GeothermicsVol. 24, No. 5/6, pp. 603--629.

1995
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GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN ICELAND: STRUCTURE

AND CONCEPTUAL MODELSnlI. LOW-TEMPERATURE
AREAS

STEF/~N ARNORSSON
Science Institute, University of lceland, Dunhagi 3, 107 Reykjavik, Iceland
(Received September 1994; acceptedfor publication May 1995)

Abstract--A review and assessment of data pertaining to the origin and nature of low-temperature
geothermal activity in Iceland are presented. This activity is widely distributed in Quaternary and Tertiary
formations on the American plate in western Iceland west of the active belts of volcanism and rifling but it
is very sparse on the European plate east of these belts. Low-temperature systems occur in a few places
within the active volcanic belts. Temperatures range from just above ambient to a little over 150°C.
Generally speaking, reservoir temperatures decrease with increasing distance from the active volcanic
belts. The distribution of the low-temperature areas can be correlated to a large extent with active
tectonism. In Iceland the European plate is tectonically stable but in the American plate the shear stress
field is complicated, leading to complex fracturing and faulting of the crust at present. No single
generalized conceptual model describes the basic features of all low-temperature areas in Iceland. Low-
temperature geothermal activity is considered to develop by one of the following four processes, or any
combination of them: (1) deep flow of groundwater from highland to lowland areas through permeable
structures driven by the hydraulic gradient; (2) convection in young fractures formed by tectonic
movements in old and relatively impermeable bedrock; (3) drift of high-temperature geothermal systems
out of the active volcanic belts in conjunction with their cooling and extinction of the magma heat source;
and (4) magma intrusion into Quaternary or Tertiary formations adjacent to the active volcanic belts.
Formation of permeable fractures by recent earth movements is probably the most common process
responsible for the development of low-temperature activity through convection in these fractures.
Convection in low-temperature systems with temperatures above some 60°C is probably mostly driven by
pressure differences created by a relatively light hot water column within the system and a denser cold
water column outside it. In systems of lower temperature the convection is driven by hydrostatic head in
the recharge areas. The source of the low-temperature waters is largely meteoric. However, in some
coastal areas a significant seawater-groundwater component is present, up to 10%. Waters not containing
a seawater component are low in dissolved solids, or in the range 150-500 ppm. The reason is the low
content of anions, particularly CI, in the basaltic rock forming soluble salts with the major aqueous
cations. Geothermal waters from the low-temperature areas in Iceland typically possess lower 6D-values
(more negative) than the local precipitation. This difference is variable; most often it lies in the range of
10-30%o 6D, but it may be as large as 70,%o. This difference has been considered to indicate that the
recharge areas to the low-temperature areas lie inland on higher ground, the distance being as much as 150
kin. The interpretation favoured here is that at least some of the low-temperature waters contain a
component of "ice-age water", i.e. water that is older than about 10,000 years. The "ice-age water" is
depleted in deuterium relative to today's precipitation. When "ice-age water" is present in the geothermal
water, deuterium cannot be used as a tracer to locate the recharge areas to the geothermal areas and in this
way to deduce about regional groundwater flow.
Key words: geothermal systems, hydrology, permeability, deuterium, Iceland.

INTRODUCTION
Geothermal activity of the low-temperature type, which is defined by reservoir temperatures
ranging from just above ambient to about 150°C, is widely distributed in Quaternary and
Tertiary formations west of the belts of active volcanism and rifting in Iceland, i.e. the area
located on the American plate. On the other hand, this activity is sparse on the European plate
east of these belts (Fig. 1).
603
604 S. A r n 6 r s s o n

H6savik

w ~6 • ~ t;~ Lauaar I
• " ' I Reykjadalur
Revkir/ ~ Laugaland I ,.t
O
Hjaltadalur o / / ,~l
• I
l.. •

Selfoss-; ,. 'Brautarholt~
. ~ /'•t •

a
• carbon dioxide water
• low-temperature activity *
I 50 km
® -- in fossil high-temperature systems
Fig. I. Distribution of low-temperature geothermal activity in Iceland.

The waters in the low-temperature systems are typically alkaline (Table 1), but water
temperature is the principal variable controlling water composition, including the pH (Arn6rs-
son et al., 1983). Alkaline warm to hot water springs, chemically identical to low-temperature
waters in the Tertiary and Quaternary formations, also occur within the active volcanic belts.
These springs are not associated with any major volcanoes, in contrast to the high-temperature
activity of the volcanic belts (Arn6rsson, 1995). These thermal springs suggest the existence of
low-temperature geothermal reservoirs within the active volcanic belts.
The estimated total flow from natural springs is about 1800 l/s (Saemundsson and Fridleifsson,
1980). According to P~iimason et al. (1985) the natural power output in excess of 15°C is just over
500 MWt (megawatts thermal). This figure corresponds to a weighted average temperature of
84°C. Almost two-thirds of the total heat output is limited to the three largest low-temperature
areas, which are located in the southwestern part of the country on both sides of the Reykjanes-
Langj6kull active volcanic belt (Fig. 2). They include Reykholtsdalur with natural discharge of
400 l/s (156 MWt), mostly of boiling water (Georgsson et al., 1984), the Southern Lowlands with
350 I/s (122 MWt) (Arn6rsson, 1970), of which 250 l/s are confined to 100 km 2 in Upper-
,~rness~sla, and, finally, Mosfellssveit with natural flow rate of 120 l/s (44 MWt) according to
P~lmason et al. (1985). The springs in Mosfellssveit are now dry as a result of drawdown in the
reservoir due to pumping from deep wells (Thorsteinsson, 1975). The natural heat output of the
largest low-temperature areas is similar to the estimated natural heat output of intermediate size
high-temperature areas (B6dvarsson, 1961, 1982).
Generally speaking subsurface temperatures, as indicated by data from deep drillholes and
geothermometry temperatures of hot springs, decrease away from the main volcanic belt in
Geothermal Systems in Iceland--H. Lo w- Temperature A reas 605

I I r I i I ~7 7~11 I I f7

l I I I ~ I I I ~ I I I I I I I

C~

VVVVV V

r-

r~C~ ~0 ~o0 C~ C ~ t ~- ~ 4 ( ' ~

~ " ~ "~ "~ " ~ ~ "~

a~
~ ~ ~ . .~ .

~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

•~ . ~ . ~ ~_~ ~ ~ ~,.~
606 S. A r n 6 r s s o n

l 21° 2;° 2;° _-

27

I -- - ~ ~ IIs.b.-a --0.2 -'-''~

I I I 0 "' '-.-)
i24 o 22 ° • 20 ° 18 ° 16 ° 14 °
/I I I I I I
Fig. 2. The thermal power of natural springs in the low-temperature areas in Iceland (by county) in MW~ (from
Bj6rnsson et al., 1990).

northern Iceland and the Reykjanes-Langj6kull volcanic belt in southwestern Iceland (Arn6rs-
son, 1975). This correlation matches that of the regional thermal gradient (P~ilmason, 1973;
Saemundsson and Fridleifsson, 1980; Bj6rnsson et al., 1990) (Fig. 3). There also appears to be a
positive correlation between subsurface temperatures and the integrated flow rate from thermal
springs in individual areas (B6dvarsson, 1950, 1983).
Einarsson (1937, 1942, 1966) proposed a conceptual model for the low-temperature geo-
thermal activity in Iceland on the basis of geological evidence before any drillhole data to speak
of were available. By this model the hot water was considered to represent precipitation that had
fallen in the interior highlands. During a deep convection cycle from highlands to lowlands,
driven by the hydraulic gradient, this water was considered to attain heat from the terrestrial
heat conduction current and ascend in the lowlands where permeable geological structures
interrupted the regional groundwater flow. Thus, the model assumed the low-temperature
activity to be of a steady state nature and the low-temperature areas upflow zones from deep
regional groundwater flow from highlands to lowlands.
Extensive studies of deuterium in natural waters in Iceland, including geothermal waters,
showed that the riD-values of the geothermal waters were generally lower (more negative) than
that of local precipitation. This was taken to indicate that the geothermal waters originated as
precipitation farther inland on higher ground (A,rnason, 1976, 1977). The isotopic data were,
thus, considered to support Einarsson's model (,~rnason, 1977).
Fridleifsson (1979) assumed that Einarsson's model was valid. On that basis he explained the
distribution of the low-temperature activity in the country by a combination of two features, the
topography and the strike of permeable geological structures (faults, dykes and sub-glacially
formed volcanic ridges of pillow lavas and tufts). Low-temperature systems formed where the
elongated permeable formations lay perpendicular to the topographic contours, as in southwest-
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--II. Low-Temperature Areas 607

