reviews, WGP can be used for improving the geotechnical properties of different types of
soils. However, the expansive soils need a more comprehensive study to determine the optimum percentage of WGP that it
could be used in construction projects. For this study, waste glass was collected (from the Soran city, Kurdistan Region, Iraq),
and crushed to be a powder. The main objective of this research is to find the optimum percentage of WGP to be used for
improving the strength behavior of expansive soil (CL), especially for road construction. Therefore, a series of laboratory tests
were carried out for the CL soil and the soil sample by adding various percentages of WGP, i.e., 2.5 %, 5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 % to
the dry weight of soil sample. The main laboratory tests which were conducted for the treated and untreated soil samples are
Atterberg limits, compaction, free swelling, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), direct shear strength, permeability, and
California bearing ratio (CBR) tests.

2. Experimental study

2.1. Testing methods

The expansive soil and WGP were mixed, weighed, and then the water was added into the samples. The samples were
kept in nylon bags and then put into a special container to preserve the moisture content. In the beginning, the
characterization tests were performed for the expansive soil and WGP. The classification and identification of the expansive
soil, specific gravity, Atterberg limits, and free swelling were conducted according to ASTM_D2487 [49], ASTM_D854 [50],
ASTM_D4318 [51], and ASTM_D4546 [52], respectively. The linear shrinkage was performed according to BS_1377 2 [53] BS.
The MDD and OMC values were found as per ASTM_D698 [54]. According to ASTM_D2166 [55], the UCS samples were tested.
The diameter and height of the UCS samples were 43.2 mm and 98.5 mm, respectively. They were compressed using a
 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427 3

specially designed hammer and applied the same energy used in the modified compression test. The direct shear test was
performed according to ASTM_D6528 [56]. CBR tests were performed on soaked samples prepared at MDD and OMC as per
ASTM_D1883 [57]. The loading frame used during the test had a load ram of 28 kN and a dial gauge with a sensitivity of
0.01 mm. The measurements were recorded for each 0.25 mm penetration. The chemical compositions of the expansive soil
and WGP were determined by using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis.

2.2. Materials

The expansive soil used in the experimental works was clay, and it was mixed with WGP (Fig. 1). The soil sample was
taken from Hamilton Soran-Jundean road in Soran city/Iraq at about 1 m–2.7 m depth. The microstructural analysis of the
expansive soil and WGP using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) are presented in Fig. 2 (a) and (b) that used in this study.
Fig. 3 illustrates the location of the study area. The grain size distribution curves for the expansive soil and WGP are shown in
Fig. 4. According to the gradation curve of the soil, about 47 % of the soil is clay, and 82 % of WGP is silt. Furthermore,
according to the unified soil classification system, the expansive soil, in this study, was classified as low- plasticity clay (CL).
Table 1 summarizes the geotechnical properties of expansive soil that was used in this study. The WGP (see Fig. 1a) was used
in this study that taken from waste glass and crushed by using a machine crusher in Soran city/Iraq. Moreover, the specific
gravity of the WGP was 2.55. While WGP increased to the expansive soil, the specific gravity of the samples was reduced as
compared to the natural soil [58]. The chemical components of the WGP were analyzed according to XRF tests, as shown in
Table 2. The chemical composition of the WGP and its main compositions are silica (SiO2) and calcium oxide (CaO). Fig. 5
illustrates the morphological formation of the expansive soil and WGP that used in this study. All experiments were
conducted at the Soran University in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Table 3 presents the geotechnical properties of expansive
soil were determined according to ASTM standards.

3. Results and discussion

The expansive soil was mixed with different percentages of WGP (2.5 %, 5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 % by dry weight of the soil)
for all laboratory tests. Table 3 gives a summary of the testing results for untreated and treated soil with various percentages
of WGP that obtained in the present study.

