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Food and Fisheries

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Take Control With Argus
Call toll free: 1-800-667-2090
1-604-538-3531
Or visit: www.arguscontrols.com
Horticultural Training in
British Columbia
There are several universities and colleges in B.C. providing
introductory horticulture courses, including greenhouse
technician programs. Contact one in your area as a source
of trained staff for temporary or permanent assistance
and to obtain formalized training for your existing staff.
Following is contact information for the schools currently
offering general horticulture or pest management with
some greenhouse production classes.
Camosun University College
Victoria 250-370-3822
www.camosun.bc.ca/schools/tradesntech/horticulture
Kwantlen University College
Langley 604-599-3254, 604-599-2245
www.kwantlen.bc.ca/horticulture
Malaspina University College
Nanaimo 250-754-8756
www.mala.ca/horticulture
Okanagan University College
Kelowna 250-862-5457
www.ouc.bc.ca/trades/horticulture
North Island College
Courtenay 250-334-5000 ext.4602
www.nic.bc.ca
Simon Fraser University
Burnaby 604-291-4475
www.sfu.ca/biology
University College of the Cariboo
Kamloops 250-828-5181
www.cariboo.bc.ca
University College of the Fraser Valley
Chilliwack 604-795-2813
www.ucfv.ca/agriculture
University of British Columbia
Vancouver 604-822-1219
www.agsci.ubc.ca
 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in
British Columbia
A production guide for commercial growers ©

Published 2005 by

BC Greenhouse Growers’ Association

108–7565 132nd Street
Surrey, BC
V3W 1K5

and

Province of British Columbia

Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
PO Box 9120 - STN PROV GOVT
Victoria, BC
V8W 9B4

Ministry of Agriculture,
Food and Fisheries

www.bcgreenhouse.ca Copies of this publication are available at

phone: 604 591-5480 $75.00 Cdn (plus 7% GST in Canada) plus shipping.
fax: 604 591-5485 Contact the BCGGA office for details.
 Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Growing greenhouse peppers in British Columbia. — 2004-

Irregular.
“A production guide for commercial growers.”
Co-published by Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries.
ISSN 1712-4484 = Growing greenhouse peppers in British
Columbia

1. Peppers - British Columbia. 2. Sweet peppers - British

Columbia. 3. Peppers - Diseases and pests - Control - British
Columbia. 4. Greenhouse management — British Columbia.
I. British Columbia. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and
Fisheries. II. BC Greenhouse Growers’ Association.

SB351.P4G76 635'.643’09711 C2004-960148-2

ii Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 Acknowledgements
This publication was prepared over a period of several years and with contributions from many individuals. It
was originally conceived as an expansion of the pepper section in the 1996 Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Guide for Commercial Growers. Credit for much of the framework, therefore, lies with those who worked on
earlier versions of the various production guides that were published for many years by the B.C. Ministry of
Agriculture, Food & Fisheries. In the current edition, some contributed greatly and others less so. However, all
contributions, including those of people whose names have inadvertently been left off the list,
are greatly appreciated.

Principal Writers
Jim Portree, Anna Luczynski

Technical Advisors
Dave Ehret, Dave Gillespie, and Dave Raworth, Pacific Agri-Food Research Center, Agassiz B.C.;
Andrea Buonassisi, formerly with B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Food & Fisheries;
Peter Isaacson, formerly with BC Greenhouse Growers’ Association.

Grower Advisors
Les Bohna, 635297 B.C. Ltd.
Jos DeGroot, formerly with South Alder Greenhouses;
Bram Moerman, Mt. Lehman Greenhouses;
Harmeet Atwal, Atwal Farms.

IPM Reviewers
Maria Keating, Andrea Davenport, Don Elliott.

Production
Edited by: Dave Ormrod.
Published by: Glenridge Graphics.

Special Thanks
Bob Costello, Jennifer Curtis, Elizabeth Hudgins, Linda Sawatzky, and Madeline Waring, BCMAFF;
Brian Spencer, Applied Bionomics;
Richard Ward and Chris Daye, BioBest;
Richard GreatRex and Dan Cahn, Syngenta Bioline;
Ronald Valentin, FOLIERA;
Angela Hale, Bug Factory;
Tineke Goebertus, Vortus;
Jim Matteoni, Kwantlen University College;
Chris French and Raj Utkhede, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland and Agassiz;
Irene Wilkin and Susan Garnett, Pest Management Regulatory Agency;
Zamir Punja, Simon Fraser University;
Aoxiang Shi;
Carol Portree.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia iii

 Using This Publication
This publication is intended as an aid to greenhouse pepper production in British Columbia and else-
where. The information presented replaces that given in the BC Greenhouse Vegetable Production Guide
that was last published in 1996. All of the information included was believed to be accurate and up-to-
date at the time of publication. However, errors are possible and changes in regulations and advances in
research occur over time. Growers are advised to double check any recommendation that appears to be
unusual or contrary to accepted practice. Many specific recommendations are given but these are in-
tended only as examples. Results will vary with each greenhouse and cultivar. Always experiment on a
small scale before making radical changes to currently successful practices. Consult seed companies and
bio-control suppliers for specific recommendations for the products that they provide.

All Rights Reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form
without the written permission of the BC Greenhouse Growers’ Association.

Disclaimer
While every care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of information, the BC Greenhouse Growers’
Association will accept no liability whatsoever for any inaccuracy or statement contained within this
publication.

iv Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. How the P lant Wor

Plant orksks – P lant P
Plant Prrocesses ................................................................................... 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1
Photosynthesis – Assimilate Production ............................................................................................. 1
Respiration – Assimilate Break-down ................................................................................................. 2
Climate Control Factors Affecting Respiration .............................................................................. 2
Uptake of Water and Nutrients .......................................................................................................... 2
Factors Affecting Uptake of Water and Nutrients .......................................................................... 3
Transpiration ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Evaporation ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Cooling the Tissue .......................................................................................................................... 4
Movement of Water and Minerals ................................................................................................. 5
Environmental Factors Affecting Transpiration .............................................................................. 5
Fruit Set and Development ................................................................................................................. 5
Flower – Its Parts and Functions .................................................................................................... 5
Fruit – Its Parts and Functions ....................................................................................................... 6

2. “Reading the Plant” ................................................................................................................ 9

Partitioning of Assimilates ................................................................................................................... 9
Plant Balance ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Control Strategies for Adjusting Plant Balance ................................................................................. 10
Control Strategies Related to Changes in Production of Assimilates .......................................... 10
Control Strategies Related to Changes in Sink Strength of Individual or Groups of Plant Parts 10
Summary of Cause and Control of Unbalanced Growth ............................................................. 11

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment .............................................................................. 15

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Light .................................................................................................................................................. 15
Terminology and Measurements .................................................................................................. 15
Variation in Light Intensity .......................................................................................................... 16
Light Management ....................................................................................................................... 16
Temperature ...................................................................................................................................... 17
Concept of Average Daily (24 hours) Temperature (ADT) ......................................................... 17
Distribution of Temperature Over 24 Hours ............................................................................... 17
Influence of Temperature Control on Pepper Growth ...................................................................... 18
Effect of Temperature on Vegetative or Generative Growth ........................................................ 18
Effect of Temperature on Fruit Development and Quality .......................................................... 18
Effect of Temperature on Partitioning of Assimilates ................................................................... 18
Equipment for Temperature Control ................................................................................................ 19
Rail Pipe ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Grow Pipe ..................................................................................................................................... 19
Venting .............................................................................................................................................. 20
Moveable and Fixed Screens ......................................................................................................... 21
Whitewash, Fog and Roof Sprinklers ........................................................................................... 21

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia v

 Humidity ........................................................................................................................................... 22
Terminology .................................................................................................................................. 22
Table of Contents

Measurements of RH, VPD and MDLA ..................................................................................... 22

Role of RH, VPD, and MDLA in Managing an Active Climate ................................................. 22
Role of RH and VPD in Management of Condensation (Dew Point) ........................................ 23
Control of Humidity ......................................................................................................................... 23
Removing Humidity From Greenhouse Air ................................................................................ 23
Seasonal Changes Affecting Control of Humidity ....................................................................... 24
Daily Changes Affecting Control Strategies ................................................................................. 25
Avoiding Condensation – Dew Point ................................................................................................ 26
Preventing Condensation During Plant Activation ..................................................................... 26
Preventing Condensation Due to Radiation Loss ........................................................................ 26
Distribution of Humidity and Temperatures .............................................................................. 27
Carbon Dioxide ................................................................................................................................. 27
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 27
Sources of CO2 ............................................................................................................................. 27
Measuring CO2 Applications ....................................................................................................... 27
Principles of CO2 Control ................................................................................................................. 28
Seasonal and Daily Strategies for CO2 Enrichment .......................................................................... 28
Economics of CO2 Enrichment .................................................................................................... 29
Design and Calibration of CO2 Delivery System ........................................................................ 30
Sensor Calibration ........................................................................................................................ 30
Using Heat Storage to Optimize Use of CO2 .............................................................................. 31
Air Pollutants ..................................................................................................................................... 31
Sources of Air Pollution ................................................................................................................ 31
Common Pollutants ...................................................................................................................... 31
Symptoms of Tissue Damage ....................................................................................................... 32
Measurement and Detection of Air Pollutants ............................................................................ 32
Strategies for Preventing Air Pollutant Damage ........................................................................... 33
Irrigation and Nutrition .................................................................................................................... 33
Volume and Frequency of Irrigation Cycles ................................................................................. 33
Control of Irrigation ..................................................................................................................... 34
Effects of Excessive Frequency and Inadequate Volume of Irrigation .......................................... 36
Irrigation Design and Layout ............................................................................................................ 36
Nutrition ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Tanks and Fertilizer Mixing .......................................................................................................... 38
Electrical Conductivity (EC) ............................................................................................................. 39
Measurement and Interpretation of EC Value ............................................................................. 39
Seasonal and Daily Trends in EC ................................................................................................. 40
Effect of EC on Growth Balance .................................................................................................. 40
Effect of EC on Taste and Shelf Life ............................................................................................. 40
Monitoring Crop Nutrition ......................................................................................................... 40
The pH ......................................................................................................................................... 41
Measuring and Buffering the Feed Solution ................................................................................ 41
Water Quality .................................................................................................................................... 42
Key Unwanted Ions ...................................................................................................................... 42
Water Sources ............................................................................................................................... 42
Growing Media ................................................................................................................................. 44
Media for Propagation .................................................................................................................. 44
Properties of a Good Growing Medium ...................................................................................... 44

vi Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

4. Pepper PPrroduction ................................................................................................................ 47
Cultivars ............................................................................................................................................ 47

Table of Contents
Propagation ........................................................................................................................................ 47
Virus Susceptibility ...................................................................................................................... 47
Time of Seeding ............................................................................................................................ 48
Seed Germination ......................................................................................................................... 48
Planting Into Block ...................................................................................................................... 48
Transferring to Greenhouse .......................................................................................................... 49
Acclimatization in the Production Greenhouse ........................................................................... 49
Crop Management ............................................................................................................................ 50
Planting Density .......................................................................................................................... 50
Stem Densities .............................................................................................................................. 50
Training and Pruning in the Two-stem System ........................................................................... 50
Management of Extra Stems in the Two-stem System ................................................................. 51
Pollination ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Harvesting ..................................................................................................................................... 51
Storage .......................................................................................................................................... 52
Seasonal Management Strategies ....................................................................................................... 52
Winter Production ............................................................................................................................ 53
Spring Production ............................................................................................................................. 59
Spring-Summer Production .............................................................................................................. 64
Fall Production .................................................................................................................................. 70

5. Pest and D isease M

Disease anagement ................................................................................................ 75
Management
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Insect and Mite Pests ........................................................ 75
Monitoring ................................................................................................................................... 75
Cultural Control ........................................................................................................................... 76
Biological Control ......................................................................................................................... 76
Quality Control for Commercially Available Biologicals .................................................................. 77
Chemical Control .............................................................................................................................. 78
Greenhouse Cleanup and Other Factors Affecting Insect & Mite Survival ...................................... 78
Host Quality ................................................................................................................................ 79
Weeds ............................................................................................................................................ 79
Debris ........................................................................................................................................... 79
Stages in Cleanup ......................................................................................................................... 79
The Major Insect and Mite Pests ...................................................................................................... 80
Aphids ........................................................................................................................................... 80
Fungus Gnats ............................................................................................................................... 90
Loopers ......................................................................................................................................... 91
Lygus Bugs .................................................................................................................................... 95
Psyllids .......................................................................................................................................... 97
Thrips ........................................................................................................................................... 98
Two-spotted Spider Mite ........................................................................................................... 101
Whitefly ...................................................................................................................................... 107
Miscellaneous Pests ..................................................................................................................... 108
Rodents ............................................................................................................................................ 110
Field Mice (Voles) ....................................................................................................................... 110
Disease Management ....................................................................................................................... 112
Fungal Diseases of Sweet Pepper ..................................................................................................... 113
Damping-Off .............................................................................................................................. 113

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia vii

 Fusarium Stem and Fruit Rot .................................................................................................... 115
Grey Mould ................................................................................................................................ 117
Table of Contents

Powdery Mildew .........................................................................................................................119

White Mould .............................................................................................................................. 120
Storage Rots ................................................................................................................................ 121
Bacterial Diseases of Sweet Pepper ..................................................................................................121
Bacterial Soft Rot ........................................................................................................................121
Virus Diseases of Sweet Pepper ....................................................................................................... 122
Pepper Mild Mottle Virus .......................................................................................................... 122
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV) and Tomato Mosaic Virus (ToMV) .......................................... 123
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus (TSWV) .........................................................................................124
Physiological Disorders of Sweet Pepper .........................................................................................125
Blossom-end Rot ........................................................................................................................125
Sunscald ......................................................................................................................................126
Shrink Cracks .............................................................................................................................. 126
Misshapen Fruit (knots) .............................................................................................................127
Internal Growths and Wings ...................................................................................................... 127
Tails ............................................................................................................................................. 127
Cuticle Cracking .........................................................................................................................127
Greenhouse Cleanup .......................................................................................................................129
Sanitation ....................................................................................................................................129
Weed Control .............................................................................................................................129
Crop Cleanup .............................................................................................................................130
Re-using Growing Media ........................................................................................................... 131
Steam Sterilization of Rockwool Slabs .......................................................................................133

6. Colour Photos

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection ............................................................................ 135