Fig. 3. Geothermalgradient (°C/km) in Iceland outside of the active zones of rifting (striped area) accordingto
measurementsin shallowdrillholes(fromBj6rnssonet al., 1990).Individualdrillholeresultsare shown.The differently
shaded areas represent regionsof differentgeothermalgradients.

ern Iceland. On the other hand, low-temperature systems did not develop where the permeable
structures were parallel to the topographic contours, as in eastern Iceland, because under such
conditions groundwater flow from highlands to lowlands was impeded.
Einarsson's model was generally accepted by the geothermal community in Iceland until some
10 years ago (Arn6rsson, 1987; Bj6rnsson et al., 1987, 1990; Arn6rsson and Gfslason, 1990).
However, B6dvarsson (1950, 1982, 1983) pointed out earlier that the proposed steady state
nature of the low-temperature activity was doubtful in the light of energy balance consider-
ations, certainly for the largest low-temperature systems such as Reykholtsdalur in western
Iceland. He also provided evidence favouring the theory that the low-temperature systems were
convective and their recharge local.
The low-temperature geothermal resources in Iceland have been extensively developed,
mostly for space heating, but also for greenhouse farming and other uses. For this purpose many
hundreds of drillholes have been sunk into the low-temperature areas (P~ilmason et al., 1978),
the deepest ones exceeding 3000 m. Data obtained from these drillholes and geological and
geochemical data gathered on the thermal manifestations during the last two to three decades
have led to drastic improvements in the understanding of the nature of the low-temperature
activity in Iceland. Yet, some aspects of the nature of this geothermal activity are still
imperfectly understood and it appears clear that the characteristics of all the low-temperature
areas cannot be described by a single model.
In the present contribution data relevant to the principal structure and origin of the low-
temperature activity in Iceland are reviewed and assessed. The emphasis is on geological
features that affect groundwater flow and geochemical and geohydrological evidence for the
608 S. Arnorsson
pattern of such flow. The production characteristics of drilled low-temperature systems are not
discussed nor their response to production load. Finally, conceptual models are proposed that
describe the origin and structure of the low-temperature geothermal systems that are consistent
with presently available data.

SURFACE MANIFESTATIONS
Surface activity in the low-temperature geothermal areas in Iceland is distinctly different from
that of the high-temperature areas described in a previous paper by Arn6rsson (1995). Spring
waters in the low-temperature areas are clear and generally alkaline so they are not reactive, as
are the acid, steam-heated waters of the high-temperature areas (Arn6rsson, 1995) that form
barren, acid soil. Quite to the contrary, vegetational growth tends to be enhanced around
thermal springs in the low-temperature areas. Actual silica sinters do not form around hot
springs in the low-temperature areas although cementing of gravel by silica precipitation from
boiling springs is common. Another difference is that the low-temperature areas are not as well
defined geographically. Sometimes low-temperature activity in one area is represented by a
single isolated thermal spring although clusters of springs forming a field or an area are also a
common feature.
The differences in the appearance of surface geothermal manifestations in the low- and high-
temperature areas in Iceland can be accounted for by differences in two basic features, the
reservoir temperature an,d the level of the groundwater table. High-temperature areas occur
largely in young and permeable formations and often on high ground so the groundwater table is
deep and only steam emerges at the surface. Waters at depth in the high-temperature areas are
relatively rich in H2S, and the higher the temperature the higher the aqueous H2S concen-
trations (Arn6rsson and Gunnlaugsson, 1985). When boiling occurs in the upflow zones of the
high-temperature areas a substantial fraction of the dissolved H2S enters the steam phase. When
the H2S-bearing steam condenses partly or totally in surface water, oxidation of the hydrogen
sulphide to sulphuric acid by 02 dissolved in the surface water produces acid water that in turn
leads to extensive alteration of the soil and surface rocks.
Low-temperature waters rich in dissolved carbonate (see Table 1) and with a near neutral pH
occur in a few areas (Fig. 1). Many of these waters deposit travertine. Measured temperatures in
drillholes, which have been sunk in a few areas, and geothermometry interpretation of spring
compositions in others, indicate that subsurface temperatures lie in the same range as in the low-
temperature systems containing alkaline waters.

RELATION TO ACTIVE TECTONISM AND GEOLOGY

It has been recognised for a long time that thermal springs in the low-temperature areas
frequently emerge by faults and dykes and they are distinctly linearly arranged along such
features in some areas. This has generally been taken to indicate that these structures, which are
nearly vertical, represent permeability anomalies along which the hot water ascends (Thorkels-
son, 1910; Thoroddsen, 1925; Einarsson, 1937; Barth, 1950; Fridleifsson, 1979; Saemundsson
and Fridleifsson, 1980; Bj6rnsson et al., 1990). However, it has also been suggested that dykes
represent permeability barriers forcing deep hot groundwater flow from the interior highlands
to ascend on their "inland" side when the dykes strike approximately along the topographic
contours (Einarsson, 1942).
Ascent of geothermal water along fractures, which have demonstrably been active in Recent
times (the last 10,000 years), is evident in some low-temperature areas. Thus, at Gler~irgil near
the town of Akureyri in northern Iceland, a fracture partially filled with geothermal minerals is
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--II. Low-Temperature Areas 609
seen to intersect till subsoil (Fl6venz et al., 1984). Post-glacial fractures, as witnessed by
disturbance of the humus soil, are also seen at the Deildartunga hot spring in the Reykholtsdalur
field in Borgarfj6rdur, western Iceland (Georgsson et al., 1984), and at Laugarvatn in Upper-
/i, rness~sla in the Southern Lowlands (Georgsson et al., 1988). In addition there exist numerous
reports of changes of flow rates and temperature of thermal springs after earthquakes (e.g.
Thoroddsen, 1925; Bj6rnsson et al., 1990), demonstrating a relationship between active
tectonism and the ascent of geothermal waters.
The distribution of the low-temperature activity in Iceland can to a large extent be correlated
with the major active tectonic features of the country. This is certainly the case for northern,
western and southern Iceland, but in the Northwest Peninsula relevant geological data are too
limited to verify or disprove such a correlation.
The active tectonic regime in Iceland is complicated compared with that of the Atlantic Ridge
immediately to the north and south of the country. The cause is the relative movement of the
mantle plume, now considered to be located under the central or southeastern part of the
country (Oskarsson et al., 1985), and the lithospheric plate boundary. The plate boundary has
been moving westward relative to the mantle plume. The crust tends to break up above the
mantle plume and consequently the main volcanic belt in Iceland has shifted eastward with time
relative to the crest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The overall effect of this eastward shift causes a
complicated stress field and fracturing of the American plate west of the belts of active volcanism
and rifting, whereas the European plate east of these belts is tectonically stable (Einarsson,
1989).
Three WNW-striking zones of transcurrent faults in northern Iceland and just off the north
coast connect the main volcanic belt in northern Iceland with the crest of the Kolbeinsey Ridge
(this is the name of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge immediately north of Iceland) north of the country
(Einarsson, 1991a; Gudmundsson, 1993a). Low-temperature geothermal activity is widely
distributed in the valleys of Skagafjfrdur and EyjafjOrdur that lie approximately at the southern
continuation of the Kolbeinsey Ridge in northern Iceland. Thermal springs in these areas are
seen to emerge at dyke contacts as well as through faults. Dilation occurring at the Kolbeinsey
Ridge probably does not die abruptly at the transcurrent faults that connect the Ridge to the
main volcanic belt in northern Iceland. Some dilation is expected to extend further south.
Apparently it has caused Recent movements along N-S trending normal faults and dykes of the
Tertiary flood basalt pile in the Skagafj6rdur-Eyjafj6rdur area. Movements on the transcurrent
faults are likely to complicate the Recent dilation pattern as they displace the old dykes and
normal faults of the flood basalt pile. Ascent of hot water is probably favoured where Recent
fractures terminate at transcurrent faults (Arn6rsson and Gislason, 1990). Such conditions may
contribute to the relatively abundant low-temperature activity in Flj6t near the mouth of
Skagafj6rdur on its eastern side.
In the Southern Lowlands, where low-temperature activity is very widespread, seismicity is
frequent, particularly in an E-W zone near the southern periphery of the geothermal manifes-
tations. This zone, termed the South Iceland Seismic Zone, is considered by Einarsson (1991a)
to represent a major transcurrent fault. Modelling of crustal movement in South Iceland
(Gudmundsson and Brynj61fsson, 1993) caused by the southward propagation of the main
volcanic belt indicates, on the other hand, that active tectonism and the formation of young N-S
en-echelon fractures in southern Iceland are rather due to twisting of the crustal slab between
the Reykjanes-Langj6kull volcanic belt and the southward propagating main volcanic belt.
Whichever interpretation is valid, it is evident that the low-temperature activity in the Southern
Lowlands coincides approximately with an area of quite active tectonism.
Crustal dilation is an active process in the Borgarfj6rdur area, where the largest low-
temperature area in Iceland, the Reykholtsdalur area, is located. Fault plane solutions of an
610 S. Arnorsson