3.1. Atterberg limits test

Plasticity characteristics and their deformation of untreated and treated soil can be indicated with index properties such
as liquid limit (LL), plastic limit (PL), plasticity index (PI) and linear shrinkage (LS), as shown in Fig. 6. The WGP was used at
various percentages, from 2.5%–25%. The LL, PL, PI, and LS decrease as the percentages of WGP increases. This due to WGP
works as an inner material, and the ability of water absorption of WGP particles is less than clay particles. Furthermore, from
Table 2, it can be seen that the majority percentages of WGP consist of silica, which is about 72 %. As a result of that, a portion
of the expansive soil replaced with non-plastic material; therefore, the LL was reduced (from 44.20%–22.28%) [60]. Besides,

Fig. 1. (a) An expansive soil, (b) WGP that used in this study.
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Fig. 2. SEM image for the (a) expansive soil and (b) WGP.

Fig. 3. Location of the site area (Soran city, Kurdistan Region of Iraq).

the PL was slightly changed (from 24.81 % to 16.44 %) [26]. The PI was significantly decreased from 19.39 % to 5.84 % %, and the
LS was reduced from 9.17 % to 2.63 % when the WGP added up to 25 % by dry weight of the soil.
The position of treated and untreated expansive soil was explained on the plasticity chart, as shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen
that all samples located between the A- and U-lines regions and by adding the percentages of WGP to the soil sample that
changed from CL to CL-ML. In addition, from Fig. 7, there is a linear relationship between LL and PL for the tested samples as
given in Eq. (1):
PI = 0.602 LL-7.089 (1)
 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427 5

Fig. 4. Grain size distribution curves of the expansive soil and WGP.

Table 1
Geotechnical engineering properties of the expansive soil.

Properties Values Standard

Liquid limit (%) 44.20 ASTM_D4318 [51]
Plastic limit (%) 24.81 ASTM_D4318 [51]
Plasticity index (%) 19.39 ASTM_D4318 [51]
Linear shrinkage (%) 9.17 BS_1377 2 [53]
Specific gravity 2.67 ASTM_D854 [50]
Type of soil (USCS) CL ASTM_D2487 [49]
Gravel (%) 0.00 ASTM_D6913 [59]
Sand (%) 19.00 ASTM_D6913 [59]
Silt (%) 34.00 ASTM_D6913 [59]
Clay (%) 47.00 ASTM_D6913 [59]
Free swelling (%) 5.28 ASTM_D4546 [52]
OMC (%) 18.50 ASTM_D698 [54]
MDD (g/cm3) 1.74 ASTM_D698 [54]
UCS (kN/m2) 205.01 ASTM_D2166 [55]
Angle of internal friction (w) 19.80 ASTM_D6528 [56]
Cohesion (kN/m2) 39.13 ASTM_D6528 [56]
CBR (%) 4.50 ASTM_D1883 [57]

Table 2
The chemical composition of the WGP.

Element Content [%]

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 71.21 %
Calcium oxide (CaO) 13.3 %
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 10.1 %
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 1.91 %
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.4 %
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 0.45 %
Other composition 0.63 %

3.2. Compaction test

The standard compaction tests were conducted for the untreated and treated soil with various percentages of WGP. The
OMC and MDD were determined for the untreated and treated soil with different proportions of WGP (2.5 %, 5%, 10 %, 15 %,
and 25 %). Fig. 8 shows when the moisture content increases, the dry density increases up to get the optimum moisture
content, after that it falls for the designated cases. At that time, the peak point of each curve represents the OMC and MDD for
the untreated and treated soil samples (Table 3).
Fig. 9a shows a relation between OMC and the addition of various WGP to the expansive soil. The OMC content value for
the expansive soil was 18.5 %. As the percentages of WGP increased, the OMC was gradually decreased to 13 % (Table 3). This
reduction is due to the replacement of the expansive soil by WGP that it has the low ability of water-absorbing compared to
the expansive soil, and this is consistent with the result of [39,44,48].
6 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427

Fig. 5. X-ray diffraction pattern for the WGP.

Table 3
Summary of test results.

Specimens UCS OMC MDD FS CBR Sub-base design alternatives

(kPa) (%) (g/cm3) (%) (%)
(1) (2)

Sub-base Capping Only sub-base

(mm) (mm) (mm)
Untreated soil 205.01 18.50 1.74 5.28 4.50 150 270 240
Soil with 2.5 % of WGP 216.62 18.15 1.77 5.06 5.60 150 240 210
Soil with 5% of WGP 242.80 17.70 1.81 4.63 7.20 150 220 190
Soil with 10 % of WGP 305.40 16.85 1.87 3.65 9.90 150 190 170
Soil with 15 % of WGP 360.10 15.93 1.94 2.69 12.20 150 170 150
Soil with 25 % of WGP 332.54 13.00 1.90 0.88 10.80 150 180 160

Fig. 6. Variation of index properties with different percentages of WGP.