Canadian Legislation .......................................................................................................................135
Pest Control Products Act & Regulations .................................................................................. 135
The Food and Drugs Act ............................................................................................................135
The Fisheries Act and Migratory Birds Regulations .................................................................. 135
Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act ....................................................................................135
British Columbia Legislation .......................................................................................................... 136
Pesticide Control Act and Regulations .......................................................................................136
Workers’ Compensation Board ...................................................................................................136
Toxicity ............................................................................................................................................ 139
Hazard Shapes and Symbols ...................................................................................................... 139
Exposure .....................................................................................................................................139
Hazard ........................................................................................................................................139
Poisoning and First Aid ................................................................................................................... 139
Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning ............................................................................................... 139
Poison Control Centre ................................................................................................................139
First Aid ......................................................................................................................................139
Protective Clothing and Equipment ............................................................................................... 141
Coveralls ......................................................................................................................................141
Gloves .........................................................................................................................................141
Boots ........................................................................................................................................... 142
Goggles and Face Shields ............................................................................................................142

viii Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 Hats ............................................................................................................................................ 142
Aprons ......................................................................................................................................... 142

Table of Contents
Respirators .................................................................................................................................. 142
Protective Equipment for Fumigants, Smoke Bombs and Foggers ............................................ 142
Cleaning Protective Clothing and Equipment ........................................................................... 143
Personal and Environmental Safety Guidelines .............................................................................. 143
Buying Pesticides ........................................................................................................................ 143
Transporting Pesticides ............................................................................................................... 143
Storing Pesticides and Shelf Life ................................................................................................. 143
Mixing and Loading Pesticides ................................................................................................... 144
Applying Pesticides ..................................................................................................................... 144
After Applying Pesticides ............................................................................................................ 144
Disposal of Unwanted Pesticides ................................................................................................ 145
Disposal of Containers ............................................................................................................... 145
Re-entry Restrictions .................................................................................................................. 145
Harvesting Restrictions .............................................................................................................. 145
Special Environmental Precautions ................................................................................................. 146
Protecting Fish and Other Wildlife ............................................................................................ 146
Protecting Bees and Beneficial Insects ....................................................................................... 146
Emergency Response .................................................................................................................. 146
Properties of Chemical and Biological Crop Protection Products .................................................. 147
Fungicides and Bactericides ....................................................................................................... 147
Insecticides and Miticides .......................................................................................................... 148
Spraying Equipment ....................................................................................................................... 152
Sprayer Basics ............................................................................................................................. 152
High-Volume Spraying Equipment ........................................................................................... 153
Specialized Greenhouse Pesticide Equipment ............................................................................ 154
Sprayer Components .................................................................................................................. 155
Mixing Chemicals ....................................................................................................................... 157
Sprayer Cleaning ........................................................................................................................ 157
Sprayer Calibration .......................................................................................................................... 157
Set-Up ......................................................................................................................................... 158
Selecting Spray Volume .............................................................................................................. 158
Selecting Nozzle Pressure ........................................................................................................... 158
Calibrating Boom Sprayers ......................................................................................................... 158
Calibrating Hand Operated Sprayers ......................................................................................... 160

8. Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 163

Preparation of Nutrient Solutions ................................................................................................... 163
Useful Measurements ...................................................................................................................... 168
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................... 170
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 175
Useful Publications .......................................................................................................................... 177

9. Grower Bio-control & Spray Record ................................................................................... 179

10. Index ................................................................................................................................. 185

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia ix

 LIST OF FIGURES
List of Figures

Figure 1-1. Transpiration and water uptake ........................................................................................ 4

Figure 1-2a. Good quality flower ........................................................................................................ 5
Figure 1-2b. Poor quality flower ......................................................................................................... 6
Figure 1-3. Vertical and horizontal section of pepper fruit with good and poor pollination ............ 7
Figure 3-1. Average daily temperature .............................................................................................. 18
Figure 3-2a. Plant activation with minimum pipe temperature ...................................................... 20
Figure 3-2b. Plant activation with maximum pipe temperature ...................................................... 20
Figure 3-3. Seasonal humidity control by condensation and ventilation without screens .............. 25
Figure 3-4. Influence of CO2 concentration in the air on plant uptake ........................................... 28
Figure 3-5. Overdrain monitoring station ........................................................................................ 35
Figure 3-6. Layout of a greenhouse irrigation system ....................................................................... 37
Figure 3-7. Growing slab/drainage collection layout ....................................................................... 37
Figure 3-8. How medium pH affects the availability of plant nutrients ......................................... 42
Figure 5-1. Identification of the four aphid species found commonly on greenhouse peppers ....... 81
Figure 5-2. Round, even-edged exit hole created by parasitoid and jagged-edged exit hole
created by a hyperparasitoid ........................................................................................................ 82
Figure 5-3. Adult and larva of the fungus gnat, shore fly and moth fly ........................................... 90
Figure 5-4. Adult Western Flower Thrips ......................................................................................... 98
Figure 5-5. Differences in spider mite population growth .............................................................102
Figure 5-6. Effectiveness of biological control mites with P. persimilis .......................................... 103
Figure 7-1. Pesticide warning symbols and shapes .........................................................................140
Figure 7-2. Assembly of disc-core cone nozzle ................................................................................ 156

x Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 LIST OF TABLES

List of Tables
Table 2-1. Description, possible causes and control approaches for unbalanced vegetative and generative growth ..... 12
Table 2-2. Stress-related growth abnormalities ....................................................................................................... 14
Table 3-1. Frequently used radiometric terms, definitions and units ....................................................................... 16
Table 3-2. ADT (average daily temperature) calculation ......................................................................................... 17
Table 3-3. Control of pepper “balance” in relation to temperature and light intensity .............................................. 19
Table 3-4. Summary of seasonal venting strategies used for temperature control ...................................................... 22
Table 3-5. Common water vapour terms and units used in greenhouse industry ..................................................... 22
Table 3-6. The relationship between RH and temperature drop or differences that will cause condensation .............. 24
Table 3-7. The relationship between VPD and temperature drop or differences causing condensation ..................... 24
Table 3-8. Effects of seasonal climate conditions on methods of humidity control ................................................... 25
Table 3-9. Principles of applying heat and ventilation for the control of seasonal and daily variations in humidity .... 26
Table 3-10. Application rates and computer set points for CO2 as related to seasonal and daily weather variations ..... 29
Table 3-11. General rule for estimating the % yield increase at different CO2 concentrations and light levels ............ 29
Table 3-12. Maximum acceptable concentrations of some noxious gases for humans and plants .............................. 32
Table 3-13. Summary of seasonal and daily control strategies for irrigation timing, volume and frequency ................ 34
Table 3-14. Distribution of the percentage over-drain during a sunny spring day ................................................... 35
Table 3-15. Guideline for stock solutions of feeding formulas for peppers grown in sawdust and rockwool .............. 39
Table 3-16. Seasonal range of EC targets for feed and drain ................................................................................... 40
Table 3-17. Daily range in feed EC for bright and dull days .................................................................................. 40
Table 3-18. Target over-drain levels in drain to waste and re-circulation system ....................................................... 41
Table 3-19. Target levels for tissue analysis of sweet peppers ................................................................................... 41
Table 3-20. Preferred nitrogen sources for pH control ............................................................................................ 42
Table 3-21. BCMAFF Greenhouse irrigation water quality guidelines .................................................................... 43
Table 4-1. Greenhouse Pepper Seed Suppliers ....................................................................................................... 47
Table 4-2. Winter production cycle / December-January (up to week 4) ................................................................. 58
Table 4-3. Early spring production cycle / February-March-April (weeks 5-18) ...................................................... 63
Table 4-4. Late spring and summer production cycle / May-August (weeks 19-35) ................................................ 69
Table 4-5. Fall production cycle / September-November (weeks 36-46) ................................................................. 73
Table 5-1. Summary of IPM strategies for the green peach aphid ........................................................................... 83
Table 5-2. Summary of IPM strategies for the foxglove, potato and melon/cotton aphid ......................................... 84
Table 5-3. Commercially available biological control agents for aphid control .......................................................... 86
Table 5-4. Commercially available biological control agents for fungus gnats ........................................................... 92
Table 5-5. Commercially available biological control agents for cabbage looper ........................................................ 93
Table 5-6. Commercially available biological control agents for thrips ................................................................... 100
Table 5-7. Summary of seasonal monitoring and biological control strategies for the two-spotted spider mite .......... 104
Table 5-8. Commercially available biological control agents for the two-spotted spider mite ................................... 105
Table 5-9. Commercially available biological control agents for whitefly ............................................................... 109
Table 5-10. Environmental factors favourable to disease development by Botrytis ................................................ 117
Table 5-11. Time and temperature required to kill various pests and pathogens ..................................................... 133
Table 7-1. List of pesticide common names, trade names and relative toxicity to mammals ..................................... 137
Table 7-2. Typical droplet sizes for various types of pesticide spray applications ..................................................... 152
Table 7-3. Comparison of specialized greenhouse sprayers .................................................................................... 154
Table 8-1. Molecular weights for various fertilizers ............................................................................................... 165
Table 8-2. Quantities of acids and salts to add to 1000 litres to make 100X stock solution .................................... 165
Table 8-3. Quantities of salts to add to 1000 litres to make 100X stock solution ................................................... 165
Table 8-4. Approximate quantities of iron chelates to add to 1000 litres to make 100X stock solution .................... 166
Table 8-5. Quantities of minor elements to add to 1000 litres to make 100X stock solution .................................. 167
Table 8-6. Useful measurements ......................................................................................................................... 168