Fig. 4. Active fissure swarms on thc Reykjancs Peninsula. southwestern Iceland, and the location of the Laugarnes,
Ellida~ir and Mosfellssveit low-temperature areas.

earthquake swarm occurring in 1974 just north of the geothermal area show normal E-W faulting
indicating horizontal extension (Einarsson etal., 1977; Einarsson, 1989). As already mentioned,
geological evidence shows that movement has occurred in Recent times on at least some of the
fractures with which thermal springs are associated. Gudmundsson (pers. comm.) considers that
the dilation and fracturing in the Borgarfj6rdur area is the result of shear stress in the slab of crust
between the Reykjanes-Langj6kull and the Snaefellsnes active volcanic belts. This shear stress is
created by dilation in Reykjanes-Langj6kull belt and their 90° angle of intersection.
The active fissure swarms on the Reykjanes Peninsula, southwestern Iceland, intersect the
plate boundary, as defined by earthquake epicentres (see Einarsson, 1991a), at an angle of
about 30°. As a result, recent fracturing occurs in "'old" crust flanking the Reykjanes belt where
the fissure swarms extend beyond that belt. The Mosfellssveit field, near Reykjavfk, is
considered to have developed through groundwater convection in such fractures (Arn6rsson et
al., 1992). The Laugarnes and Ellidafir fields within the city of Reykjav~ may also owe their
existence to similar recent fracturing (Fig. 4) (Arn6rsson et al., 1992; T6masson, 1993). The
plate boundary on the Reykjanes Ridge bends from about SW-NE to about E-W on the
Reykjanes Peninsula. This bending, which is probably caused by the mantle plume, together
with the direction of the tensional forces separating the crustal plates, is responsible for the
obliqueness of the fractures in the Reykjanes Peninsula relative to the plate boundary.
B6dvarsson (1982) considers that the low-temperature activity in Iceland was much enhanced
at the end of the last glaciation, some 10,000 years ago, due to differential isostatic uplift of the
island when the ice load was relieved, and consequent fracturing of the crust. B6dvarsson (1982)
further considers that rapid glacial erosion and limited groundwater recharge under the ice
during glacial periods may both have contributed to an increase in the geothermal gradient in the
top of the crust, thus making conditions more favourable for the development of geothermal
systems through density driven convection in permeable fractures. The potential effects of
glacial erosion and groundwater recharge in raising the near surface geothermal gradient are not
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--H. Low- Temperature Areas 611
disputed. It seems, on the other hand, difficult to accept B6dvarsson's proposed importance of
the differential uplift of the country after it became deglaciated to create permeable fractures in
view of the distribution of the low-temperature activity in the country. Such uplift would,
however, contribute to the already existing shear stress field in the crust and in this way "assist"
in renewing the permeability of young, tectonic fractures.
Hydrothermal alteration in many drilled low-temperature areas shows that they are located
within a body of rock that formerly must have hosted a high-temperature geothermal system.
Thus, for example, geothermal minerals belonging to the sub-greenschist facies (albite +
chlorite + epidote) occur within the Laugarnes low-temperature area (Sigvaldason, 1963;
Fridleifsson, 1985a,b). The alteration mineral assemblage is indicative of temperatures in excess
of some 250°C but maximum measured temperature in a 3000 m deep well is 160°C (Arn6rsson et
al., 1992). It is, therefore, considered likely that high-temperature areas may develop into low-
temperature ones as they drift out of the volcanic belt due to the crustal accreation process
(Arn6rsson and Gfslason, 1990).
In the northern part of the Reykjanes-Langj6kull volcanic belt dilation is vanishing in
conjunction with the southward propagation of the main volcanic belt (Oskarsson et al., 1985).
Volcanic activity has been quite limited in this part of the Reykjanes-Langj6kull belt in Post-
glacial times with only 11 eruptions in all (Arn6rsson and Olafsson, 1986). Several volcanic
edifices of Upper-Quaternary age rest unconformably upon older volcanics outside the northern
part of the Reykjanes-Langj6kull volcanic belt, in particular west of it, showing that magma has
risen through the crust outside the volcanic belt proper. This suggests that young intrusives have
also formed in the crust flanking the volcanic belt since it must be considered likely that some of
the rising magma has not reached the surface. This type of volcanic activity may be the product
of vanishing dilation in the volcanic belt and extension of the older crust west of it. It has been
suggested that the source of supply of heat to the low-temperature areas in Borgarfj6rdur and
Upper-,~rness2~sla is, at least partly, such magma intrusives (Arn6rsson and 61afsson, 1986).
Deep drillholes (>1000 m) have been sunk in several places into Quaternary and Tertiary
formations outside low-temperature areas. Some of these drillholes have struck sufficiently hot
and permeable aquifers to be productive. This suggests either "hidden" low-temperature
systems, i.e. systems lacking surface manifestations, due to low permeability at shallow levels,
or that exploitable low-temperature reservoirs exist in some places although convective systems
have not developed.

PERMEABILITY AND G R O U N D W A T E R FLOW

Many data have accumulated on permeability in Recent to Tertiary formations in Iceland
from well tests and long-term response of geothermal reservoirs to exploitation. The most
permeable formations are Post-glacial lavas but Tertiary formations have the lowest per-
meability, the difference being 6-7 orders of magnitude (Saemundsson and Fridleifsson, 1980)
(Table 2). The highest permeability occurs in active fissure swarms within the volcanic belts.
According to Bjfrnsson et al. (1990) the global permeability in Tertiary formations, as based on
pressure drawdown during several years of production from geothermal drillholes, lies in the
range of 0.4 x 10-15 to about 10-14 m 2. In fractured rocks, with which low-temperature systems
are associated, the average permeability can be a few orders of magnitude higher (Saemundsson
and Fridleifsson, 1980).
The main cause of the decrease in permeability with age of the rock is hydrothermal
alteration. It involves formation of less dense minerals at the expense of the more dense primary
basaltic minerals, thus reducing the overall porosity and permeability of the rock. The degree of
hydrothermal alteration and the abundance of secondary minerals in cracks and vesicles of the
612 S. Arn6rsson
Table 2. Permeability coefficients in drillholes in Iceland, from Saemundsson and Fridleifsson (1980)

10 6 ..