Fig. 9b illustrates the effect of adding WGP on the MDD for the treated and untreated soil samples. According to the
results, the MDD increases from 1.74 g/cm3 to 1.94 g/cm3 as the percentage of WGP increases up to 15 %; after that point, it
decreases with the addition of WGP to the expansive soil by 25 %. Moreover, the decrease in the MDD past 15 % is caused by
the replacement of a considerable amount of solids, which is associated with the interaction between expansive soil and
WGP particles. These results agree with [45,48]
The percentages of free swelling for untreated and treated soil with various percentages of WGP were found as per
ASTM_D4546 [52]. The samples were prepared at OMC and MDD, and the height and diameter of the samples were prepared
with 2 cm and 5 cm, respectively. The required density was gained by volume and mass control. From Fig. 10, it clear that by
increasing the percentages of WGP, the percentages of free swelling decreased (from 5.28 % to 0.88 %). The addition of WGP to
 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427 7

Fig. 7. Positions of expansive soil and mixture on the plasticity chart.

Fig. 8. Relation between dry density, and water content for untreated and treated soil with WGP.

the expansive soil leads to decrease LL and PI (see Fig. 6), as a result of that, the percentages of free swelling decreased. This
was happened due to adding non-plastic material to the expansive soil that works as an inert material; consequently, the
percentages of free swelling decreased. Furthermore, this may be due to a denser packed soil mixture produced by the WGP
for the pore water pressure, and this pack offers great resistance for swelling [61].

3.3. UCS test

The UCS tests were performed for the untreated and treated expansive soil with various percentages of WGP (2.5 %, 2.5 %,
5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 %) at OMC and MDD, as shown in Fig.11. The sample height was separated into three layers; special
pistons and molds were made at a factory for compacting UCS samples to obtain a required density for the soil samples. The
velocity of the UCS machine was fixed at 0.5 mm/min for testing soil samples. The peak compressive strength values of the
samples increase from 205.01 kPa to 360.10 kPa as the amount of WGP increases by up to 15 %. However, beyond 15 % of WGP,
the compressive strength was plunged to 332.54 kPa. This was happened due to decreasing the MDD after the addition of 15
% WGP (see Fig. 9b). Furthermore, it may be due to the addition of WGP that works as cohesionless material, which contains
high silica (SiO2 = 71.21 %) [39].
8 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427

Fig. 9. (a) Variation of OMC and WGP (b) Variation of MDD and WGP.

Fig. 10. The relation between free swelling and WGP.

Fig. 11. Variation of UCS with percentage of WGP.

 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427 9

3.4. Direct shear test

The direct shear tests were performed on untreated and treated expansive soil with different percentages of WGP (2.5 %,
2.5 %, 5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 % by dry weight of the soil) at MDD and OMC. The samples were tested under normal stresses of
100, 200, and 300 kPa. Fig. 12a displays the relation between the angle of internal friction and adding WGP to the expansive
soil. The angle of internal friction was improved by about 61 % (from 19.80 to 31.87 ) at the addition of 25 % of WGP to the
expansive soil. This was because of increasing MDD that decreased the void ratio between mixtures particles [43]. Fig. 12b
shows the relationship between cohesion and percentages of adding WGP to the expansive soil. Additionally, the cohesion of
the soil samples decreased by 19.04 % (from 39.13 kPa to 31.68 kPa) by adding 25 % of WGP. This is because of the glass powder
is mostly cohesion less waste material due to the presence of high silica (SiO2 = 71.21 %).