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia xi


The greenhouse environment plays a primary
role in controlling yield, fruit quality, plant
balance and speed of growth. The profitability
of growing greenhouse peppers depends to a
great extent on the grower’s ability to maintain
an optimum environment for the plant.
Management strategies for all components of
the greenhouse environment (temperature,
humidity, vapour pressure deficit, carbon
dioxide, nutrition, irrigation and media) are
primarily defined by the seasonal and daily
changes in accumulated light. Plant balance
and speed of growth are equally important
aspects influencing climate control strategies.
This publication emphasizes the importance of
climate control and its impact on plant growth
and production. In the first three chapters, the
key aspects of climate control are presented,
each from a slightly different perspective. In
most cases, these principles apply to all green-
house vegetable crops. Chapters 4, 5 & 6 zero in
on the day-to-day specifics of greenhouse pepper
production. Chapters 7, 8 & 9 provide a wealth
of information useful not only to pepper growers
but to all greenhouse vegetable growers.
Section
1. “How the Plant Works”, illustrates how
light, temperature, CO2 and other climate
factors affect basic plant processes.
2. “Reading the Plant”, discusses how
changes in climate control and cultural
practices affect plant balance (partitioning of
sugars).
xii Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
INTRODUCTION
3. “Optimizing the Greenhouse Environ-
ment”, presents management strategies for each
of the greenhouse climate factors: light, tem-
perature, humidity, CO2, irrigation and media.
4. “Pepper Production”, provides detailed
recommendations for pepper propagation
and production. Recommendations included
in this section emphasize issues related to
the four growing periods: winter, spring,
summer and fall and are non-specific for
cultivar differences.
5. “Pest and Disease Management”, gives
detailed descriptions of the various pests and
diseases affecting greenhouse peppers. Manage-
ment strategies emphasize methods that either
use or are compatible with biological and
cultural control.
6. “Colour Photos”, brings together a collec-
tion of photographs illustrating many of the
practices and problems associated with
pepper growing.
7. “Chemical and Biological Crop Protec-
tion”, provides details on the few pesticides
that are used on greenhouse peppers. Proce-
dures for the safe handling, storage and
effective use of pesticides are outlined.
8. “Appendix”, contains a wealth of informa-
tion useful to pepper growers and others.
Included are a glossary of terms, a bibliogra-
phy, tables of weights and measures, tables
for preparing nutrient solutions and a list of
useful publications.
9. “Grower Bio-control & Spray Record”,
provides templates for keeping records of
control activities.
 1. HOW
Introduction
This section provides a short overview of each
of the fundamental plant processes that drive
plant growth, development and maintenance:
photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration,
nutrient uptake, and fruit set and development.
In each section, the key environmental factors
such as: light, CO2, temperature, vapour pres-
sure deficit, and nutrients that influence each
process are identified and discussed.
Photosynthesis –
Assimilate Production
Photosynthesis is the ‘anabolic’ or building up
phase of plant metabolism. It uses light energy to
convert CO2 into energy-rich molecules such as
sugars (assimilates). Assimilates can then be
used as an energy source, or they can be con-
verted to more complex molecules and structural
components of the cell. Photosynthesis releases
oxygen gas, which is either re-absorbed during the
respiration process (discussed later) or diffused
out through the leaves. The rate of photosynthesis
is affected by: light, CO2, temperature, water,
nutrient availability and leaf area.
Light
The amount of absorbed light (photo-
synthetically active radiation or PAR), is the
most important factor affecting the production
of assimilates.
At very low light intensity, assimilate produc-
tion can be negative, i.e. there are more assimi-
lates consumed than produced (the leaf respira-
tion rate is higher then the photosynthesis rate).
The point at which assimilate production is
equal to assimilate consumption is called the
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
THE PLANT WORKS –
1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes
PLANT PROCESSES
light compensation point. It occurs at about
2% of maximum light. A negative or break-
even assimilate balance can occur during winter
when light intensity is low and average daily
temperatures are relatively high. If not com-
pensated, poor light conditions and sub-optimal
temperatures can halt plant growth and devel-
opment. During winter frequent temperature
adjustment is required to maintain a positive
assimilate balance.
Light saturation is the point at which any
further increase in light intensity no longer
increases the assimilation rate. Pepper plants
are rarely light saturated, as most commercial
operations use screens when light intensity is
more then than 600 watts/m2 to protect the
fruit from sunscald.
CO 2
Although less important than light, CO2 con-
centrations have a significant effect on the
production of assimilates. Regardless of light
intensity, assimilation increases with an in-
crease in CO2 concentration. Production of
assimilates is optimal when high light
intensities interact with moderate to high
concentrations of CO2. The benefit of CO2
enrichment is most apparent at low concentra-
tions of CO2 (350 to 500 ppm).
Temperature
Temperature has only a minor effect on photo-
synthesis. Most greenhouses maintain their
light hours temperatures between 20 to 25°C,
which is the optimal temperature range for
photosynthesis.
Irrigation and Humidity
An interruption in water supply will reduce
1
 assimilate production by causing stomatal
closure and reduced CO2 uptake. Reopening
1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes
of the stomata can take several hours. Exces-
sive loss of water vapour (transpiration) by the
leaves will also have the same result, causing
flagging of the young leaves. Adequate volume
and proper timing of irrigation cycles will
reduce the possibility of transpiration stress.
Nutrient Availability
Mineral deficiencies, particularly nitrogen (N),
which is an important component of the chloro-
phyll molecule, may also reduce the assimilation
rate. However, these limitations are usually
considered secondary to light or CO2.
Leaf Area Index (LAI)
Leaf area can also affect assimilate production.
The leaf area index (LAI) is the ratio of plant
leaf area to ground area (m2leaf area/m2
ground area). Light interception is poor below
LAI 3 whereas above LAI 3, over 90% of light
is intercepted by the canopy. A fully developed
pepper canopy, at LAI of 5 to 6, will have
similar assimilation rates as plants at LAI 3.
Assimilation capacity decreases with leaf age.
Respiration – Assimilate
Break-down
Respiration is the ‘catabolic’ or breaking down
phase of plant metabolism. It provides energy
to drive growth and development of the plant.
All living plant cells respire. It is a process in
which mainly sugars, but also starch, fats, and
other plant substrates are metabolized (broken
down) to provide energy. The process con-
sumes O2 and produces CO2 and water.
Respiration takes place day and night in all
cells. In the leaves, energy for respiration is
provided by photosynthesis during the day. In
general, the catabolic rate of respiration is 10%
of the anabolic rate of photosynthesis.
Energy released during respiration is used for
maintenance and repair of existing cells; and to
drive new cell growth. Maintenance respiration
supplies energy to take up minerals, pump out
2 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
toxins, repair cellular organs, and for other cell
functions. Growth respiration supplies energy
and the raw materials to build new cells.
In young plants, respiration rates are high
during rapid vegetative growth and reduced just
before flowering. In mature plants, respiration
rates remain high in the young leaves, roots,
flowers and fruit. There is a direct and positive
correlation between the growth rate of particu-
lar cell types and their respiration rates, i.e.
cells that respire a lot grow faster.
Climate Control Factors
Affecting Respiration
Temperature
Respiration responds instantly and strongly to
temperature change, i.e. the rate of maintenance
and growth respiration increases with tempera-
ture. Unlike photosynthesis, the rate of respira-
tion quadruples within a temperature range of 5
to 25oC and to a lesser degree between 30 to
35oC. Plant growth increases directly in propor-
tion to the increase in growth respiration. Tem-
perature control is one of the most important
tools for controlling crop growth.
Other factors influencing respiration
Several other factors may influence pepper plant
respiration rates. Respiration depends on a supply
of assimilates, therefore respiration rates in leaves
tend to be higher when they contain more assimi-
lates, for example at dusk.
Uptake of Water and
Nutrients
Roots
Fine root hairs (1 to 4 cm from the growing tip)
absorb most of the water and minerals. They
exist for only a short period of time – from a few
days to a few weeks. Continuous root growth
and a large surface area of healthy fine roots are
critical for adequate water and nutrient supply.
The xylem and phloem conductive tissues
ensure the flow of water, nutrients, and sap
between the roots and leaves.
In greenhouse vegetables, the following root
functions are of prime concern:
• absorption of water, minerals, and oxygen
from the growing media; and
• conduction of water and nutrients (discussed
in the transpiration section below).
Absorption of Water
The driving force behind water uptake by the
roots is the difference in water concentration
between the feed and the roots. Uptake of water
is a passive process that does not require energy.
Water taken up by the roots is carried by the
xylem to the leaves in the transpiration stream.
Absorption of Nutrients
Nutrient uptake is an active and energy con-
suming process of maintenance respiration.
The roots absorb nutrients in the form of
cations (+) or anions (–). Each form can be
absorbed independently and in different quanti-
ties. Mono-valent ions (e.g. NH4+, K+, NO3-,
Cl-) are taken up more readily than di-valent
ions (e.g. Ca++, Mg++). The uptake rate of
NH4+, NO3-, Ca++, and K+ increases with the
increase in water uptake.
The uptake of an ion from the nutrient solution
is always followed by the release of an ion of
the same charge to the nutrient solution. For
example, the uptake of an anion (NO3-, H3PO4-,
Cl-) is always balanced by the release of HCO3-
or HO- to the nutrient solution, whereas the
uptake of a cation (NH4+, K+, Ca++) is bal-
anced by the release of an H+ ion. Predomi-
nant uptake of either cations or anions can,
therefore, affect the pH of the rooting zone and
drain. For example, the pH of the drain can be
controlled by varying the proportions of ammo-
nium and nitrate in the nutrient solution.
Plants have a strong preference for ammonium
and will take most of the NH4+ up before
taking NO3-. Uptake of NH4+ will decrease the
pH in the rooting zone and drain by increasing
the concentration of H+.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
The nitrogen (NO3 and NH4) absorbed by the
roots needs to be converted to organic com-
1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes
pounds before being transported to the leaves
and fruit. This process requires a substantial
amount of maintenance energy.
Absorption of Oxygen
All living cells, including those in the roots
must have oxygen for maintenance and growth
respiration. Roots secure oxygen from water
and air found in the pore spaces of the rooting
media. Low oxygen concentrations in the
growing media will reduce root respiration.
This negatively impacts activities such as
mineral uptake, nitrogen assimilation and root
growth. As they age, roots will respire less and
therefore absorb less oxygen.
Factors Affecting Uptake of
Water and Nutrition
Light and CO2: affect root function indirectly,
through their affect on assimilate availability.
Optimal root growth and function depend on
the availability of assimilates. Under low light
intensity and CO2 concentration, the produc-
tion of assimilates is reduced. Roots are
weaker competitors for assimilates than rapidly
growing fruit. The supply of assimilates to the
roots will fluctuate depending on assimilate
availability and demand by other plant parts.
Theses fluctuations contribute to stalled and
renewed growth cycles.
EC and pH: roots function well in a wide range.
The absorption of nutrients is optimized within
pH 5.8 to 6.2 and EC 1 to 6 mS/cm. A lower
or higher pH can hamper the uptake of selected
ions. Sudden changes in the EC or pH, such as
flushing the growing media with water, can
cause irreversible damage to the fine roots.
Temperature of the nutrient solution: has a major
effect on root growth. During early vegetative
growth, the irrigation temperature of the growing
media should be maintained at 20 – 21oC to
encourage root growth. Once the roots are
established, the temperature should be lowered
to16 or 18oC to optimize oxygen uptake.
3
 Root-dieback: symptoms range from minor mate and irrigation strategies should compen-
discolouration of the root tips to the more sate for a higher transpiration rate.
1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes

evident browning and decaying of large root

sections. Healthy roots appear white, firm and
fibrous. Aboveground symptoms of root die-
back range from a temporary lightened leaf
colour to mild chlorosis in the head. This is the
result of a reduced or halted uptake of micro
and macro-elements; their absorption is de-
pendent on healthy root tips. Plant “flagging”
during mid-day is another possible sign of root
die-back. Loss of roots has a direct and nega-
tive bearing on plant balance, speed of growth,
fruit set, and fruit quality. Root die-back can
be caused by a shortage of assimilates, a lack
of oxygen or disease.
As the transpiration rate increases with increased
light intensity in the morning, there is a delay of
up to several hours before water uptake by the
roots will keep pace with water lost through
transpiration (see Figure 1-1). As a result, the
water content of plant tissue is lower during the
day than at night. In the late afternoon, as
sunlight is reduced, the transpiration rate drops,
but water uptake continues at a high rate replen-
ishing tissue to overnight water levels.

Transpiration
Transpiration is the process of water evaporat-
ing from the leaves, usually through the sto-
matal openings. Transpiration enables the
distribution of water and nutrients through the
plant and cools the plant tissue.

Evaporation
Water evaporates because the greenhouse air is
always drier than the air in the stomata, which
is always at 100% relative humidity (RH). The
degree of difference between the water vapour
concentration in the greenhouse air and sto-
mata air determines the transpiration rate i.e.
the drier the greenhouse air, the higher the
transpiration rate.
Commercial greenhouses use the vapour pres-
sure deficit (VPD) to estimate the transpiration
rate. The VPD doesn’t measure, however, the
concentration of water vapour in the leaf
stomata. During winter and early spring, the
leaf temperature and air temperature during the
day is about equal. Under these circum-
stances, the VPD of the greenhouse air ad-
equately illustrates the transpiration rate.
During late spring and summer, the leaf tem-
perature may exceed the air temperature by a
few degrees and the transpiration rates will be
higher than those estimated by the VPD. Cli-
Figure 1-1. Transpiration and water uptake
A plant with a high transpiration rate may be
susceptible to water stress when water uptake
from the roots cannot keep up with water loss
through transpiration. The immediate effect of
a mild case of water stress is slowed growth
(speed). Under severe stress, the stomata close
and limit assimilate production.
Cooling the Tissue
Transpiration cools the leaves, which is impor-
tant during periods of high temperatures. Good
maintenance of an ‘active’ plant, i.e. one that is
transpiring rapidly, ensures optimal tissue
temperature and prevents stomatal closure.

4 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Movement of Water and CO2: at high levels reduces transpiration.
Minerals Although the stomata close significantly when

1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes

As water evaporates from the interior of the
leaf, more water is drawn up from the roots,
through the xylem. A transpiration stream,
which moves water and minerals from roots
through the plant to the leaves, is created.
Distribution of Calcium Within
the Plant
All nutrients are carried in the transpiration
stream (xylem) in very low concentrations.
When the transpiration stream is idle or exces-
sive, the plant can use the phloem conductive
tissue as a back up system for nutrient distribu-
tion. Calcium and boron are the only two
nutrients that are restricted to transport in the
xylem only.
The lack of calcium distribution via the phloem
to small fruit is one reason for blossom-end rot
(BER).
During high transpiration, the movement of
water and calcium is directed primarily to the
leaves. Fruit transpires at a lesser rate than
leaves and the supply of water and most of the
nutrients to the fruit occurs mainly through
phloem. This can limit calcium supply to the
blossom end of the fruit, causing the formation
of brown leathery tissue (BER).
exposed to high levels of CO2 the effect is
relatively small, possibly due to the interaction
of other environmental factors.
Humidity: the lower the humidity (higher
VPD), the greater the transpiration rate. This is
because the gradient for water vapour move-
ment from leaf to air is steeper. If humidity is
too high (low VPD) water flow in the xylem
from the roots to the leaves is reduced.
Irrigation: must be adequate; inadequate or
irregular water supply can cause water stress
resulting in stomatal closure and reduced
transpiration.
Fruit Set and
Development
Flower – Its Parts and Functions
The pepper plant produces single white flowers
that sit in the axils of the branches or leaves.
Small flowers (up to 2.5 cm) set in the primary
axils, produce the best quality fruit. A good
quality flower is small, bent downwards at a
90° angle, and has a thick stem (peduncle) (see
Figure 1-2a).

Environmental Factors
Influencing Transpiration
Light: is directly related to the transpiration
rate; the higher the light intensity, the greater
the transpiration rate. At excessive transpira-
tion rates, water loss can exceed water uptake
(water stress) causing stomatal closure and
limiting photosynthesis and nutrient uptake.
Temperature: in the absence of light, can affect
plant transpiration. Transpiration rates increase
with an increase in leaf temperature. Above
30oC, however, the stomata close, resulting in
reduced transpiration.

Figure 1-2a. Good quality flower

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 5

 The flower has five stamens ( ) each contain-
ing a pollen sac (anther). The pistil ( ) consists
1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes
of a pollen-receptive stigma, a connective style
and an ovary that develops into the pepper fruit.
The pepper flower is primarily self-pollinating
but cross-pollination does occur. Successful
self-pollination depends on the viability of the
pollen, a downward bending (90o) position of
the flower and the optimal alignment of the
stigma and pollen sacks. An upright position of
the flower or excessively long pistil will prevent
pollen from landing on the stigma (see Figure
1-2b). Pepper fruit can develop without fertiliza-
tion but the fruit will be seedless (parthenocarpic)
and small with thin walls.
Figure 1-2b. Poor quality flower
Pepper flowers secrete nectar from the base of
the petals. The nectar consists mainly of
fructose. Bees and other pollinators visit the
flowers but the attractiveness of this nectar is
relatively low.
Flower Initiation
Peppers initiate many more flowers then the
number that actually set fruit (10 to 15%).
Temperature has a major affect on flower
initiation. Flower initiation increases with
increased average 24-hour temperatures (ADT).
A large spread between day and night tempera-
tures also increases flower initiation.
6 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Growers often apply one or a combination of
the following measures to promote flower
initiation:
• Increase the EC;
• Decrease the frequency and increase the
volume of an individual irrigation cycle;
• Increase the concentration of CO2.
Fruit – Its Parts and Functions
All bell-type cultivars are recognized by the
large blocky appearance of their fruit, promi-
nent shoulders, inner partitioning (locules), and
blunt or sunken fruit end (apex). Bell peppers
may have two to four locules; the fruit with
four-locules has the highest market value. The
fruit walls (pericarp) are thick-fleshed. The
number of locules, shape of fruit and number
of seeds are directly related to the extent of
successful pollination (see Figure 1-3).
Fruit Set
Climatic factors such as light intensity or CO2
concentrations affect the availability of assimi-
lates and have an indirect but important effect
on fruit setting. Flowers store assimilates
during the day and metabolize them during the
night. The shortage of assimilates is the pri-
mary factor determining flower and fruit abor-
tion. Low temperatures at night (17 to 19oC)
can increase the percentage of fruit set.
Fruit Abortion
Temperature has an indirect but significant
effect on the abortion of flowers and early
stage fruits. If the ADT is too high, fruit
setting will be reduced or prevented. The
abortion of flowers or small fruit (<2 cm) is
caused mainly by a shortage of assimilates.
High temperatures reduce the export of assimi-
lates from the leaves and increase the total
demand for assimilates by vegetative and
generative plant parts. As a result there is
reduced assimilate flow to the flowers and early
fruit stages and increased chance of abortion.
Fruit load and the fruit development stage can
also affect the incidence of abortion. Fruits at
 1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes
Vertical and horizontal section of pepper fruit with good pollination

Vertical and horizontal section of pepper fruit with poor pollination

Figure 1-3.

the swelling green stage, particularly ones with
high seed counts, are much stronger competi-
tors for assimilates than those at earlier stages.
Developing fruits also produce plant growth
regulators that can inhibit subsequent fruit set.
Fruit abortion is enhanced by:
• high night temperature;
2. Availability of assimilates: limited or exces-
• high temperature (20 to 24oC) combined
with low light intensity;
• above threshold concentrations of pollutants
in the greenhouse air;
and relative humidity affect pollen viability. At
a temperature range of 20 to 22oC, pollen
viability is optimized whereas low night tem-
peratures (12 to 16oC) or high day temperatures
(>28oC) significantly reduce its viability.
Pollen viability and seed set decreases with
decreasing relative humidity (RH).
sive supply of assimilates can negatively
affect flower quality and subsequent fruit
quality. Excessive competition between fruits
can reduce the availability of assimilates.