10 5 -
z Post-glacial lavas
10 4 - I Inter-glacial lavas (Upper-Quaternary)
z Post-glacial laves filled with silt from glacial rivers
10 3 .
Wells in low-temperature areas at Mosfellssveit,
E 10 2 . EllidaEr and Laugarnes (Quaternary)
f..
101 . ,~,M/ells in high.temperature areas

i
10 0
Best wells at Laugaland, N-Iceland; wells in
Baejersveit, W-Iceland (Tertiary)
10"1. | Poor wells in Eyjafj6rdur, N-Iceland (Tertiary)

10"2.. | Unproductive wells in Tertiary formations

E
k._

10"3..
13-
10-4,,,,

10-5. Massive unfractured Tertiary lavas

10-6,,.

rock increases with depth (Walker, 1960), most likely due to increasing intensity of alteration
with rising temperature. Seismic data indicate that at some 3 km depth the pores of the basalts
are almost completely filled with secondary minerals (Fl6venz et al., 1985). Where Tertiary
basalts have apparently never been buried deeply, which seems to be the case in the more
elevated part of the Northwest Peninsula and in the southern part of the highland area between
Skagafj6rdur and Eyjafj6rdur in central northern Iceland, as indicated by lack of vesicle
minerals, the rock may have retained most of its initial permeability.
Tectonic fracturing has renewed permeability in the Quaternary and Tertiary formations in
many areas, as already discussed. Recent fracturing in Quaternary and Tertiary formations has
led to highly anisotropic permeability. An important consequence of the heterogeneous
permeability that seems to characterize the low-temperature geothermal systems is that the
geothermal water discharged each time must represent mixed water of different ages derived
from more than one point of origin. Geothermal water ascending in a permeable fracture
surrounded by less and variably permeable rock must consist of several components of water
that have travelled different distances through the rock depending on the permeability of the
flow path of each component. The different components must also be of different ages.
Cooling in the roots of convecting low-temperature systems by the descending water may
contract the rock sufficiently to enhance the fracture permeability significantly (B6dvarsson,
 Geothermal Systems in lceland--H. Low-Temperature Areas 613
1983). It may even create new permeability at progressively deeper levels as cooling proceeds, as
proposed by B6dvarsson (1983).
Gudmundsson (1993b) observed that normal faults in the Quaternary formations have
steeper dip than such faults in Tertiary formations, indicating that the dip of normal faults
decreases with depth, and at the same time, the vertical displacement decreases. Gudmundsson
(1993b) further observed a strong relationship between the length and maximum throw of
normal faults. According to this relationship one may expect that most normal faults in Iceland
die out at a depth of 2-4 km. The three-dimensional form of the normal faults suggests that their
permeability tends to decrease progressively with depth although it is expected that heterogen-
eity of the displaced volcanic succession will produce some irregularities. As already pointed
out, it is not expected that significant primary permeability would persist beyond a few km depth
due to sealing by the hydrothermal alteration process. It is, thus, concluded that the bottom of
groundwater convection in low-temperature geothermal systems tends to be at 2-4 km depth.
The extremely high anisotropy of permeability evident in Quaternary and Tertiary formations
in Iceland hosting low-temperature geothermal systems makes deductions about the flow
direction of the groundwater recharging these systems from topography highly unreliable. To
demonstrate this, consider recharge into the Mosfellssveit low-temperature area, near Reykja-
vl'k in southwestern Iceland. This geothermal area lies in a depression between the Esja
mountain complex to the north, which just exceeds 900 m a.s.l., and a highland area, generally at
100-300 m a.s.l., in the south and southwest towards the active volcanic belt. The Krisuv~
fissure swarm intersects the geothermal area (Fig. 4) (Arn6rsson et al., 1992) and extends
apparently farther to the northeast through the Esja mountain complex. Very low temperature
gradients are observed in holes drilled into the Krisuvl'k fissure swarm just southwest of
Mosfellssveit (Tulinius et al., 1986), which may be taken to indicate a high flow rate of cold
groundwater along the fissure swarm from the southwest towards the geothermal area. Indeed
geothermal wells on the southwestern periphery of the Mosfellssveit area have suffered
considerable cooling during production (Arn6rsson et al., 1992). At Stardalur and Fremri-Hfils,
about 10 and 15 km northeast of the Mosfellssveit area, respectively, water level in wells varies
with seasonal variation in production from the Mosfellssveit reservoir. In the Fremri-H~ils
drillhole, which is located in a valley north of the Esja mountain complex, the water level is
below sea-level (Steingrimsson, pers. comm.). It is, thus, evident that the permeability of the
Krfsuv~ fissure swarm far outweighs the topographic effects of Esja as far as recharge into the
Mosfeilssveit low-temperature reservoir is concerned.
Data on global permeability and groundwater table may be used to estimate regional
groundwater flow rates and in this way infer the age of the groundwater in formations not
affected by recent fracturing. Based on such data, Bj6rnsson et al. (1990) conclude that regional
groundwater flow at depth from highlands to lowlands is not sufficient to recharge the low-
temperature systems and that flow from highlands to lowlands takes some thousands to tens of
thousands of years. In other words, groundwater in Quaternary and Tertiary formations not
affected by active tectonism can be expected to be several tens of thousands of years old. The
oldest waters are expected where the hydraulic gradient is the least, i.e. in extensive flat-lying
lowland areas such as the Southern Lowlands.

T E M P E R A T U R E AND PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AND CONVECTION

Downhole temperatures in wells drilled into low-temperature areas range from just above
ambient to about 180°C. The highest temperature of an aquifer discharging into a well is 152°C,
at Reykjab61 in southern Iceland. There is no clear distinction between thermal and non-
thermal groundwaters, but a continuous gradation of water temperature in discharging wells. In
614 S. Arnorsson
coastal areas mean annual temperatures range from about 3°C in the north of Iceland to about
5°C in the south (Einarsson, 1991b). Thus, waters with temperatures in excess of these can be
regarded as thermal. Shallow groundwaters may display seasonal variation in temperature. For
this reason the practice adopted by the geothermal community in Iceland has been to take
waters with temperatures in excess of 10°C to be thermal, but this temperature value
corresponds roughly to the average temperature in July, the warmest month of the year.
Temperatures in the low-temperature geothermal systems in Iceland often vary little with
depth from near the surface to the level of the deepest wells, at least. Thus, in the Laugarnes
area, located within the city of Reykjavfk, temperatures at 400 m depth are about 120°C,
reaching a maximum of 163°C at 3085 m at the bottom of the deepest well in the area (Arn6rsson
et al., 1992) (Fig. 5A). Temperature profiles are comparable in many other areas, such as in
Mosfellssveit near Reykjavfk and at Laugaland in Eyjafj6rdur (Fig. 5B and C), at least, in the
sense that temperatures vary relatively little over a large depth range.
Numerous drillings outside geothermal areas in Iceland have revealed temperature gradients
in areas not disturbed by groundwater movement. Comparison between the thermal gradient
data and measured temperatures in deep wells in several low-temperature systems reveals that
temperatures at deep levels in these systems are lower than those anticipated at similar depths
outside them (Fig. 5A-C). At shallow levels, on the other hand, temperatures within the system
are higher than in the surrounding rocks. This indicates cooling in the roots of the geothermal
system and heating at high levels. Such temperature distribution is considered to be caused by
convecting groundwate*r (Bj6rnsson, 1980; B6dvarsson, 1982). Descending cold groundwater
that enters the roots of a geothermal system gains heat from the rock and cools it at the same
time. The heating decreases the water density causing it to ascend and heat the rock at higher
levels within the geothermal system. In this way the convection causes levelling off of
temperatures over a large depth range in the geothermal system. The source of heat to the water
is the hot rock in the roots of the geothermal system. Since temperatures at deep levels outside
the geothermal systems appear to be higher than within them, the descent of the cold
groundwater cooling their roots must be in the vicinity of the systems or within them.
In the Selfoss area in southern Iceland, temperatures below about 1200 m match approxi-
mately the thermal gradient in the area, 90°C/km, as exemplified by data from well nos. 11 and
12 in Fig. 5D. This indicates that cooling by convecting groundwater is not significant below that
depth. Temperatures at higher levels are mostly above those expected from the undisturbed
thermal gradient. Thus, the temperature distribution matches reasonably well that predicted
from the steady state model of Einarsson (1966). It should, however, be pointed out that the
temperature distribution may also be explained by limited convection, which could be due to the
young age of the system, low permeability, or low pressure gradients.
The hydrostatic pressure in many low-temperature systems is considerably higher than that of
the groundwater in the bedrock surrounding the system. The hydrostatic head in some
geothermal systems can be accounted for by a hydrologic connection at some depth between the
hot, relatively light water column within the geothermal system and a colder and, therefore,
denser groundwater column outside the system. Figure 6 shows the calculated difference
between the pressure in well 34 in the Laugarnes field in Reykjav~ and that of (a) a 5°C water
column and (b) a water column where temperature increases by 100°C/km. The pressure of the
hot water at the surface was taken to be 3 bars above the pressure of the cold groundwater, which
corresponds well with the pressure conditions in the system before large scale exploitation was
initiated in the late 1950s (Thorsteinsson and El~asson, 1970). Constant temperature of 5°C in
the downflow limb of the convection cell corresponds to extensive cooling of the rock by the
descending water whereas a 100°C/km gradient corresponds to little or no cooling. Actual
conditions are expected to lie between these extremes. As may be envisaged from Fig. 6, a
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--ll. Low-Temperature Areas 615
Temperature *C Temperature *C
o 50 lOO 15o 200 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
O/ . . . . . . . . I I I I . . . . 0 ,,.I,,,I,,.I,,.I,, ,I,aa I,, ,I

500
A
1000-
1500-:.

~-~ 2000-: i
~ 1500-

~00-
3000-

3500 251111

Temperature *C Temperatu re *C
20 40 60 80 100 120 o 20 40 60 80 lOO 12o 140 16o
0

500,
D
1~ 1000, Thermalgradient
~ lsoo- '~1000. / ~ 1 ~ well12
g20~2
~ 2500.
1500-
3000.