3.5. CBR test

The CBR test is one of the essential geotechnical properties to evaluate the subgrade strength of roads, to organize sub-
base materials for flexible pavements and to find the thickness of pavement. The WGP percentages added up to 15 %
increased the CBR values of the samples, and then a reduction was seen. Such as the CBR value was 4.5 % for the expansive
soil, increased up to 12.2 % when the 15 % WGP was involved in the sample, and then decreased to 10.8 % by increasing 25 %
WGP. The variation in CBR value by 15 % WGP addition corresponds to a more than 171 % increase that is a significant
contribution provided by WGP addition on the CBR performance of the samples, as shown (Fig. 13). This is due to filling voids
between expansive soil grains by WGP additions changing to increase the bearing capacity of the entire sample up to 15 %
WGP content. Also, the reason is due to an increase of MDD with additional WGP content; consequently, CBR and UCS were
increased. Conversely, samples with the WGP beyond transition content had a CBR value below 12.2 %, as the overall behavior
was mostly controlled by the WGP grains. This is because more solids occupied in the given volume or reduction in the
density of mixtures. Fig. 14 gives the details used in the present study for capping and sub-base thickness layers. It is clearly
seen that the thickness of a sub-base with a subgrade CBR value of more than 15 % would be 150 mm. When the CBR value is
between 2.5 % and 15 %, the sub-base can be constructed by either a 150 mm thickness with a varying thickness capping, or a
sub-base only [62]. Therefore, the increased CBR values due to the WGP result in a decrease in the thickness of the sub-base
layer from 240 mm to150 mm (Fig. 15). Table 3 tabulates some testing results as well as pavement design alternatives based
on the CBR performance of the samples. Okagbue and Onyeobi [63], Ene and Okagbue [64], Melton, Clark and Regis [65],
Cabalar and Akbulut [66], and Cabalar, Hassan and Abdulnafaa [67] provide similar findings that support the results obtained
by the authors here in the present study.

4. Conclusions

The present study investigates the use of WGP that product by mechanical crushing of waste glasses, in geotechnical
engineering applications, particularly strength improvement and road subgrade design, in order to decrease the amount of
this waste material, thereby reducing the environmental impact from disposal into landfills. The mixtures of CL and WGP at
different percentages were tested by an intensive series of testing apparatuses, including Atterberg limits, compaction, free
swelling, unconfined compressive strength, direct shear strength, and California bearing ratio. The effects of WGP on the
expansive soil properties were considered by adding 2.5 %, 5%, 10 %, 15 %, and 25 % by dry weight of the sample. Based on
information from the experimental results, the following conclusions can be drawn:

Fig. 12. (a) Relation between (wo ) and WGP (b) Relations between cohesion and WGP.
10 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427

Fig. 13. Variation of maximum CBR for the samples with various percentages of WGP.

Fig. 14. Capping and sub-base thickness design [68].

Fig. 15. Variation of sub-base thickness design with the percentages of WGP.
 R.A. Blayi et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00427 11

1 A substantial decrease in Atterberg's limits such as LL, PL, PI, and LS about (49.6 %, 33.7 %, 69.9 %, and 71.3 %) as the amount
of WGP increased up to 25 %.
2 The free swelling of untreated and treated expansive soil decreased by 83.3 % due to an increase in the percentages of WGP
up to 25 %.
3 The addition of WGP into the samples progressively decreased the OMC, whilst increased the MDD by 11.5 %, with the
addition of percentages WGP up to 15 %, and then decreased.
4 The UCS values in the samples tested increased by about 75.6 %, with an increase in the percentages of WGP up to 15 % and
then decreased by 7.7 % at 25 % of the WGP.
5 The shear stress parameters of samples that were found by the direct shear tests, it was shown that the angle of internal
friction increases by 61 %. On the other hand, in the test results described that the cohesion of mixtures decreases by 19 %
with the additional percentages of WGP up to 25 %.
6 The addition of WGP material to the CL, the CBR values increased by 171 %, with an increase in the percentages of WGP up
to 15 %, and then a fair decrease was observed.
7 The thickness of the sub-base layer of the roadway was decreased by 37.5%, with an increase in the percentages of WGP up
to 15%.
8 The optimum percentage of WGP for improving CL is approximately 15 % by dry weight of the soil sample because the
geotechnical properties of the expansive soil go on decreasing after this amount.

Declaration of Competing Interest

None

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