• pests and diseases. 3. Temperature: at high temperatures (>25oC),

Fruit Quality
Fruit quality is affected primarily by pollina-
tion, availability of assimilates, temperature
and availability of nutrients.
4. Availability of nutrients: calcium (Ca++) distri-
1. Pollination: increases seed count which in
turn increases the ability to draw assimilates,
increases fruit size and weight, reduces
number of malformed fruits. Temperature
fruit will mature faster but will have thinner
walls and lower weight; at lower tempera-
tures, especially during the night, fruit will
develop thicker walls and be heavier.
bution to the fruit is reduced with high transpi-
ration. This is especially critical at the small
(<2 cm diameter) early stage where a shortage
of calcium causes blossom-end rot (BER).

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 7

1. How the Plant Works – Plant Processes

8 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 2. “READING
Partitioning of Assimilates
Assimilates produced in leaves are either stored
in storage pools or distributed within the plant
to support plant growth and maintenance.
Distribution of assimilates within the plant is
primarily regulated by two components:
• the number of sinks demanding assimilates,
including all vegetative and generative plant
parts such as leaves, head, side shoots, roots,
flowers and fruit; and
• the degree of strength with which each sink
draws assimilates.
The two components combined, i.e. the aggre-
gate strength of all sinks, makes up the total
demand for assimilates within the plant.
The growth rate of an individual plant part is
determined by its sink strength; the stronger the
demand for assimilates the faster the growth
rate. Some of differences in sink strength are
inherent but some are due to: the proximity of
the sink to the assimilate producing leaves, the
course of organ development, and nature of
the growing season.
Roots are inherently weak competitors for
assimilates. They are located far away from
leaves which is thought to diminish their
strength for demanding assimilates; conse-
quently they grow at a slower rate than stems,
leaves or fruits. At the beginning of fruit
production, root growth is strongly reduced; at
high fruit load, it can even be stalled. In severe
cases, the root tips may die.
In contrast, pepper fruits compete strongly with
each other and with vegetative parts of the
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
THE PLANT”
2. “Reading the Plant”
plant for the available assimilates. At high fruit
load, fruits are a strong and highly preferential
sink for assimilates and substantially reduce the
flow of assimilates to the vegetative growth.
The strength with which pepper fruit draw
assimilates depends mainly on:
Developmental Stage of the Fruit
Pepper fruit passes through three stages: newly
set fruit (< 2 cm), green swelling and colour.
The demand for assimilates and the growth rate
vary at each stage. Newly set fruit and colour
stages demand relatively small amounts of
assimilates and are considered weak sinks. The
green swelling stage demands more assimilates
and is considered a strong sink. Maintaining a
range of fruit developmental stages on the
plant prevents excessive competition for as-
similates and prevents fruit flushes.
Number of Developed Seeds
Fruits with high seed counts are larger and have
stronger demand for assimilates than fruits with
low seed counts. Although an increase in the
sink strength improves the quality of the indi-
vidual fruit, it draws assimilates away from
young fruits and flowers. As a result, there could
be more aborted flowers and more irregularities
(flushing) in fruit production.
Position of the Fruit Within the Plant
Canopy
Fruits set on the main axis are larger and better
quality than fruits set on a secondary axis. The
difference in sink strength could be attributed
to the fact that the secondary fruit is further
away from assimilate-producing leaves.
9
 Plant Balance
2. “Reading the Plant”
A pepper plant is considered to be in balance
when available assimilates support: (1) suffi-
cient vegetative growth to maintain future
growth potential; and (2) optimal generative
growth to maximize yield. A plant is too veg-
etative when assimilates available are used
predominantly to support the growth of head,
shoots and roots. A plant is too generative
when assimilates are used predominantly to
support generative growth.
Plant balance is affected primarily by the
amount of assimilates available and total
demand for assimilates by all the vegetative and
generative plant parts. Plant balance can change
in response to a change in the amount of
assimilates produced and a change in the as-
similate- drawing strength of one or more
sinks. Different control strategies are required
for each situation.
Control Strategies for
Adjusting Plant Balance
Control Strategies Related to
Changes in Production of
Assimilates.
Accumulated light and the resulting assimilate
production varies both seasonally and daily.
Adjustment of the speed and direction of plant
growth requires long and short-term manage-
ment strategies in response to changing assimi-
late production.
Long-term Strategies
During winter, young pepper plants produce
relatively small amounts of assimilates because
their leaf area is still very small and the accu-
mulated light is low. Most assimilates produced
during the first few weeks are partitioned
among the vegetative parts to promote rapid
increase in leaf formation and among the roots
for establishment of a strong root system. This
strategy quickly increases leaf area and light
interception, and consequently, the production
10 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
of assimilates. Fruit should be allowed to set
only after enough assimilates are produced to
support both vegetative and generative growth.
During spring and early summer, accumulated
light and potential for assimilate production
increases. In response to the seasonal increase
in accumulated light, commercial greenhouses
progressively increase fruit loads per m2.
Short-term Strategies
Accumulated light and the resulting assimilate
production fluctuate daily. Managing tempera-
ture inside the greenhouse is one of the most
important tools in controlling the assimilate
distribution between the vegetative and repro-
ductive parts of the plant.
A change in the average 24-hour temperature
(ADT) will cause a proportionate increase or
decrease in the consumption of assimilates. Most
assimilates will be drawn to the strongest sinks
and less will be distributed to the weaker ones.
Increased ADT during fruit production will cause
a higher assimilate flow towards the fruit rather
than vegetative parts of the plant. The direction
and degree of temperature change should always
take into consideration the amount of assimilates
produced the previous day.
A temperature drop during pre-night will create
a temperature difference between the fruit and
the remaining plant parts. A warm fruit will
maintain a higher demand for assimilates for a
longer period of time (See Temperature Con-
trol, page 18).
Control Strategies Related to
Changes in Sink Strength of
Individual or Groups of Plant
Parts.
Fruit set, abortion, harvest and selective prun-
ing can strongly change the distribution of
assimilates between the vegetative and genera-
tive parts and affect plant balance.
Fruit Setting and Abortion
Setting new fruit is an important tool in re-
directing the flow of assimilates toward genera-
tive growth. Newly set fruit demands a rela-
tively small amount of assimilates from the
plant and more fruit may set than will mature.
Thinning extra fruit can be used to control
plant balance but timing is very important.
Thinning the fruit too early may cause the plant
to start setting again.
If fruit set is too high, it can reduce the avail-
ability of assimilates for the next fruit set and
for vegetative growth resulting in a plant that is
too generative. A compacted head and a
shortened distance between the flower and
head are typical symptoms of a plant that is too
generative.
Fruit Harvest
The plant balance can change momentarily
when the mature fruit is harvested. To prevent
a dramatic shift in assimilate partitioning,
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
maintain as uniform a harvest as possible.
Harvesting too many fruit will negatively affect
2. “Reading the Plant”
the plant balance and may cause root die-back.
Selective Pruning
Total sink strength increases with an increase
of fruit on the plant. If the fruit load is too
high in relation to the amount of assimilates
produced, pruning the mature green fruit may
be necessary to restore plant balance. Harvest-
ing mature green fruit will often induce a new
flush of fruit set.
Summary of Cause and Control
of Unbalanced Growth
Table 2-1 summarizes symptoms of unbalanced
growth, possible causes and suggested control
strategies. Table 2-2 lists additional abnormali-
ties in growth and suggests some corrective
approaches.
11
 2. “Reading the Plant”

12
Table 2-1. Description, possible causes and control approaches for unbalanced vegetative and generative growth.

Strongly Vegetative Strongly Generative

x Tall plant with strong side shoots and large leaf area (> 6 m2 leaf/m2 x Open plant with small leaf area (3 to 5 m2 leaf/m2 ground
ground area). area).
x Plant has low fruit load with more than 5 leaf nodes between sets. x Fruit load higher than 35 m2 and often uniform in size.
x High incidence of flower abortions. x Growing point thin with small leaves and flowers close to

Description
x Most assimilates are being allocated to the head, leaves and roots.
x Often observed before and at first set.
x Relatively low ADT and low light intensity.
the head.
x The fruit load is too high in relation to assimilate
production; often a result of poor light conditions.
x Temperatures are too high; EC in drain and feed is too
high; irrigation volume is too low.

Causes
Possible
x Rockwool block is poorly anchored to the rooting media
indicating a weak root system.

Plant
x Increase ADT by 1-2oC to help use up some of the excess
assimilates and to accelerate flower development.
x Increase fruit setting to tip the balance from vegetative to generative
plant parts.
x Temperature: increase spread between day and night (4-5 degrees)
and lower night temperature.
x EC: increase above 3 in root zone.
x CO2: increase up to 1000 ppm for a short time.
x Irrigation: apply longer and less frequent cycles.
x Prune to 1 leaf.
x Thin fruit
x Leaving 2 to 3 leaves can increase assimilate production.
x Temperature: Decrease spread between day and night
temperatures. Increase night temperature to enhance
fruit development and abort new flowers.
x EC: Lower EC in feed and drain.
x CO2: keep below 500 ppm.
x Irrigation: apply shorter and more frequent cycles.
x VPD: maintain VPD at 3 and higher and increase RH.

Control Approaches
x Allow secondary flower set to increase fruit load to >4/stem.
x VPD: maintain active climate at higher than 3 VPD.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

x Thick stem diameter, relatively long internodes, vigorous side-shoot x Compact head, flowers are too close to the growing tip
growth, no fruit set. (head).
x Small leaves, short internodes, thin stem diameter.
x Growth is reduced or staled.

Description
x Fruit load is low and most assimilates are being used to support x The plant has a high fruit load that draws most of the
vegetative growth. available assimilates. Distribution of assimilates to the
x Temperature: ADT is too low in relation to the light levels; an excess head and roots is significantly reduced causing
of assimilate production. suppressed growth.

Head
Causes
x Day and night spread is too small; high night temperature.

Possible
x EC: low in feed and drain; CO2 – low; RH – high; VPD – low;
Minimum pipe – low.
x Increase flower set up to 4 fruit/stem by allowing primary and x Decrease temperature spread between day and night.
secondary fruit to set. x Increase the night temperature 1oC.
x Lower RH, avoid overuse of screens, especially during cloudy days x Thin excess fruit if possible.

Control
with lower than 3 VPD.

Approaches
x Increase minimum pipe temperature.
 Table 2-1. (Cont’d) Description, possible causes and control approaches for unbalanced vegetative and generative growth.

Strongly Vegetative Strongly Generative

x Large, upright facing flower. x Weak and small flower buds that stand upright. Such
x Ovary often misshapen. buds abort before opening.
x Fruit not full or blocky, with 2 to 3 chambers instead of 4 chambers. x Small flower (<2.0 cm in diameter) with a thin stem that
often stands upright.

Description
x Large, vegetative flowers are produced when there is excess of
assimilates
x Low (<16oC) or high (>28oC) temperature and low RH
x The upright position or poor alignment of the flower structures
x High fruit loads may restrict assimilate distribution to
newly formed flowers, reducing fruit set and restricting
vegetative growth.
x A combination of high ADT and low accumulated light

Causes

Flowers
Possible
prevents or reduces fertilization causing formation of seedless and can also reduce fruit setting and vegetative growth.
misshapen fruit.
x Avoid equal day and night temperatures and low VPD’s that favour x Reduce ADT by 1oC and ensure a low pre-night
excessive vegetative growth. temperature for a few hours.
x Do not let secondary flowers set; they are lower quality than the x Increase CO2 concentration up to 1000 ppm for several
primary, main stem flowers. days to improve assimilate production of new flowers.

Control
x Thin secondary fruit where possible. x Set ADT not greater than 21oC for fruit setting at 200

Approaches
joules/cm2/day.
x Strong, well-matted, white roots evenly distributed throughout the x Weak, poorly matted and off-white colour roots. The
bag. rockwool block is poorly anchored to the sawdust bag.

Description
x Strong vegetative growth during propagation and during first few x Poorly propagated seedlings and excessive fruit load at
weeks in a greenhouse is critical for establishment of a strong root the first setting can suppress root growth.
system. x Lack of new developing white roots or in severe situation,

Roots
x Growth of roots is strongly reduced at the beginning of fruit massive root die-back.

Causes
Possible
production. Maintenance of a low fruit load during first fruit set is
critical for establishment of strong roots.
x Use warm irrigation (20oC), minimum pipe, and long irrigation cycles x Pruning excess fruit will re-direct some flow of assimilates
to promote growth and even distribution of roots throughout the to roots.
medium. x Maintain optimal growth conditions of roots.