3500 2000
Fig. 5. Temperature profiles in deep wells in several low-temperature geothermal systemsin Iceland. The straight lines
represent the geothermal gradient in the undisturbed crust outside each area. In three of these areas (parts A-C) it is
seen that above a certain depth the temperature is higher than in the surroundingcrust, but below that depth it is lower.
This temperature distribution is considered to be the product of strong groundwaterconvection. In the fourth area (part
D) significantcoolingat deep levels is not observed, probably due to limited convectionwithin the system. A: well 34,
Laugarnes area, Reykjav~. B: well 23, Mosfellssveit area, near Reykjav~. C: well 8, Laugaland area in Eyjafj6rdur,
northern Iceland. D: wells 11 and 12, Selfoss area, southern Iceland.

hydrostatic balance exists at 600-800 m depth between the hot water column of the geothermal
system and the colder water column outside it. At greater depth the pressure of the groundwater
outside the system is higher than within it, thus favouring recharge. Temperature and
permeability data available for several deep drilled geothermal systems in Iceland show that
convection can be sustained by the pressure difference created at deep levels in these systems by
the density of the hot water column within them and the colder water column outside (Eliasson,
1973; Bj6rnsson, 1980). These systems include Laugarnes within the city of R e y k j a v ~ ,
Mosfellssveit, 20 km east of R e y k j a v ~ , and Laugaland in Eyjafj6rdur, northern Iceland.
The depth interval at which recharge into convective low-temperature systems is favoured
616 S. Arnorsson
Pressure difference bars
-20 -15 -10 .5 0 5 10 15 20
O.

500- i i

1000- ~ i
::

1500-
,,"h
i :: i

~
2000- ['vv,,to, ;oJor,',r, ~ith ]
/,m l

2500-

3000 . . . . .
Fig. 6. Calculated initial hydrostatic pressure difference versus depth within the Laugarnes geothermal area in
Reykjav~ and (a) a 5°C water column and (b) a water column where temperature increases with depth by 100°C/kin.

depends on the temperature distribution within and outside the geothermal system and the
difference between the hydrostatic head of the hot water at the surface and the cold groundwater
table, as well as the permeability--depth distribution. Since permeability is expected to decrease
with depth, as already discussed, it is anticipated that recharge will be concentrated over a
specific depth range in each system where the combined effects of permeability and pressure
difference are at a maximum.
In some drilled low-temperature geothermal systems the density difference between the hot
water within the system and the colder water column outside it cannot explain the "overpres-
sure" measured on the wellhead. This is, for example, the case in wells at Reykir and Hjaltadalur
(10 bars-g), Gr~tubakki in Eyjafj6rdur (12 bars-g), Laugaland and Botn, also in Eyjafj6rdur
(15-18 bars-g) and Laugar in Reykjadalur (12 bars-g) (Fig. 1) (P~lmason et al., 1983). The first
three areas are located below high mountains and it seems most logical to explain the observed
overpressure by hydrologic connection of the geothermal systems with the groundwater bodies
in the mountains.
The density of water varies little with temperature in the range of about 0-60 °. Thus,
convection in geothermal systems with temperatures below some 60°C is not expected to be
density driven. It must be driven by the hydrostatic head of the recharge area. With rising
temperatures above about 60°C density driven convection must become progressively more
important. B6dvarsson (1983) observed a positive relationship between the temperature and
flow rate of thermal springs in northern Iceland. Below 60°C the flow rate increases linearly with
temperature but above about 60°C it increases exponentially. He considers that the exponential
increase is due to the increasing influence of density driven convection.
The near-surface pressure difference, which is so frequently observed between hot and cold
groundwater bodies in the low-temperature areas, need not be maintained by a permeability
barrier on the margin of the geothermal system. Such barriers, which are produced by a self-
sealing process, appear to be common in high-temperature geothermal systems. Self-sealing
results from precipitation of hydrothermal minerals as the water cools at the margin of the
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--H. Low-Temperature Areas 617
geothermal systems, probably through mixing with cooler water, but the solubility of many
hydrothermal minerals decreases with falling temperature. The magnitude of hydrothermal
alteration in the low-temperature systems is generally quite limited (Kristmannsd6ttir, 1979;
Steinth6rsson et al., 1968), so it seem unlikely that precipitation of the hydrothermal minerals is
sufficient to reduce substantially the rock permeability, particularly tectonically active fractures.
The pressure difference in question could simply be maintained in the cooling zones on the
boundary of the geothermal system by the increasing viscosity of water with falling temperature
rather than by changes in the intrinsic permeability of the rock.
Pressure drawdown in producing low-temperature systems shifts the pressure difference
curve, such as that shown in Fig. 6, to lower pressure values, thus enhancing recharge of cold
water into the geothermal reservoir. The drawdown may initiate such recharge at shallow levels,
if the initial hydrostatic head is reduced sufficiently, particularly if it was not maintained under
natural conditions by a permeability barrier. Examples of such shallow cold water recharge are
provided by well data from the Ellida~ir area (T6masson, 1993) and the southwestern periphery
of the Mosfellssveit area (Arn6rsson et al., 1992).
As already mentioned, convection causes levelling off of temperatures over a depth range in
low-temperature geothermal systems. At one point in the lifetime of a geothermal system
temperatures will be the same over a given depth range. Later the temperature profile will
become reversed by virtue of recharge of cold water at depth. This is a possible explanation of
the reverse temperature profiles observed in most wells drilled into the MosfeUssveit area
located near Reykjavik (Fig. 5B). It seems unlikely that the temperature reversals are caused by
lateral flow from a deep upflow, as has been proposed by T6masson (1990). Firstly, the wells are
located within a permeability anomaly created by the active Kr/suvfk fissure swarm and,
secondly, temperatures below about 1000 m depth indicate cooling of the reservoir rock by
convecting groundwater.

WATER COMPOSITION
Waters from the low-temperature areas in Iceland are relatively low in dissolved solids
compared to geothermal waters of similar temperatures in most other parts of the world. This is
attributed to the low content of chloride in the basaltic rock, which forms soluble salts with the
major aqueous cations. The dissolved solids content typically lies in the range of 150-500 ppm
although it reaches several thousands of ppm in some coastal areas (Table 1). Gases associated
with these waters are largely N2, although Ar is always present, and up to 5% CO2 in the hottest
waters (Arn6rsson, 1986). In some areas CO2 dominates. Oxygen is present in many warm
waters (<50°C) as well as in some waters with temperatures up to 80°C.
The sources of supply of the dissolved solids and gases are considered to be the atmosphere,
organic soil, the rock with which the water interacts and groundwater of marine origin
(Einarsson, 1942; Arn6rsson et al., 1983, 1995; Thorssander, 1986; Arn6rsson and Andr6sd6t-
tir, 1995). In some areas, characterized by CO2-rich water, there may be a magmatic
contribution to the CO2 and possibly other gases (Arn6rsson and Barnes, 1983; Arn6rsson and
01afsson, 1986).
Silica is a major constituent in the low-temperature waters, particularly the more dilute ones.
Sodium is always the dominant cation. In dilute waters of low temperature (<50°C), bicarbon-
ate together with chloride and sulphate are the main anions, but with rising temperature the
relative abundance of sulphate increases and it is generally the dominant anion (by weight) in
dilute waters with temperatures above about 100°C. The relative abundance of chloride
increases with salinity, i.e. the dissolved solids content (Fig. 7).
In some coastal low-temperature areas, particularly where low lying areas stretch relatively
618 S. Arn6rsson