Control
x Fruit load of 1 to 1.2 fruit per stem for early seeded plants will

Approaches
sustain healthy root growth.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

2. “Reading the Plant”

13

14
Table 2-2. Stress-related growth abnormalities
Plant
Symptoms Possible Cause
Parts
x Leaves in head cupped downward. x Indication of water stress especially during early
plant establishment. In response to excess
transpiration in relation to water supply, leaves roll
downward to reduce leaf surface area.
x High temperatures, high VPD, high EC
x Dull leaves x Peppers grown under an active climate should have
shiny leaves during the daylight hours and dull
leaves at the end of the day. Dull leaves throughout
the day can indicate: inadequate temperature
regimes, moisture stress, poor growth speed, too
high CO2 levels and low RH.
x Bubble tissue on leaves & marginal x Excess CO2 under low light intensity and low
burn of new leaves. transpiration rates.
x Sub-lethal levels of by-product combustion gases
such as NOx and ethylene.
Leaves
x Dark leaves. x Some cultivars, e.g. Eagle tend to have darker green
pigmentation.
x Plants grown under supplemental light will have
‘black-green’ and purple pigmentation on the petioles
and veins of the leaf.
x Insufficient water due to plugged drippers.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
x Head is dark in a.m. whereas it should x Lack of active climate.
have a yellowish colour that doesn’t x Shortage of water at night.
darken before 13:00.
x Thin leaves especially in the head. x Under extended periods of dark weather, plant
consumes more sugar than it produces.
x Low light levels and elevated ADT at or above the
compensation point.
x Abnormally shaped flowers x By-product combustion gas, ethylene, can create
abnormal flowers that have a tendency to abort in
the bud stage.
x Some of the pepper viruses can alter flower
Flowers
development.
2. “Reading the Plant”
Control Approaches
x Plant requires more irrigation. Ensure
over-drain is on target and consider a
night watering.
x Temporarily reduce EC.
x Decrease the VPD and CO2
x Re-evaluate temperature, irrigation and
RH regimes.
x ReduceCO2 levels
x Reduce CO2 levels to a maximum 700
ppm in early growth stages.
x Check for the presence of air
contaminants.
xEnsure drippers are working
x Maintain active climate VPD of 3 - 7
x Ensure adequate water at night.
x Target 3% over-drain by third irrigation
cycle.
x Reduce ADT to balance photosynthesis
and respiration.
x Reduce CO2 levels <1000ppm.
x Use a small minimum vent to prevent
accumulation of contaminants. Have the
boiler checked for combustion efficiency of
<2ppm for carbon monoxide.
x Lab test for possible viruses
 3. OPTIMIZING THE
GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT
Introduction
This chapter introduces principles of control for
each of the key components of the greenhouse
environment. It illustrates how the control of
light, temperature, humidity, CO2, nutrition and
irrigation influence the growth and development
of the pepper plant. It also identifies the basic
equipment such as rail pipes or vents used to
control the greenhouse environment.
Light
Growth and development of the plant are
strongly influenced by light, particularly its
intensity and duration. More than the other
components of the greenhouse environment,
light characteristics are determined largely by
seasonal or daily weather fluctuations. Light
interacts extensively with other components of
the greenhouse environment, and its manage-
ment should be considered together with tem-
perature, humidity, CO2 and irrigation.
Terminology and
Measurements
The term “global radiation” refers to the full
spectrum of electromagnetic wavelengths from
300 to 5000 nanometers (nm) emitted by the
sun. The term “light” refers to a very narrow
spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (400 to
700 nm) with wavelengths visible to the human
eye. Interestingly, plants use the same wave-
length range for photosynthesis therefore the
term “light” is used interchangeably with
“radiation”.
Light intensity is measured typically by two
methods: photometric or radiometric. The
photometric method measures light intensity in
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
units of illumination expressed in lux, lumens,
candelas or foot-candles. These units are de-
fined in terms of light sensitivity of the human
eye. Plants detect and respond to light differ-
ently than the human eye and therefore photo-
metric measurement is not appropriate for
plants. The radiometric method measures and
expresses light intensity as radiant energy (see
Table 3-1).
Greenhouse control systems determine light
intensity by measuring the flow of radiant energy
over a wide spectrum of electromagnetic waves
(300 to 3000 nm). Most greenhouse control
systems use the Kipp solarimeter to measure
radiant energy in joules/sec or watts.
Until recently, measurements of
photosynthetically active radiation (or
photoactive radiation = PAR) have been used
mostly in research. Contemporary greenhouse
computer systems are switching to PAR meas-
urements as they describe most accurately the
plant responses to light. PAR measures the flow
of radiant energy only within 400 to 700 nm of
waveband. An equivalent term, PPFD (see
Table 3-1), is expressed in µmol/m2/sec. The
PhytomonitorTM is an example of the equip-
ment used for measuring PPFD in greenhouses.
Light duration is referred to as a sum of daily
radiation. It is measured by integrating light
intensity over time. For example, a fixed radia-
tion of 500 watts/m2 during a10 hour period is
equivalent to 500 x 3600 seconds/hr x 10 hrs =
18,000,000 joules/m2/day X .0001cm2/m2 =
1800 joules/cm2/day. Measures of PPFD and
PAR are also integrated over the course of a
day and expressed in their respective units on a
daily basis.
15
 Table 3-1. Frequently used radiometric terms, definitions and units.
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

Term Definition Unit

Radiant energy Energy in the form of electromagnetic waves joules
(300 to 3000 nm)
Radiant flux The flow rate of radiant energy (300 to 3000 nm) joules/sec
watts
Radiant flux density The number of photons intercepted by a unit area MJ/m2/day*
and time (300 to 3000 nm) watts/m2
Photosynthetic Radiation in the 400 to 700 nm waveband. MJ/m2/day*
irradiance “PI” or watts/m2
Photosynthetically
active radiation
“PAR”
Photosynthetic Number of photons intercepted per area per time µmol/m2/sec
photon flux density within 400 to 700 nm. mol/m2/day*
“PPFD” µeinsteins/m2/sec

* - units measure light duration; the remaining units measure light intensity

Note: Throughout this document, accumulated light values will be expressed as

joules/cm2/day and light intensity values will be referred to as watts/m2.

Variation in Light Intensity 3000 joules/cm2/ day in the summer, 100

Intensity and duration of light are affected
mainly by seasonal changes, daily fluctuations
and geographic location. Seasonal fluctuations
are the main cause of variability. For example,
in Vancouver, B.C. the average light accumula-
tion varies from 219 joules/cm2/day in Decem-
ber to 2200 joules/cm2/day in July. The light
requirement for pepper plants depends on the
growth stage and the fruit load. For example,
pepper seedlings (10 weeks old) require a mini-
mum 150 to 200 joules/cm2/day for the first
fruit setting and a minimum 180 joules/cm2/day
for growth and maintenance. Winter light condi-
tions in south coastal B.C. generally exceed the
minimum required levels for pepper growth and
fruit set. The minimum level for fruit setting is
not always met at inland locations.
Mature plants carrying high fruit load (>35/m2)
require more than 2200 joules/cm2/day. The
average light accumulation for July (2200
joules/cm2/day) may not be enough to support
the maximum fruit production.
The day-to-day variation in accumulated light
changes with seasons and can range from 100
to 1200 joules/cm2/day in the spring, 200 to
to1200 joules/cm2/day in the fall, and 50 to
600 joules/cm2/day in the winter. Of particu-
lar importance is the daily variation in accumu-
lated light in the early spring as it significantly
affects rate of growth (growth speed), as well
as setting, ripening and quality of the pepper
fruit. A wide day-to-day variation in accumu-
lated light can increase the incidence of BER
especially when a low light period (180 joules/
cm2/day) is followed by a high period (1200
joules/cm2/day).
In south coastal B.C., accumulated light levels
are also affected by the greenhouse location.
For example, in January, Abbotsford, Vancou-
ver and Delta accumulate on average 293, 282
and 329 joules/cm2/day, respectively. Slightly
higher accumulated light levels in Delta, as
compared to the other locations, significantly
improve plant growth and yield early in the
season.
Light Management
Although light is determined largely by outside
conditions there are a number of strategies that
can enhance or reduce light intensity.

16 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Enhancing Light Levels
Increasing light reflectance by:
• use of white ground covers;
• selecting reflective coating for greenhouse
structures.
Better Utilization of Light Through:
• optimal row orientation – for B.C., it is east-
west although many growers choose north
south orientation;
• annual cleaning of inside and outside glass
surfaces;
• adjusting plant density, spacing and pruning
according to light intensity.
Reducing Light Levels
Light intensity above 600 watts/m2 can reduce
fruit quality and speed of growth.
Reduction of light strategies include:
• use of white wash or screens;
• adjustment of stem densities and pruning
according to light intensity.
Temperature
The optimum growing temperature for the
pepper plant changes with plant age, light, CO2
concentration and predominant physiological
stage – sugar production or consumption. It is
beyond the scope of this guide to provide
specific temperature recommendations. General
principles of temperature control including the
application of average daily (24 hours) tem-
perature; and management of pre-night, night,
and pre-dawn temperatures will be covered.
Table 3-2.
Concept of Average Daily (24
hours) Temperature (ADT)
The ADT range for optimum greenhouse
pepper production is relatively narrow and
varies typically from 15 to 25o C. Within this
range, the development rate of the pepper plant
is directly related to the ADT and is independ-
ent of day/night fluctuations.
Development of the pepper plant can remain
on target even if the ADT strays outside the
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
range for a few days. For example, lower ADT
in days one and two of –1oC and –1.5oC re-
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
spectively can be compensated by an increased
ADT in days three and four of +1oC and
+1.5oC respectively. This allows pepper grow-
ers flexibility in controlling overall development
through temperature. The maximum period for
pepper temperature compensation can’t exceed
5 to 7 days. See Table 3-2 for ADT calculation.
Distribution of Temperature
Over 24 Hours
Light intensity and duration are the key factors
determining the optimum ADT for the pepper
plant. Temperature control is therefore defined
by seasonal and daily variations in light. The
control of temperature during the 24 hour
period is divided into the pre-day, boost (or
day) and pre-night periods. Computer programs
can be used to optimize energy and plant
growth condition by “re-shaping” the distribu-
tion of temperatures over the 24 hours.
During winter (short day/long night), when
heating is used without venting, temperature is
optimized during daylight and reduced moder-
ately during the night. This control strategy
results in a small temperature difference between
day and night (see Figure 3-1). In the summer
(long day/short night), when both heating and
venting are used, the length and degree-drop in
the night temperature are key management
strategies for controlling the ADT. Summer
control strategy results in a large temperature
difference between day and night as the daytime
temperature often exceeds its daytime set point.
ADT calculation
(average daily temperature).
Hours
Time Block Setting
(24 hr clock)
in
in qC
Hour Degrees
Block
9 to 11 2 18 36
11 to 16 5 22 110
16 to 23 7 16 112
23 to 9 10 18 180
438 y 24 = 18.25 qC
17

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Figure 3-1. The average daily temperature (ADT) of 20.5o C:
differences in temperature distribution between spring and
early summer. The same principles apply to operations having
four growing periods.
Pre-day (Fig 3-1, A)
The rate of temperature increase during the
pre-day period is proportional to the light
intensity of the previous day. It should not,
however, exceed 1oC /hr or it can negatively
affect fruit quality and could pose a risk of dew
point formation or stem wetness.
During sunrise, the contribution of the rail
pipes to the overall temperature control de-
creases as the contribution of sun radiation
increases. The transition point is at 200-300
watts/m2.
Boost or Day (Fig 3-1, B)
The term “boost” is used to describe an in-
crease in temperature during mid-day or the
brightest part of the day. The boost is typically
applied during the winter, spring and fall to
increase the temperature difference between
the day and night. The temperature increase
and the duration of the boost are proportional
to the light intensity and plant vigour.
Pre-night (Fig 3-1, C)
The length of the pre-night extends with an
increase in the day length. The rate of tempera-
ture decrease during pre-night depends on outside
temperatures. It is typically low during summer
and increases during winter, spring and fall.
18 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Influence of
Temperature Control
on Pepper Growth
Effect of Temperature on
Vegetative or Generative
Growth
A “balanced plant” produces enough
assimilates to support vegetative and
generative growth regardless of weather
conditions. Plant balance is accomplished
by continuously adjusting temperature in
relation to light intensity. Table 3-3 illus-
trates general principles used to correct
pepper growth by adjusting temperature
under different light conditions.
Effect of Temperature on Fruit
Development and Quality
The first fruits set have a tendency to be ‘flat’
in shape. Introduction of a short pre-night
temperature of 3 to 4oC below the average
temperature can lengthen the fruit. Maintaining
relatively low day temperatures improves fruit
firmness and shelf life.
Effect of Temperature on
Partitioning of Assimilates
Demand for assimilates can be influenced in part
by temperature differences between plant tissues.
These can be manipulated to enhance the flow
of assimilates. For example, dropping the tem-
perature quickly at sunset will cause pepper
fruits and roots to retain higher temperatures
longer than other plant parts. This will direct the
flow of assimilates to the fruit and roots. The
increase of assimilate flow will be proportional
to the differential temperature between tissues
and the rate of the temperature drop.
 Table 3-3. Control of pepper “balance” in relation to temperature and light intensity.

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

High
Light Average Daily Temperature (ADT)
Low Light Early winter late fall
Growth tendency: too generative
Control:
- Decrease ADT;
- Provide a smaller spread
between day and night
temperatures;
- Night to day transition [slow and
early (max 1oC/hr)];
- Day to night transition [slow (1
– 2oC/hr)].
Low
Average Daily Temperature (ADT)
Winter, fall and overcast days
Growth tendency: too vegetative
Control:
- Increase ADT;
- Provide a larger spread
between day and night
temperatures. Heating increase
on light and include boost.
- Night to day transition [rapid
and late (1 – 2oC/hr)];
- Day to night transition [rapid (1-
4oC/hr)].

High Light Late spring, summer and early fall Early spring late fall
Growth tendency: too generative Growth tendency: too vegetative
Control: Control:
- Decrease ADT; - Increase ADT;
- Provide a smaller spread - Provide a larger spread
between day and night between day and night
temperatures; temperatures;
- Decrease the pipe heat based - Increase pipe heat based on
on light; light;
- Night to day transition [slow and - Night to day transition [rapid
early (1oC/hr)]. and late (1 – 2oC);]
- Day to night transition [rapid
(4oC/hr)].

Equipment for Example 1: Minimum pipe temperatures

Temperature Control
Rail Pipe
The rail pipe is the primary heating unit in the
greenhouse controlling:
• temperature, use of the rail pipe for tempera-
ture control is largely defined by outside
weather conditions and ADT targets;
• RH within the canopy; and
• plant activation, i.e. to stimulate the plant to
transpire, use is limited to specific day hours
or weather conditions. Figures 3-2a and 3-2b
illustrate how the rail pipe can be used to
help activate the plant.
(40 to 50oC)
The example illustrates the use of a minimum
rail pipe during a cloudy summer day (>15oC).
It is used for a short time in the morning until
the sun’s radiation reaches a minimum 300
watts/m2.
Example 2: Maximum pipe (>50oC)
The example illustrates the use of a maximum
rail pipe during a very cold (< 8oC) but sunny
winter or spring day. It is used for plant activa-
tion in the morning and during the “boost”
period for 2 to 3 hours.
Grow Pipe
A grow pipe is used to supplement rail pipe
heat mostly during the initial establishment
phase. It provides more uniform climate within
a canopy. It is sometimes used to distribute the
heat by-product from CO2 production. Benefits
of using the grow pipe include:

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 19


3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Figure 3-2a. Plant activation with minimum
pipe temperature
Figure 3-2b. Plant activation with maximum
pipe temperature
Adapted from presentation by Vortus, 2000
• better control of root temperature in the
rooting phase and during 1st flowering stage;
• better maintenance of optimum ‘head’
temperatures during venting when outside
temp < 12oC; and
• improved control of pathogens.
Venting
Vents are used to control the ADT and humid-
ity by removing excess heat and moisture from
the greenhouse. Temperature control is accom-
20 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
plished by using the following methods
and concepts: percentage of vent open-
ing, ‘P band’ and ‘dead zone’, and the
application of the lee or wind side vents.
Note that some computer control sys-
tems use different control settings.
Consult each computer system for
specific information relating to ventila-
tion control.
Dead Zone is a term used to indicate
the difference between the heat set point
and venting set point. In the early spring
and late fall when outside temperatures
are less than 8oC this difference is 2 to
3oC and during summer or at tempera-
ture higher than 15oC it decreases to 0.5
to1oC.
P Band refers to the range of tempera-
tures over which vents open.
The speed of opening and closing the
vent is determined by P band range. A
slow-acting P band (large temperature
range) with a large dead zone, is used in
early spring and late fall when outside
temperatures are less than 8oC. A fast
acting P band (small temperature range)
with a small dead zone, is used when the
temperature is higher than15oC (see
Table 3-4).
A combination of slow acting P band and large
dead zone restricts the duration and frequency
of venting and ensures slow and restricted
openings to prevent cold air chilling the plant
heads. In contrast, a combination of fast acting P
band and small dead zone assures almost con-
tinual venting and faster opening and closing of
vents, to react to summer weather conditions.
 Table 3-4. Summary of seasonal venting strategies used for temperature control
General Venting Seasonal Strategies
Vent
Outside
opening Lee vent
temperature
(%)
winter <8oC 0–2
yes
spring <8 – 1 – 20 yes, start at yes, if wind
12oC 300 watts
summer 1 – 100 yes, start at
yes
>15oC 300 watts
fall <8 – 12oC 1 – 100 yes, start at yes, if wind
300 watts
The use of lee and wind side vents is deter-
mined by both the seasonal weather pattern and
by the speed and direction of the wind. During
the spring, venting begins with opening the lee
side only. The wind side is closed to prevent
cool air (8 – 15oC) from blowing directly on the
plant heads. The opening created by the lee
vent draws air from the greenhouse. The wind
side vent is opened only when the outside
temperatures are higher than 15oC and wind
speed is lower than 2 m/sec. In the summer
months, the wind side is used more actively.
Moveable and Fixed Screens
Moveable and fixed screens are used temporar-
ily (4 to 6 weeks) during plant establishment to
save energy and enhance greenhouse climate.
Screens provide a more uniform temperature
distribution throughout the greenhouse and
optimize VPD when outside temperature is
higher than 8oC. The use of screens lowers
pipe temperature to below 65oC, preventing
build up of root pressure.
Fixed screens are made of polyester with
several pin size holes spaced 20 x 20 cm or 10 x
10 cm/m2. This allows slight ventilation when
VPD is lower than 3 and prevents cold air from
reaching the plant heads. Some screens have a
manual system to allow partial opening and
closing. Overuse of screens can cause stretched
soft growth, which is more susceptible to
diseases, and may also reduce growth speed.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Wind side
vent P band Dead zone
large
-- slow acting
2 – 5oc
large
slow acting
<2 m/sec 2 – 3oc
small
fast acting
0.1 – 1.0oc
large
slow acting
<2 m/sec 2 – 3oc
Moveable screens are also used to reduce light
intensity (>700 watts/m2) in transition and hot
weather. This improves fruit quality and con-
trols growth speed.
Whitewash, fog and roof
sprinklers
Whitewash, fog and roof sprinklers are used to
reduce plant stress and prevent fruit sun-scald
by lowering the inside air temperature by 1 –
3oC. They are used when the outside or inside
temperature exceeds 26oC, RH is lower than
60% or VPD is higher than 10.
Whitewash reflects solar radiation, reducing
the amount of energy entering a greenhouse.
Whitewash as liquid “chalk” is applied through
the roof sprinklers at 30 to 124 kg/ha. De-
pending on the application rate, whitewash can
provide varying degrees of reflection.
Fog (water droplets smaller than 35 microns
dispersed at 1000 psi inside the greenhouse)
and roof sprinklers are used to reduce air
temperature by 1 to 2.5oC and elevate RH.
Both are activated during transitional weather
or during hot spells. Fog should be discontinued
in time to allow the crop to dry off before night
to prevent pathogen infection.
21
 Humidity Measurements of RH, VPD
and MDLA
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

Terminology
The term “humidity” refers to the water vapour
concentration in the air at a given temperature.
The amount of water vapour the air can hold
increases with temperature. For example, at
13.9oC, air can hold a maximum of 12 g/m3.
Condensation will occur if the air temperature
cools below 13.9oC. The temperature at which
condensation occurs is called the dew point.
Within the temperature range used for pepper
production (15 to 25oC), the maximum water
content of air increases about 1.0 gram per m3
for each 1°C rise in temperature.
In commercial operations, humidity control is
primarily concerned with encouraging plant
transpiration to maintain an “active climate”
while preventing condensation on the plant
tissue (dew point). Management of both relies
on measurement of water vapour content in the
air which can be expressed as a weight (or
mass) of water vapour per volume of air (g/m3
or kg/m3) or as a pressure exerted by water
vapour in the air expressed in pascals or milli-
bars (see Table 3-5).
The value of RH or VPD is calculated from the
measurements of temperature and water vapour
concentration of the air. Calculation of the
MDLA value requires measurement of the leaf
tissue temperature. In commercial operations, air
temperature and humidity are measured with a
wet and dry psychrometer, hygrometer or capaci-
tive meter. Embedded thermistors or infrared
thermometers measure leaf temperature.
Role of RH, VPD and MDLA in
Managing an Active Climate
A primary concern in controlling greenhouse
humidity is the establishment of an active
climate that stimulates plants to transpire. The
key driving force of transpiration is the differ-
ence in water vapour concentration between
the leaf stomata and the greenhouse air. The
following paragraphs discuss importance of the
RH, VPD and MDLA values in management of
an active climate.
Relative Humidity (RH) RH measures
the degree of air saturation by calculating the

Table 3-5. Common water vapour terms and units used in greenhouse industry.

Term Definition Unit

Absolute humidity Concentration of water vapour per unit volume of air. g/m3,
kg/m3
o
Dew point (Tdp) The temperature to which air must be cooled to produce C
condensation.
Relative humidity Measures degree of air saturation with moisture by calculating a %
(RH) ratio between the actual and saturated water vapour concentration
for a given temperature of air.
RH = actual water vapour concentration x 100%
saturated water vapour concentration
Moisture deficit or Difference between the water vapour pressure (or vapour density) kPa,
vapour pressure at the saturation point and the actual pressure (or density) at the millibar
deficit same air temperature. g/m3*
(VPD) VPD = saturated vapour pressure of air – actual vapour pressure
of air
Moisture deficit Difference between the water vapour pressure (or density) in the
leaf-air (MDLA) leaf stomata and the water vapour pressure (or density) in g/m3
greenhouse air. millibar
MDLA= saturated water vapour pressure of stomata – actual water
vapour pressure of air
*Throughout this guide, the value of VPD is presented in g/m3 unit.

22 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

ratio (%) of actual water vapour concentration
to saturated water vapour concentration at any
given temperature. The RH value does not
change predictably in response to a change in
temperature or concentration of water vapour.
The RH value is not a good indicator for man-
agement of the active climate.
Vapour Pressure Deficit (VPD) VPD is
a more sensitive indicator of the water vapour
conditions than RH. It measures the difference
in concentration of water vapour between
saturated air and greenhouse air at the same
temperature. The VPD value always changes in
direct response to a change in temperature or
water vapour concentration. Changes in VPD
are always followed by changes in the transpira-
tion rate; VPD is a much better indicator than
RH for the management of an active climate.
Moisture Deficit Leaf to Air (MDLA)
MDLA measures differences in concentration
of the water vapour between the leaf stomata
and the greenhouse air. It is the most sensitive
indicator of the transpiration rate and growers
should rely on its values for management of an
active climate.
Role of RH and VPD in
Management of Condensation
(Dew Point)
Avoiding condensation on plant tissue is equally
important to the management of an active
climate. Disease prevention and fruit quality
assurance rely on effective humidity manage-
ment. Condensation on plant tissue depends on
the extent of air saturation and the temperature
difference between the greenhouse air and the
plant tissue. Condensation occurs when the
water vapour in the air or surface of the plant
tissue is cooled down below the dew point. As
the RH of air increases, the temperature drop
that will trigger condensation decreases, creating
a risk of condensation (see Table 3-6). The
temperature difference required to cause conden-
sation depends only on degree of air saturation
with moisture and is independent of the tem-
perature of the greenhouse air (seeTable 3-7).
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
In contrast to the management of an active
climate, RH is a very good indicator for man-
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
agement of the dew point. The RH value
should always be considered in climate control
decisions designed to control condensation,
disease pathogens, and fruit quality. VPD can
also be used to predict condensation. There is
a range of VPD values, defined by changing
temperature, for each RH level and degree (oC)
drop in temperature (see Table 3-7).
Control of Humidity
Removing Humidity from
Greenhouse Air
Humidity of greenhouse air depends on tem-
perature, degree of condensation, and ventila-
tion. Ventilation and condensation reduces
humidity in the air whereas changes in tempera-
ture affect the capacity of air to hold water
vapour without affecting its absolute water
vapour content.
Water vapour diffuses from areas of higher to
lower concentration. For example, greenhouse
air is usually more humid than outside air due
to crop transpiration. The concentration differ-
ence between the greenhouse and outside
humidity drives the humid air outside through
opened vents. Similarly, temperature differences
between the inside and outside of the green-
house act as a driving force for water vapour
exchange. The rate of water vapour removal is
determined by the magnitude of this difference
(i.e. the larger the difference, the more water
vapour is removed).
During winter, spring, and fall, the temperature
of the glass or plastic screen surface is typically
a few degrees cooler than temperature of the
greenhouse air, causing condensation on its
surface. The extent of condensation is deter-
mined by the humidity level in the greenhouse
air and temperature differences between the
greenhouse air and the glass.
23
 Table 3-6. The relationship between RH and temperature drop or
differences that will cause condensation (dew point).
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

Temperature of the
RH values
greenhouse air
16 to 22 oC 80% 85% 90% 95%
Required temperature
difference between air and
a surface that will cause 3.5oC 2.5oC 1.6oC 0.8oC
condensation (dew point )

Table 3-7. The relationship between VPD and temperature drop or

differences causing condensation (dew point).

Temperature of the
VPD (g/m3) at following RH values
greenhouse air
o
C 80% 85% 90% 95%
16 2.7 2.0 1.3 0.7
17 2.9 2.2 1.4 0.7
18 3.1 2.3 1.5 0.8
19 3.3 2.5 1.6 0.8
20 3.5 2.6 1.7 0.9
21 3.7 2.8 1.9 1.0
22 3.9 2.9 1.9 1.0
Required temperature
difference between air and 3.5oC 2.5oC 1.6oC 0.8oC
a surface that will cause
condensation (dew point )

Seasonal Changes Affecting February and at the highest in September. In

Control of Humidity
The need for humidity control is largely deter-
mined by seasonal changes in outside tempera-
ture, RH, wind speed and wind origin, as well as
seasonal variation in canopy transpiration rates.
In winter, plants generate a relatively small
amount of water vapour (1.0 L/m2) per day,
reducing the need for humidity control. The
rate of transpiration increases during the spring
(1.5 L/m2/day) and summer (3.0 L/m2/day)
increasing the need for humidity control (see
Figure 3-3).
Temperature and RH
The amount of vent opening is determined by
differences in both temperature and water
content between the greenhouse and outside
air. The water vapour content of the outside air
is at the lowest value in late January, early
winter and early spring, differences in tempera-
ture and RH between the greenhouse and
outside air are the highest and therefore only a
small (1 to 4%) vent opening is needed to lower
the overall vapour pressure in the greenhouse.
In the fall, inside and outside air temperatures
are similar, and a larger vent opening (>20%) is
required to remove water vapour.
Air Origin
The percentage of water vapour concentration
in outdoor air is also related to the origin of air.
In B.C., continental air from the east (Interior) is
usually dry and contains little water vapour;
whereas marine air from the west has a higher
water vapour percentage. The origin of the air
affects the choice of the vent side and the
percentage of vent opening. A predominance of
continental air calls for a small vent opening on
the lee side whereas marine air requires a larger
vent opening using both lee and wind sides.

24 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 Daily Changes
2.5
Affecting Control

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

L/m2/day 2.0
1.5
1.0
.5
winter spring summer fall
Condensation
Figure 3-3. Seasonal humidity control by condensation and
ventilation without the use of screens
Wind Speed
2
The rate of water vapour removal (g/m /hr) from
the greenhouse increases with wind speed. Wind
speed affects the choice of vent opening (lee or
wind side). In general, at wind speed higher than 2
m/sec, ventilation is restricted to the lee side only;
whereas at wind speed lower than 2 m/sec, both
lee and wind sides can be used (see Table 3-8).
Strategies
Although less variable than sea-
sonal changes, the humidity levels
of the outside and greenhouse air
fluctuate over a 24-hour period.
The lowest humidity of outside air
is observed at sunrise and the
highest in the early afternoon due
Ventilation to increased transpiration. Humid-
ity inside the greenhouse depends
on the degree of venting and is
typically at the lowest level at mid-
day and highest before sunset.
Optimum daily humidity is main-
tained using heat and ventilation.
Exact applications of both depend on the season
and time of the day (see Table 3-9).

Table 3-8. Effects of seasonal climate conditions on methods of humidity control.

Methods of humidity control Outside air conditions affecting control
decisions
Venting
Seasons Main Method Water Wind
Lee Temp. Origin
Opening o vapour speed
C of air
%
or g/m3 m/sec
wind

winter condensation <1 lee <8 5.0 high continental

>2
condensation, <10
spring venting, lee <12 6.0 moderate marine
screening <2
mainly venting, >50 lee
condensation, and moderate marine
summer >15 11.8
fog, screening, wind <2
roof sprinklers
venting, >20 lee moderate
fall condensation and <12 10.0 <2 marine
wind

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 25

 Table 3-9. General principles of applying heat and ventilation for the
control of seasonal and daily variations in humidity.
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

24-hour Control Strategies (pipe temp in oC; vent opening in %)

Seasons
Night Pre-dawn Sunrise Mid-day Late afternoon Sunset Pre-night

winter pipe>50o pipe >50o pipe >50o pipe >50o pipe >50o pipe >50o pipe <40o
pipe>50o pipe>50o pipe t40o pipe <40o pipe <40o pipe< 40o pipe <40o
spring vent<10 vent <10 vent<10
lee side lee side lee side
pipe<40o pipe >50o pipe t40o pipe <40o pipe <40o pipe<40o pipe<40o
summer
vent <10 vent >20 vent >50 vent >30 vent>50 vent >20
lee & wind lee & wind lee & wind lee & reduced wind lee & wind lee & wind
pipe<40o pipe >50o pipe >40o pipe >40o pipe >40o pipe >40o pipe <40o
fall
vent <10 vent >20 vent >20 vent <10
lee side lee & wind lee & wind lee & wind

Avoiding Condensation Control strategies:

– Dew Point
In commercial operations, condensation on plant
tissue may occur during the night-to-morning
temperature transition (plant activation), on
clear and cold nights (radiation loss from the
plant tissue) and during venting when outside
temperature is below 8°C (aggressive venting).
Uneven distribution of humidity or temperature
within a greenhouse or among plant tissues can
increase the risk of condensation.
Preventing Condensation
During Plant Activation
The temperature of greenhouse air increases at
a faster rate than the temperature of plant
tissues. The larger the tissue mass; the slower to
warm up, e.g. leaves will warm up faster than
stems or fruit. The process of ramping up
temperature from night to morning can create a
temperature difference among different tissues
within the canopy. This happens when air
temperature is increased faster than 1oC/hr.
The risk of condensation becomes higher when
the morning sun raises air temperature at an
accelerated rate (e.g. 5oC/hr).
• Combine gradual temperature ramping (1oC/
hr) with a minimum vent to maintain RH
below 85%;
• Ensure that the plant temperatures are at
daytime targets prior to sunrise.
Preventing Condensation Due
to Radiation Loss
During clear, cold nights (winter, spring and
fall) the top of the plant canopy can lose heat
due to radiation loss. The cool plant surfaces
combined with the high humidity of the green-
house air can result in condensation on the
upper plant canopy.
Control strategies:
• Under clear, cold night conditions set aver-
age night time temperatures above the target;
• Ensure uniform tissue temperatures through-
out the canopy by raising the temperature
and humidity sensors closer to the upper
plant height especially when the crop has
reached the wire;
• Use screen to improve the uniformity of
tissue temperature; and
• Provide minimum venting to ensure RH level
is below 85%.