60
% %
8 go
~50- o
(D
t-
O o
~'40-
o
o °°o o
o ~o
-o o
m 30- . o

o
(,9
~0
.o ° o°O
:-~ 20-
;1",,"~_~ ~,_o •co o°
"5
010. :,'llmli o %0 o
•
0
10 ....... 1a0 ...... 10'00 10000
Sum of dissolved major components (ppm)
Fig. 7. Relationship between dissolved solids content of non-thermal (dots) and Iow-temperaturc geothermal (circles)
waters in Iceland and the relative abundance of aqueous CI concentrations.

far inland, the dissolved solids content of the geothermal waters is higher than in other areas.
This higher dissolved solids content is reflected in higher concentrations of CI, SO4, Na and Ca
and is, as discussed in the following section, due to the presence of a component of seawater
groundwater.
The pH of slightly thermal waters often exceeds 10, which is to be contrasted with a pH of 6-8
in surface waters. With increasing temperature above about 50°C the water pH tends to fall
again and in the hottest (-150°C) waters it is 7-8 (Fig. 8). The high pH of the warm waters is
attributed to the high reactivity of basaltic minerals and, in particular, the basaltic glass, as well

11

10 •o
~o o o
_va~,,"o o • o o

9-
%'70o °

o° •oct• ~ °o
Io. 8- o o co o o
[] % o o o
[] 8° o
v o
7- [] o °n
[]

6-
v

5 . . . . I . . . . I . . . . I . . . .

0 50 1O0 150 200

Temperature °C

Fig. 8. Relationship betwecn temperature and the pH of surface waters (triangles), non-thermal groundwaters (dots)
and low-temperature geothermal waters (circles) in Iceland. Also plotted are waters rich in CO2 (half-filled squares).
The pH was calculated at the respective water temperature with the aid of the WATCH aqueous speciation programme
(Arn6rsson et al., 1982).
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--lI. Low-Temperature Areas 619
as the generally limited supply of CO2 from organic sources to surface water, which is the parent
water to the low-temperature waters. Organic soil cover, which is limited in many areas and for
the most part lacking in the interior highlands, is the cause of the limited CO2 supply.
The pH of surface waters is controlled by steady state conditions between the production of
protons by uptake of atmospheric and organic CO2 and their consumption by water-rock
interaction (Gislason and Eugster, 1987a,b; G~slason and Arn6rsson, 1993). In low-
temperature waters, as well as in non-thermal groundwaters, which have become isolated from
the atmosphere, proton-cation exchange with the rock raises the pH. Under these conditions
the pH stabilizes when the rate of proton generation by ionization of silica dissolving from the
rock and O H - removal from solution through precipitation of hydrated secondary minerals
equals the rate of proton uptake by the rock dissolution. For warm waters (<50°C) this occurs at
a pH of around 10 when a substantial part of the dissolving silica ionizes. At higher temperatures
the pH stabilizes at lower values (Fig. 8). The reason is increasing mobility of the weak acids
CO2 and H2S, as reflected by the increase in their aqueous concentrations with temperature
(Arn6rsson et al., 1983; Arn6rsson and Gunnlaugsson, 1985). The source of supply of these
acids is considered to be sulphur and carbon in the rock although a degassing magma heat source
may also contribute in some low-temperature areas (Arn6rsson and 01afsson, 1986).
The low-temperature waters in Iceland appear to closely approach equilibrium with second-
ary minerals for all major aqueous species, except Ci, B and SO4, at temperatures as low as 40-
50°C (Arn6rsson et al., 1983; Arn6rsson and Andr6sd6ttir, 1995). There are considered to be
two main reasons for the close approach to equilibrium at such low temperatures: (1) low
content of soluble salts in the basaltic rock and (2) the high water pH. The low salt content means
that a relatively limited rate of mass transfer by precipitation of secondary minerals is required
to keep the water close to saturation with respect to these minerals. In the pH range occurring in
these waters the solubility of olivine and pyroxene, and probably also the glass, is pH
dependent, the solubility decreasing with increasing pH. Therefore, these relatively high pH
waters are not strongly undersaturated with these minerals and the glass (Gfslason and
Arn6rsson, 1993), thus reducing their rate of dissolution compared to waters of lower pH, again
requiring relatively limited mass transfer through precipitation of secondary minerals to
maintain the solution close to saturation with these minerals.
Geothermal waters have been classified on the basis of the relative abundance of the major
anions, CI-, HCO3 and SO42 (see e.g. Ellis and Mahon, 1977). This classification has been
considered to be genetic to some extent. By this classification waters with chloride as the
dominant anion are taken to represent reservoir waters. This kind of classification is not
appropriate for the Icelandic low-temperature waters. The reason is the availability of the major
anions in the basaltic environment. The relative distribution of CI-, HCO3 and SO42 in
Icelandic non-thermal and low-temperature waters is shown in Fig. 9.

THE SOURCE OF THE WATER AND R E C H A R G E AS INDICATED BY

TRACER STUDIES
The term tracer is used here in the sense proposed by Giggenbach (1991). It represents a
chemically inert, i.e. non-reactive constituent in natural waters. Once added to the water it
should remain unchanged, providing a tag allowing its origin to be traced to its source
components. A tracer may be a naturally occurring substance, or added to the water for the
purpose of carrying out tracer tests. Below, interpretation is concentrated on data on the tracers
6D, Cl and B. The results of one tracer test will also be described where sodium fluorescein-
tracer was injected into a well at ,~rbaer in southern Iceland in order to map water movement
within the geothermal system.
620 S. Arn6rsson
CI
1

0.8

g
0.6

0.4

0
•~ O ÷ O O O O
HCO3 SO4
Fig. 9. The relative a b u n d a n c e of CI, total c a r b o n a t e ( - H C O 3 ) a n d SO4 (in m o l e s / k g ) in n o n - t h e r m a l (dots) and
l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e g e o t h e r m a l w a t e r s (circles) in Iceland.

A 6D--b~sO relationship in low-temperature geothermal waters in Iceland indicates that they

are for the most part of meteoric origin (B6dvarsson, 1962; ,/~rnason, 1976). In some instances a
small seawater component is present (.A,rnason, 1976; Arn6rsson et al., 1983, 1993; Arn6rsson
and Andr6sd6ttir, 1995; Thorssander, 1986)•
Deuterium has been used extensively as a tracer to delineate groundwater movement in
Iceland including low-temperature waters (,~rnason, 1976, 1977). Studies of the monthly
averages of the deuterium content of precipitation collected at three meteorological stations in
Iceland for a period of several years revealed large variations in monthly averages (Arnason,
1976). There was also considerable variation from year to year but seasonal effects seemed to be
small (/i, rnason, 1976), a result that differs from other studies in the polar regions (Deutsch et
al., 1966; Johnsen et al., 1972). In contrast, the 6D of springs, rivers and geothermal waters
monitored by Arnason (1976) over a period of a few years showed very limited, if significant,
time variations, fi,rnason (1976) considered this to indicate that these waters represented the
average 6D of the precipitation at each locality, and that mixing was sufficient to largely level out
the fluctuations in the 6D of the precipitation. Thus, by systematic sampling of cold springs and
streams,/krnason (1976) established a "deuterium map" of Iceland showing how the deuterium
content of the average precipitation varied across the country. The highest values occur by the
south coast, 6D = -50%o, decreasing to the central part of the country to a little below -100%o
6D due to altitude and inland effects (Fig. 10). By the north coast the 6D-values are about 15%o
lower than by the south coast. Further studies with more intense sampling in several areas, such
as the Northwest Peninsula and the Southern Lowlands, have substantiated Arnason's "deuter-
ium map" (Arn6rsson et al., 1993, 1995; Sveinbj6rnsd6ttir et al., 1993).
Geothermal waters from the low-temperature areas in Iceland typically possess lower 6D-
 Geothermal Systems in lceland--ll. Low-Temperature Areas 621

Fig. 10. Map showingthe distributionof deuterium (in %o)in precipitationsin Iceland. (From,~rnason, 1976.) The
arrow showsa 6D = - 106%o.