26 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Distribution of Humidity and
Temperatures
Temperature and RH are monitored continu-
ously in commercial greenhouses but under-
standing a greenhouse microclimate depends on
grower awareness. There are several considera-
tions impacting the distribution of humidity
and temperature within a greenhouse and the
plant canopy:
• Variable temperature distribution within a
greenhouse may be related to the age of the
greenhouse, its design and orientation or
effectiveness of the heating system;
• Inconsistent horizontal or vertical distribu-
tion of humidity within a greenhouse and
plant canopy;
• Seasonal temperature differences between
the greenhouse air and plant tissue;
• Inherent property of the transpiring tissue:
i.e. during active transpiration the boundary
layer of leaves has about 10% higher humid-
ity than the surrounding air.
Carbon Dioxide
Introduction
CO2 enrichment is a standard practice in com-
mercial operations to enhance yield. Research
and commercial CO2 enrichments have demon-
strated yield increases of 20 - 40%. In addition
to overall growth enhancement, high CO2
concentrations are also used to stimulate flower
initiation and fruit development.
The effectiveness of CO2 enrichment depends
on leaf area, light intensity, CO2 concentration,
duration of dosing, source of CO2, and the
design and calibration of the delivery system.
This chapter discusses strategies for CO2
enrichment as they relate to light intensity,
degree of ventilation and costs. It also intro-
duces the common greenhouse air pollutants
and discusses their effects on pepper growth.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Sources of CO2
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Most commercial greenhouses burn natural gas
in a boiler. Recovered flue gases can be used for
CO2 enrichment. Food grade liquid CO2 is also
used, primarily during early stage of pepper
growth as young pepper plants are most sensi-
tive to trace impurities in flue gases. Liquid
CO2 is the safest source of carbon dioxide as it
is practically free of impurities but it is the
more expensive source.
Combustion of 1 m3 of natural gas with 8.5 m3
of air produces 10 m3 of flue gases of which 1.8
kg is CO2. Other fuel sources such as propane
can be burned to generate CO2-rich flue gases.
For example, combustion of 1 liter of propane
produces 5.2 kg of CO2.
Measuring CO2 Applications
There are essentially two measurements used in
greenhouse vegetable production for dosing of
CO2: (1) rate of CO2 application, expressed in
kg/ha/hr, and (2) the amount (m3) of natural
gas burned per m2 per unit time, assuming 1.8
kg of CO2 per 1m3 of natural gas burned.
Information collected in the past few years
indicates that average gas combustion amounts
to 65m3/m2/ year with an average CO2 applica-
tion of 108kg/m2/year. The amount of CO2
applied for pepper production ranges typically
from 25 to 70 kg/hr/1000 m2. A full canopy
crop under bright light conditions requires 50kg
CO2/hr/ha to maintain ambient levels.
The “set point application” is measured in parts
per million (ppm). CO2 sensors monitor con-
tinuously the concentration of CO2 in the
greenhouse air and call for application when the
concentration of CO2 falls below the target.
The ppm values are often set above the target
to ensure that application rates are always
above the ambient level, especially under full
summer venting. Values of CO2 (ppm) are used
to control ventilation in the night as well as
during the day.
27
 Principles of CO2 Control is the primary strategy for optimization of
CO2 uptake and enhancement of plant
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

The optimum application rates of CO2 are growth.

defined primarily by light intensity, degree of
ventilation, cost of CO2 and crop demand.
Providing there are no other limitations, the
rate of uptake is influenced primarily by the
light intensity and the amount of CO2 present
in the surrounding air (see Figure 3-4).
The rate of CO2 uptake increases markedly
with an increase in light intensity, even at low
CO2 concentrations (i.e. 200 ppm). Rate of
assimilate production and plant growth is
significantly affected by seasonal and daily
changes in light intensity. The benefit of CO2
enrichment is particularly apparent when high
CO2 levels interact with high light intensities.
The relationship between light intensity and
CO2 concentration has important and practical
implications for commercial growers:
• Without enrichment, the level of CO2 in the
greenhouse air quickly depletes to below
ambient (<350 ppm) levels. Depletion of
CO2 in greenhouse air is a limiting factor for
plant growth.
• Under low light intensity (winter and early
spring), maintaining a high CO2 concentra-
tion (700 to 1000 ppm) in the greenhouse air
10
8 400 w/m
CO2 Uptake (g/m /hr)
• Under high light intensity (late spring and sum-
mer), concentrations of CO2 in the greenhouse
air can be reduced to economically acceptable
levels (350 to 500 ppm), and the pepper plants
will continue to produce enough assimilates to
support heavy fruit load and growth.
Seasonal and Daily
Strategies for CO2
Enrichment
Seasonal and daily fluctuations in light intensity
and the degree of ventilation are the two main
factors that define application rates of CO2 in
commercial pepper operations.
During winter and early spring, when light
duration and intensity is low, CO2 application
rates can reach 1000 to 1200 ppm with liquid
gas and up to 1000 ppm with flue gases. Al-
though CO2 set points are high, the proportion
of gas allocated to CO2 enrichment in the
winter is relatively low as compared to the
heating needs. This is due in part to the lack of
ventilation and low CO2 uptake. In south
coastal B.C., applications of CO2 in weeks 52
through 9 average only 0.2kg/m2/
week.
During late spring and summer,
when light intensity is high,

ventilation and cost of CO2

2

become the two primary factors

6
determining application rates.
During this period, concentrations
4 of CO2 in the greenhouse air are
typically maintained at 350 to 500
100 w/m ppm. Application rates of CO2
2
increase 5-fold as compared to
20 w/m winter to an average 1.0 kg/m2/
0 week (weeks 9 to 45). This is due
200 340 1000 to greater ventilation losses and
Concentration of CO2 (ppm)
increased CO2 uptake by the
Figure 3-4. Influence of CO2 concentration in the air on plant uptake. mature plant canopy.

28 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Uptake of CO2 takes place only in the presence Economics of CO2 Enrichment
of light, therefore CO2 applications should begin

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

1 - 2 hours after sunrise and stop before sunset.
These start and stop times will be partly influ-
enced by the amount of venting and screen use.
For example, under high light intensity and full
venting, CO2 would be stopped at sunset;
whereas, on a dull day with restricted venting
and screen use, the CO2 may be stopped 1 - 2
hours before sunset to allow plants to utilize the
remaining CO2 in the greenhouse. Table 3-10
summarizes strategies for CO2 applications.
The benefits of CO2 enrichment are limited
primarily by light intensity during winter and by
the degree of ventilation during summer. Use of
high CO2 concentrations during winter is very
cost-effective as little is lost through ventilation.
During late spring and summer, ventilation
increases. In this situation, the strategy for CO2
enrichment is based on a compromise between
the need for ventilation, cost of CO2 and
expected net returns. Table 3-11 illustrates the
expected yield increase as influenced by CO2
concentration at three levels of light intensity.

Table 3-10. Application rates and computer set points for CO2 as
related to seasonal and daily weather variations.

Application Vent Opening (%) and Target CO2 (ppm)

kg/ha/day Dawn Mid-morning Mid-day Late afternoon Dusk
winter 0% 0 0 0.1 0
15-20* 700 ppm 700 700 <500 <500
CO2 shut off CO2 shut off
spring 1 5-10 10 <5 <1
120-150 1000 1000 700 1000 <500
CO2 shut off
summer 1-5 10 100 <100 <50
200 1000 500 400 500 700

fall 1 5-10 10+ <5 <1

120-150 1000 1000 700 1000 <500
CO2 shut off
* Application rates and CO2 targets presented in this table are average as opposed to
specific recommendations and will vary with each individual greenhouse.

Table 3-11. General rule for estimating the % yield increase at

different CO2 concentrations and light levels

Yield increase (%) per 100 ppm increase in CO2

CO2 increment
1.2 (low light) 1.5 (normal light) 1.8 (high light)
200 – 300 30.0 37.5 45.0
300 – 400 13.3 16.7 20.0
400 – 500 7.5 9.4 11.3
500 – 600 4.8 6.0 7.2
600 – 700 3.3 4.2 5.0
700 – 800 2.4 3.1 3.7
800 – 900 1.9 2.3 2.8
900 – 1000 1.5 1.9 2.2
1000 – 1100 1.2 1.5 1.8
1100 – 1200 1.0 1.2 1.5
Adapted from: Groenten & Fruit Oct.94

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 29

 Although there are obvious benefits from
maintaining CO2 levels between 300 to 500
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
ppm during summer, maintaining higher con-
centrations may not be cost effective. Eco-
nomical levels of enrichment can be deter-
mined by comparing profit due to increased
yield with the additional cost of CO2.
Estimated yield increase can be calculated form
the following equation:
(% yield increase) y =
(1000/ppmCO2 )2 x light factor (1.2, 1.5 or 1.8)
Past experience of B.C. growers indicates that
CO2 concentration between 320 to 500 ppm
during summer provides cost-effective returns.
Design and Calibration of CO2
Delivery System
In the case of combustion-generated CO2, flue
gases extracted by centrifugal fans are mixed
with air and cooled below 65oC. They are then
blown into a transport duct and distributed
within the crop through poly-tubes. The distri-
bution system requires a fan with adequate
capacity, a header delivery system (15-20 cm
PVC) and 50 mm diameter poly-tubes.
Fan capacity can be estimated using a manom-
eter, a U-shaped plastic tube mounted on a
board and filled with water. Adequate fan
capacity will create 7 cm of pressure measured
at the start of the main distribution line and 4
cm of pressure measured at the end of the
poly-tube line.
Design of the header system should minimize
elbow pipes as they reduce gas pressure. If the
PVC header transport lines are buried, ensure
adequate pipe thickness to prevent collapse or
cracks and proper water-proofing with drain
traps to prevent condensation from restricting
the CO2 flow.
The distribution poly-tubes for CO2 should
have two holes (1 mm diameter) spaced 20-30
cm apart. Distance between the pores should
increase with the length of the tube to ensure
30 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
even distribution. Pores should be positioned
on the underside of the tube. Ensure that the
connections with the supply line are sealed and
the tube ends are well knotted. This will pre-
vent bending and twisting and ensure that the
tubes are stretched tight to prevent accumula-
tion of condensation water.
Position one poly-tube per row approximately
75 cm below the plant head. Trials have dem-
onstrated that CO2 concentration within the
canopy is increased by 20 to 25 ppm when
tubes are positioned 75 cm from the top of the
canopy as compared to tubes lying on the
ground. The rate of CO2 uptake is highest in
the middle to upper section of the canopy.
Sensor Calibration
Concentration of CO2 in commercial green-
houses is usually measured with an infrared gas
analyzer (IRGA). Although very accurate,
IRGA sensors tend to fluctuate with humidity
or temperature and therefore should be cali-
brated every three months.
There are different methods for calibrating the
CO2 meter. The simplest approach is to moni-
tor CO2 night readings from the computer
graphs. Under full venting the reading should be
between 320 ppm and 360 ppm. Reading below
or above these values indicate the need for
calibration of the CO2 meter.
The IRGA sensors can be calibrated using CO2
standards (0 to 400 ppm range for summer and
0 to 1000 ppm range for winter). Measure the
time span between the application of standards
and computer response. It should be less than
90 seconds, ideally 30 seconds over a distance
of 100 meters. Response time of the sensors
can be tested visually by measuring time re-
quired to pull smoke through the sensor tubes.
If it takes more than 90 seconds, CO2 applica-
tion will ‘over shoot’ the computer target set
point. Diluting the CO2 gases with extra air can
prevent exceeding the set point target.
In addition to sensor calibration, ensure that
the suction hose for CO2 sensors is clean and
free of cuts or holes. This can be checked with
an air compressor. The suction hose should be
placed below the screen and protected from
freezing or water vapour condensation.
Inaccurate sensor operation can lead to exces-
sive CO2 concentrations and plant damage.
This is of particular concern in new green-
houses that tend to be tightly sealed allowing
damaging levels of CO2 to accumulate quickly.
Concentration of CO2 in the greenhouse can
remain high or uneven despite well functioning
sensors. This can be due to leakage or blockage
of distribution tubes (poly-tubes). Occasionally
the spacing, number, or diameter of holes on the
poly-tubes may be outside of specification. A
portable CO2 sensor can be used to identify
areas with excessive CO2 concentration.
Using Heat Storage to
Optimize Use of CO2
Heat storage tanks collect extra heat from the
boilers during the day and release it during night.
This provides more CO2 from flue gases for
enrichment throughout the day. The capacity of
the heat buffer tank should be designed to meet
the heating demand of a spring night. Optimum
heat buffer capacity is approximately 100 m3/ha.
Depending on the storage capacity, 115 - 850 m3
of natural gas can be burned/ha/day.
Heat storage saves about 13% energy. Growers
using heat storage consume similar amounts of
gas as growers without heat storage but in-
crease their CO2 dose by one third. The effi-
ciency of heat storage is highest with a CO2
requirement of 340-400 ppm.
Air Pollutants
Sources of Air Pollution
Peppers are very sensitive to by-product gases
from incomplete natural gas combustion,
exhaust from propane forklifts, and welding
operations. They are also sensitive to natural
gas escaping from pipe joints and pollutants
released from PVC pipes heated above 65oC.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Vapours released from new PVC materials and
contaminants included in non-food grade CO2
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
can also reach damaging levels, especially under
restricted ventilation. Paint, clean-up chemi-
cals and pesticides on heat pipes may be vola-
tilized. Any or all of these pollutants can
negatively affect pepper growth.
Common Pollutants
The most common air pollutants associated
with incomplete combustion include ethylene
(C2H4), oxides of nitrogen (N2O and NO2,
collectively referred to as NOx), sulphur diox-
ide (SO2), ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO)
and hydrogen sulphide (H2S). Preventing air
pollutants from being formed depends on
maintaining optimum combustion conditions.
Multi-stage emission control systems then
prevent pollutants from leaving the flue.
Ethylene (C2H4)
Ethylene gas is produced as a result of incom-
plete combustion. It can also be found in flue
and vehicle exhaust gases, non-food grade liquid
CO2, and decaying plant material. Ethylene is a
plant hormone and can be very damaging to
plants, even at levels as low as 0.01 ppm. Con-
centrations above 0.01 ppm in the greenhouse
may cause accelerated ripening, reduced growth,
internode shortening, leaf streaking, flower
distortion and premature leaf and flower drop.
Ethylene measurement requires sophisticated
and expensive equipment such as portable
dragger pumps. Some growers have successfully
used ethylene-sensitive plants like tomatoes to
detect its presence.
Studies have shown that at high CO2 levels
there is a positive linear relationship between
concentration of carbon monoxide and ethyl-
ene. The relationship assumes that undiluted
flue gases with less than 5 ppm CO have lower
than 0.01 ppm concentration of C2H4. Most
commercial greenhouses use CO meters and
other inexpensive CO devices to monitor
indirectly the presence of ethylene.
31
 Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) multiple stem growth in the growing points
Very low levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are (witches’ broom) and complete termination of
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