values (more negative) than the local precipitation, as deduced from the "deuterium map". This
difference is variable, and most often lies in the range of 10-309'oo diD, but it may be as large as
70%o. This difference was considered by Arnason (1976) and later workers (e.g. T6masson et al.,
1975; Georgsson et al., 1984; Kristmannsd6ttir and Sveinbj6rnsd6ttir, 1992) to indicate that the
recharge areas of the low-temperature systems were inland on higher ground, the distance being
as much as 150 km. The reason for this difference may, however, to some extent be due to
climatic changes in the past that have affected the diD of the precipitation and the geothermal
water may represent precipitation that fell when the climate differed from that of today.
Evidence for this comes from studies of drillings into the Greenland and Vatnajfkull ice-sheets,
as discussed below.
Studies of ice cores recovered from drillings into the Vatnaj6kull ice-sheet in Iceland show
decreasing diD-values with depth, correspondin~g to ice that has fallen as precipitation in the
latter half of the 17th century up to the present (Arnason, 1976). The decrease from the present
to the year 1700 amounts to about 10%odiD. It is related to a cooler climate in the past, diD-values
decreasing by about 5%ofor every drop in the mean annual temperature of I°C (Arnason, 1976).
By comparison with data from deep drillings into the Greenland ice-sheet (Dansgaard et al.,
1973), Arnason (1976) concluded that climatic changes in the North-Atlantic region during the
last 8000 years have been within the limit recorded in the last 400 years. Accordingly,
precipitation falling within any particular locality in Iceland during the last 8000 years should not
have deviated more than about 10%odiD from the present-day precipitation. These studies have
been substantiated by further drillings into the Greenland ice-sheet. However, the di180 content
of the ice core is higher (less negative) for core samples corresponding to snowfall during this
622 S. Arn6rsson

YEAR

2000 -35 -349/~ 3 4"C

I I I 1 I

1900

1800

1700

1600

1500

1400
t TEMP.
1300
r i m ICELAND

t
1200

1100
,
1000

900
3 4"C
800

700
-- a(18o)
600 ~TRALGREENLAND

Fig. 11. The 6180 content of the CrEte icecore in central Greenland covering the period from about 600-1974. Also
shown is the estimated mean annual temperature in Iceland since the time of the first settlement. (From Sveinbj6rnsd6t-
tir, 1992.)

century than during the previous 1000 years or so and so is bD (Sveinbj6rnsd6ttir, 1992). The
difference corresponds to about 0.5-1 6180 units (Fig. 11) and 5-10 6D units.
Geothermal waters with 6D-values much lower than those in any present-day precipitation in
Iceland are only found in one area, in wells near Htisav~ in northern Iceland and in the valley
stretching inland from Htisavfk (Fig. 1). /i~rnason (1976) considered that these geothermal
waters represented "ice-age water", i.e. water that fell as precipitation more than 8000 years ago
when the climate was significantly colder than today. Ice core studies in Greenland indicate that
 Geothermal Systems in lceland--H. Low-Temperature Areas 623
10000-
_,,~q ' ~ 1 o °
....v. . . . . ~ ..........~' .................................... '~ .........'6.....................

.~ 1000- qe o
-
oo
oo_. o o
: • : _ ~ ,~I~ o o ~ e - o
~,~ T °~ o ~%o0 o

100~ Oo o o o ~..~.'_'.-=. .........

c~ oo ~ ~o~, ~
0
0
0

1 0 . ~
3 10 100 1000 3000
CI ( p p m )

Fig. 12. Relationship between CI/B ratios and CI concentrations in low-temperature geothermal waters in Iceland. Dots
represent non-thermal waters and circles thermal waters. The two dashed curves represent the CI/B--C1 concentration
relationship in waters that initially contain 5 and 15 ppm C1 (the meteoric parent water) but subsequently dissolve CI and
B from the rock in the ratio of 100 to 1, which is close to this ratio in basaltic rocks in Iceland. The solid curve designates
mixtures of seawater and geothermal water initially containing 25 ppm CI, with a CI/B ratio of 195.

precipitation at that time was isotopically lighter, by as much as 80%oo6D (Dansgaard et al.,
1973). In northern Iceland from Htinafl6i to Eyjafj6rdur the 6D of many low-temperature
geothermal waters are below -90%o and as low as - 108%o, or lower than that of any present-day
precipitation in the country. It is considered that these low values could be accounted for by
assuming that the thermal waters represent precipitation that fell in the period 1700-1900, when
the climate was significantly cooler than at present, or possibly earlier, when temperature
conditions may have been comparable to those in that period (see Fig. 11).
The distribution of the mobile elements CI and B in low-temperature geothermal systems in
Iceland indicates three sources of supply for these elements to the water. They are the
atmosphere (seawater spray and aerosols), the rock with which the water interacts, and
seawater that has infiltrated the bedrock (Arn6rsson et al., 1993; Arn6rsson and Andr6sd6ttir,
1995). Waters close to the coast, particularly where lowland areas stretch farthest inland, tend to
contain the largest seawater component. It can be as much as about 10% of the water. Figure 12
shows the relationship between CI/B ratios and CI concentrations in cold and thermal waters
from most of the low-temperature areas in Iceland. Surface waters and cold groundwaters most
often contain between 5 and 15 ppm Ch Yet, waters near the coast and on high ground far inland
possess somewhat higher and lower CI concentrations, respectively. The CI/B ratios of the cold
waters are close to that of seawater (4350), or somewhat lower. Decreasing CI/B ratios with
increasing CI concentrations, displayed by many data points in Fig. 12, can be explained by
stoichiometric, or near stoichiometric, dissolution of C! and B from the basaltic rock, but the
mass ratio of these elements in Icelandic basalts most often lies in the range 80-160 (Arn6rsson
et al., 1989; Arn6rsson and Andr6sd6ttir, 1995). The population of data points that show an
increase in CI concentrations with increasing CI/B ratios is accounted for by mixing of seawater
with geothermal meteoric water. If seawater mixing occurred frequently before significant
dissolution of CI and B from the rock had occurred, one would expect some waters to plot a little
to the right of the cold water data points. The fact that relatively few data points fall in this area
on the diagram suggests that mixing of the seawater most often occurs after the water
component, which is of meteoric origin, has reacted substantially with the rock. This is taken to
624 S. Arnorsson
indicate mixing of the meteoric and seawater components at deep levels in the geothermal
systems.
The sulphur isotope content of low-temperature waters with elevated C1 concentrations in
lowland areas indicates, like the CI/B ratios, the presence of a seawater component in these
waters (Thorssander, 1986).
It has been proposed that the source of supply of the elevated CI concentrations in geothermal
waters issuing in lowland areas submerged during the deglaciation period is marine sediments
deposited at that time (Sigvaldason, 1966, Georgsson et al., 1984). These sediments form a
variably thick and discontinuous sheet on top of the bedrock and consist largely of basalt
fragments. In the case of Vestmannaeyjar, islands off the south coast, the "sediments" consist of
tuffaceous sandstones and siltstones, mostly composed of basaltic glass and fragments of crystals
of basaltic minerals (T6masson, 1967). At many sites in the lowland areas the geothermal water
emerges from the bedrock and cannot have come into contact with the sediments except as
shallow groundwaters during the initial convection cycle. Since CI concentrations are known to
increase with depth in some of these areas, like at Selfoss (Arn6rsson and J6hannesson, 1982)
and Htisavik (,/~rnason, 1976), supply from marine sediments overlying the bedrock is not
acceptable.
Many of the geothermal systems that issue water containing a seawater component lie several
tens of kilometres inland at an elevation of several tens of metres. Many wells drilled into these
systems arc self-dischargifig so the hydrostatic head in the respective geothermal systems is
considerably above sea level. Infiltration of seawater at shallow levels into these geothermal
systems is, thus, not possible. The pressure difference within the geothermal system and outside
it may not be as large at depth as at the surface due to the lower density of the hot water column
within the system compared to that of the colder water column outside it. It is, however, most
improbable that seawater infiltration can occur at depth, at least into some of these systems
where temperatures are below 100°C and may be as low as 50-60°C. Consider a geothermal
system at 75°C, such as that occurring at Brautarholt in the Southern Lowlands, about 30 km
from the coast (Fig. 1) and at an elevation of about 50 m a.s.I. A 120 m deep well drilled at
Brautarholt is self-discharging. Thus, at sea level the hydrostatic pressure is close to 4.9 bars
andit is 102 and 200 bars at 1000 and 2000 m below sea level, respectively. At 1000 and 2000 m
below sea level a 15°C column of seawater would exert a pressure of 102.5 and 205 bars,
respectively. Thus, a pressure difference of only 5 bars at 2000 m below sea level exists to
conduct seawater for 30 km inland. If the seawater had higher t e m p e r a t u r e at depth and it mixed
with fresh water on the way, its density would be lower and the pressure difference less, if
positive.
From the considerations above it is concluded that seawater cannot enter, under present-day
natural hydrological conditions, at least some of the geothermal systems containing water with a
significant seawater component. Seawater could, on the other hand, have infiltrated these
systems when the hydrological conditions were favourable for such infiltration, namely by the
end of the deglaciation period when large parts of the lowlands in Iceland were submerged, but
geothermal waters containing a seawater component all occur in such lowland areas.
During the deglaciation period the climate in Iceland was significantly cooler than today and
the 6D of the precipitation, therefore, considerably more negative, by 50%o or even more
(Arnason, 1976). If, as concluded from the CI and B data, low-temperature waters in some areas
contain a seawater component that infiltrated the bedrock during the deglaciation period some
10,000 years ago, one would also expect that this geothermal water could contain a component
of equally old fresh water, which would have much lower 6D than today's precipitation. Of
course, waters not containing a seawater component could also contain a component of fresh
"ice-age" water.
In two areas (Skeid-Gr/msnes in the Southern Lowlands and Hfisavik in northern Iceland) the
 Geothermal Systems in Iceland--II. Low-Temperature Areas 625

-60 -60
A B
• •e •
-70 • • -80-. •

•e
o -80 • .r 100i
_= e•
a ~ i •o

-90 ~'120 ~ •
o• •

-100 .... , .... , . . . . . 140 . . . . , . . . .

0 200 400 600 0 1000 2000
CI ( p p m ) CI ( p p m )
Fig. 13. Relationship between CI concentrations and ~D in geothermal well waters from (A) Skeid-Grfmsnes,
southern Iceland and (B) Hdsavik, northern Iceland. The data for the Htisav~ wells are from Arnason (1976).

geothermal waters show considerable variations in their C1 concentrations. A clear negative

relationship is observed between the CI concentrations and the ~D-values (Fig. 13). This
relationship implies a positive correlation between the supply of CI and low-deuterium water to
the geothermal water. CI/B ratios for the waters in Skeid-Grimsnes indicate a marine source for
most of the C1. Unfortunately, B data are not available for the Htisav~ waters, but the relatively
high CI concentrations and the location of Htisavik strongly suggest a marine source for the CI.
The correlation shown in Fig. 13 is, therefore, considered to indicate that the low-temperature
waters contain components of both seawater and deuterium-depleted "ice-age" water that have
mixed with local meteoric water. In both areas the C1 content of the meteoric water is about 10
ppm. Its ~D-value is close to -70%0 at Htisavik and -60%0 in Skeid-Gr/msnes.
The data from Htisav~ come from downhole samples in wells. Evidently CI concentrations
increase and ~D decreases with sampling depth. This depth relationship is considered to reflect
decreasing permeability with depth, which will cause a decreasing rate of replacement with
depth of the old seawater-"ice-age" water mixture with local meteoric water.
Hot springs containing as little as 100 ppm CI occur on several small islands on Breidafj6rdur
in western Iceland 10 km and more from the coast (Kristmannsd6ttir, pers. comm). The low CI
shows that the source of supply of the hot water is mostly meteoric water. The ~D-values of these
waters are in the range of - 64. 2 to -66.5%0 (/krnason, 1976), or similar to the ~D content of the
present-day precipitation on the Northwest Peninsula north of Breidafj6rdur, but considerably
higher (less negative) than the anticipated ~D of local precipitation during glacial times.
Therefore, the origin of these waters is best explained by Einarsson's model, i.e. groundwater
current from the Northwest Peninsula recharging the geothermal systems on the islands of
Breidafjfrdur.
A tracer test carried out in the ,~rbaer low-temperature field in southern Iceland using sodium
fluorescein has revealed a rapid convection and local heating of the water within the geothermal
system itself (Fl6venz et al., 1987). Four 450-950 m deep wells have been drilled in the area and
eight shallow holes (30-70 m). Three of the deep wells are productive, discharging water at 82-
105°C. The fourth well does not discharge and is considerably cooler, 15-35°C above 300 m
depth. The tracer was injected into this well and it appeared one week later in the hottest
productive well. After one month about 40% of the mass of the tracer had been recovered.
Considerable difference exists between the ~D-value of the water in the hottest well and local
626 S. Arn6rsson
cold water, suggesting the geothermal water consists of a mixture of local water and water that is
isotopically lighter.

C O N C E P T U A L H Y D R O G E O L O G I C A L M O D E L S AND C O N C L U S I O N S
Einarsson's conceptual model for low-temperature geothermal activity in Iceland is not
considered to be generally valid with respect to its steady state nature, nor that the low-
temperature areas represent upflow zones from deep groundwater current from highland to
coastal areas.
The conclusion of this paper is that no single conceptual model can account satisfactorily for
the characteristics of all low-temperature geothermal systems in Iceland. These systems are
considered to develop by one of the four processes listed below or any combination thereof.
(1) Deep flow of groundwater from highland to lowland areas through permeable structures
driven by the hydraulic gradient.
(2) Convection in young fractures formed by tectonic movements in old and relatively
impermeable bedrock.
(3) Drift of high-temperature geothermal systems out of the active volcanic belts in conjunction
with their cooling and extinction of the magma heat source.
(4) Magma intrusion into young fractures in Quaternary and Tertiary formations close to the
active volcanic belts.
Almost all of the low-temperature areas occur on the American lithospheric plate west of the
belts of active volcanism and rifting where recent fracturing is occurring. Hot springs at many
sites are associated with fractures that have demonstrably been active in Post-glacial times. The
overall distribution and intensity of the low-temperature activity can satisfactorily be accounted
for by the regional variation in the geothermal gradient as well as by the stress conditions in the
crust that dictate where fracturing takes place.
So far, all deeply drilled low-temperature systems are demonstrably strongly convective,
except, possibly, Selfoss in southern Iceland. Their heat source is the hot rock in the roots of the
systems. Additionally, magma intrusions may contribute heat to some systems that are located
relatively close to the active volcanic belts. Temperatures at deep levels in the low-temperature
systems indicate that they are transient, but not steady state. In convective systems with
temperatures somewhat in excess of 60°C the density difference of the hot and cold water
columns within and outside the system is considered to create sufficient pressure difference to
sustain the water convection. Such density difference can also explain the hydrostatic head
observed in some systems, but in systems with temperatures below some 60°C it cannot. Here, it
becomes necessary to explain the hydrostatic head by a hydrological connection to groundwater
bodies with a higher groundwater table. A hydrostatic head in the recharge area of these warm
water systems is also required to sustain the water convection.
The generally low dissolved solids content of the low-temperature waters is due to the low
content of CI in the basalts, which forms soluble salts with all the major aqueous cations.
Elevated C1 concentrations, which occur in some waters in areas located on low lying ground
near the coast, are due to the presence of a seawater component in the geothermal water. The
deuterium content of the geothermal waters, which is typically more negative than that of the
local precipitation, does not necessarily indicate that the geothermal waters represent precipi-
tation that has fallen inland to the geothermal areas on higher ground. It is considered that the
geothermal waters most often consist of up to three components, local meteoric water, "ice-age"
water and seawater. Their deuterium content is determined by the relative amounts of these
components. When a component of "ice-age" water is present in geothermal waters the
 Geothermal Systems in lceland--ll. Low-Temperature Areas 627
deuterium content of these waters cannot be used as a tracer to locate recharge areas to the
respective geothermal areas.
Several drilled low-temperature geothermal systems are located within a body of rock that has
undergone high-temperature alteration. This is considered to indicate that high-temperature
geothermal systems sometimes develop into low-temperature ones as they drift out of the active
volcanic belts in conjunction with extinction of their magma heat source. There is, thus, no clear
division between high- and low-temperature geothermal activity. Some areas, like Hveragerdi,
in southwestern Iceland, are considered to be transitional between these two types.

Acknowledgements--The author would like to thank Andri Stef~insson for reading the manuscript and for his helpful
suggestions. Dr Gudni Axelsson and an anonymous reviewer are sincerely thanked for reviewing the manuscript and for
proposing many changes that have greatly improved the manuscript. Finally, he would like to thank Benedikt
Steingrimsson for providing the well temperature data presented in Fig. 5, and Audur Andr6sd6ttir and Kristj~tn
Geirsson for their assistance in preparing the figures and diagrams.

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