always produced in the combustion process.
Plants display visible leaf and head damage
when exposed to concentrations higher than 0.5
ppm for one to two days, particularly under low
light intensity. Lower concentrations of NOx or
a shorter exposure period can reduce growth
speed and yield.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide is an indicator of incomplete
natural gas combustion. Although harmless to
plants, concentrations above 50 ppm are harm-
ful to humans. This gas is considered an “indica-
tor pollutant” as its concentration increases with
the decline in combustion efficiency. This gas is
monitored accurately and CO2 dosing is shut off
when CO concentration exceeds 2 ppm. Cali-
brate and verify CO sensors at least annually to
maintain a safe working environment and to
prevent crop losses (see Table 3-12).
Symptoms of Tissue Damage
Symptoms of tissue damage caused by indi-
vidual pollutants have been well documented.
Under greenhouse conditions, however, injuries
are usually caused by a combination of air
pollutants. Symptoms include: abrasions, bub-
bling, mottling, cupping and streaking of
leaves, abnormal flower development or drop,
the growing point. See colour photos 1, 2 and 3.
The plant’s sensitivity to air pollutants depends
on the cultivar, stage of growth, plant balance,
vigour, and climatic conditions. Plants grown
under low winter radiation without ventilation
tend to be more sensitive to harmful concentra-
tions of air pollutants than plants grown during
spring or summer light conditions when there is
more ventilation.
Measurement and Detection of
Air Pollutants
Concentration of selected pollutants can be
measured with a dragger tube. This device
utilizes a hand-held air pump that samples a set
volume of air over a calibrated tube (0.1ppm).
The presence of a pollutant is indicated by a
color change in proportion to the detected
level. These devices are effective in detecting
relatively high concentrations of pollutants.
Detection of low concentration of pollutants
requires more complex analytical lab tests.
Indicator plants are an effective and inexpen-
sive alternative. For example, tomato flowers
abscise even at very low ethylene concentra-
tions (0.05 ppm).

Table 3-12. Maximum acceptable concentrations of some noxious gases

for humans and plants (ppm).
Humans Plants Plants
Humans
Gas Short-term Short-term Long-term
8-Hour Limit
Exposure Exposure Exposure
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 15,000 5,000 4500† 1600*
Carbon monoxide (CO) 100 25 100† N/A
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) 5 2 0.1† 0.015*
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 10 - 0.01† N/A
Ethylene (C2H4) a a 0.01† 0.02*
Nitrous oxide (N2O) - 25 0.5† / 0.01 to 0.1‡ 0.25*
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) 1 - 0.2 to 2.0‡ 0.1*

Sources: *- Rijsdijk (1989); ** Workers’ Compensation Board of B.C. (2003); †- Langer et al. (1990);
‡ - Doring et al. (1990); a - ethylene acts as a simple asphyxiant through the displacement of oxygen.

32 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Strategies for Preventing Air
Pollutant Damage
• Verify CO alarm sensor every six months and
ensure boilers are calibrated at least once a
year.
• CO levels greater than 2 ppm in the flue gas
are indicators of incomplete combustion and
the possibility of air pollutants in the green-
house air. Flue gases containing this level of
CO should not be used for CO2 enrichment
until the boiler flame has been adjusted.
• When using both natural gas and alternate
fuels such as oil or diesel, recalibrate the
burner each time the fuel is switched. Allow
the recommended time to elapse after
switching back to natural gas, even as long as
several weeks, until flue gases are free of
hydrocarbon residues.
• Ensure CO2 fans are turned off during
alternate fuel use to prevent air pollutants
from the boiler room being drawn into the
CO2 distribution system.
• Supply 10 m3 of air to boiler for each 1 m3 of
natural gas burned to ensure efficient com-
bustion. Provide outside air intake openings
of 6.25 cm2 per 2500 BTU furnace rating.
• Use liquid CO2 if feasible at start of the
crop. When there is limited ventilation avoid
dosing flue gases at CO2 concentrations
higher than 900 ppm.
• If pollutants are suspected, turn off the CO2
dosing and set a minimum vent if outside
temperatures permit. Monitor crop changes
in the growing point. Tag a number of plants
and mark the most recent leaf development
recording any changes over the period of a
week.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Irrigation and Nutrition
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Volume and Frequency of
Irrigation Cycles
Water uptake is determined largely by transpira-
tion rate. Almost all water taken up by the
plant is lost through transpiration and only a
minor proportion is used for growth. Light
intensities and related VPD’s drive transpira-
tion rates; therefore, optimal volume and
frequency of irrigation cycles will vary with
light intensity. The growth stage of the plant
and the volume and physical property of the
growing medium will also influence irrigation
requirements.
Total Irrigation
Irrigation volume changes seasonally from less
than 1.0 L/m2/day in the winter and early
spring, up to 5.0 L/m2/day in the spring and to
over 5.0 L/m2/day during the summer. Volume
in L/m2/day during winter, early spring and fall
can be calculated by multiplying accumulated
light in joules/cm2/day X 3. From April to
September, volume can exceed this formula. By
continuously monitoring the percentage over-
drain, the grower can assess and control the
accuracy of the irrigation volume.
The growth stage of the crop, its vigour, fruit
load and other factors can affect the relation-
ship between light and water uptake. A tall,
rapidly growing crop with a large canopy will
require more irrigation than a slow growing or
newly established crop. A high fruit load can
substantially increase plant demand for water.
Frequency and Volume of Individual
Irrigation Cycles
Similar to total irrigation volume, the frequency
and volume of individual irrigation cycles
changes with different light intensities. During
winter and fall, relatively few irrigation cycles
are applied and the volume of individual cycles
varies from 120 to 150 ml. Bright, sunny
weather promotes transpiration and increases
demand for more frequent irrigations with
reduced volume of individual cycles (up to 80
33
 ml). During mid-day, when light intensities are The frequency with which irrigation is applied
highest, the time period between irrigations and and drained affects the aeration of the root
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

the volume of each cycle must be reduced even
further (see Table 3-13). By monitoring over-
drain distribution throughout the day, the
grower can assess the accuracy of the irrigation
frequencies and volume of the cycles.
When growing in sawdust, water retention by
the sawdust is an important factor in determin-
ing the frequency and duration of irrigation.
Finer sawdust will retain more moisture than
coarser and therefore will require less frequent
irrigation.
The time between irrigation cycles must be long
enough to allow complete drainage but avoid
water deficit. Increasing the number of irriga-
tion cycles ensures adequate supply of water,
prevents excessively high concentrations of the
nutrient solution in the drain, and replenishes
the void spaces on the sawdust with water.
system. As roots respire, the content of carbon
dioxide increases in the void spaces of sawdust.
The flow of irrigation solution will fill some
voids temporarily displacing the carbon dioxide
with a new supply of air.
Control of Irrigation
The most common methods of irrigation con-
trol in commercial greenhouses are based on
time and light levels. Alternative methods
include monitoring changes in the plant weight
or moisture content of the medium.
Control Based on Time
In this system, the volume and frequency of
irrigation cycles are set manually. This is often
used during establishment of the crop in the
winter season. It is also used to apply night
irrigation throughout the season.

Table 3-13. Summary of seasonal and daily control strategies for irrigation
timing, volume and frequency; including the amounts of accumulated light required to initiate
subsequent watering cycles.

Seasonal and 24-hr Control Strategies for Irrigation

Volume of total LATE
Production periods SUNRISE MID-DAY SUNSET NIGHT
(L/m2/day) and AFTERNOON
and range of light individual (mL)
intensity for each irrigation cycle
period Start time (hr) Stop time (hr) Night
accumulated light Time (hr) Time (hr)
(joules/cm2/day) after sunrise before sunset watering*
(joules) that % daily feed % daily feed
% daily feed % daily feed % daily feed
triggers next % daily OD % daily OD
% daily OD % daily OD % daily OD
watering

winter (Dec-Jan) <1.0 L

2-3 hr 3 hr
to week 4 100-120 ml 11:00 -14:00 15:00-16:00
20% 0% 10%
200-300 350-400 70% 0%
5% 0% 0%
10% 0%

spring (Feb-April) < 5.0 L 2-2.5 hr 2 hr

10:00 - 15:00 16:00-17:30
weeks 5 - 18 120-150 ml 15% 0%
70% 15% 0%
540-1800 100-120 10% 0%
20% 5% 0%

summer (May-Aug) >5.0 L 2-2.5 hr 1.5 hr

9:00-16:30 17:30-19:00
weeks 19 - 35 80-100 ml 20% 0%
65% 15% 0%
1100-2700 70-120 15% 0%
25% 10% 0%

fall (Sept-Nov) < 5.0 L/ 2-2.5 hr 2.5 hr

10:00-15:00 16:00-17:00
weeks 36-46 120-150 ml 15% 0%
75% 10% 0%
380-1400 100-150 10% 0%
20% 5% 0%
Note: This table illustrates general principles of irrigation control as opposed to specific recommendations. See Pepper Production;
Winter to Fall for more detailed information.
* Night watering is typically applied only when pipe temperature is high and screens are not used.

34 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Control Based on Light Levels
Accumulated light is used to determine

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

the total irrigation volume and to initi-
ate the next irrigation cycle. A new cycle
is typically initiated after each 65 to 120
accumulated joules/cm2 of light. For
this system to be effective, the light
sensors need to be cleaned at least every
three months.
Irrigation control based on both accu-
mulated light and time settings is the
most commonly adopted practice in
commercial operations. This control Figure 3-5. Overdrain monitoring station
strategy provides flexible frequency of
irrigation cycles that follow closely the
radiation curve. Design a recording sheet that tracks both total
Control Based on Monitoring the Per- feed and drain and the hourly over-drain per-
centage and Distribution of Over-drain centage. Mark both feed and drain containers
with 100 mL increments for quick and simple
How to set and measure the over-drain (OD) monitoring of feed and drain volume (see
Set up a minimum 4 to a maximum 15 over- Figure 3-5).
drain stations/ha and average the collected Total over-drain
data. This ensures that adjustments in the This system measures the amount of irrigation
irrigation schedule or volume are based on applied and drained from the media and calcu-
results obtained from a representative sample lates the total percentage of over-drain and the
size. Locate the stations in the middle of rows percentage distribution of over-drain through-
and ensure the drainage station platform is out the day.
level, as platform tilt can negatively influence
drainage figures. Much like accumulated light, the total percent-
age of over-drain will vary both seasonally and
Table 3-14. Distribution of the percentage daily. During winter, total over-drain volume is
over-drain during a sunny spring day. 15 to 25% of the supplied feed volume;
whereas during summer, it is 35 to 50% of the
feed volume (see Table 3-14).
Time OD (%)*
07:00 0% Within each season, the total percentage of over-
08:00 1% drain can be significantly affected by the daily
09:00 3% changes in accumulated light. During a bright
10:00 6%
11:00 12%
sunny day, the total over-drain can range from 30
12:00 30% to 50% of the feed; whereas during a dark day, it
13:00 25% will be reduced to 10 to 20% of the feed.
14:00 22%
15:00 25% The total percentage of over-drain can also be
16:00 15% adjusted based on the EC targets in the over-drain.
17:00 10%

*The percentage value for each time period may vary daily
and seasonally; the distribution pattern should stay the same.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 35

 Daily distribution of over-drain
To ensure optimal moisture supply throughout
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
the day, the pattern of over-drain distribution
should follow closely the pattern of the light
curve: i.e. increase until mid-day and decline
thereafter. Monitoring the distribution of over-
drain volume throughout the day is therefore as
critical as monitoring its total volume.
In the morning, moisture content in the growing
media should be low and the first over-drain (1
to 2%) should occur only after the third irriga-
tion. Higher moisture content at this time of
the day can cause excessive root pressure,
which can reduce fruit quality and increase the
incidence of pathogen infection.
Most of the over-drain should occur between
12:00 to 16:00 hours. In the winter, expect 50
to 65% over-drain during mid-day. In the spring
and summer, under high radiation and maxi-
mum fruit loads, mid-day over-drain will range
from 30 to 50%. In the fall, the percentage
over-drain will decrease in response to declin-
ing radiation and plant vigour and deteriorating
physical properties of the growing media. Fully
or partially composted sawdust will hold more
water than the fresh sawdust.
Timing of the last two irrigations of the day
depends on available radiation. Apply the last
two irrigations approximately two hours after
sunset on a sunny day and two hours before
sunset on a dark day.
Effects of Excessive Frequency
and Inadequate Volume of
Irrigations
Too much moisture can lead to a lack of oxygen
in the rooting media. Roots need oxygen for
breaking down assimilates and generating the
energy required for uptake of water and nutri-
ents, nitrogen assimilation, growth and other
energy-requiring processes. Root growth and
function can be restricted as a result of over-
watering. Low oxygen level in the rooting media
can cause root rot and breakdown of the media.
36 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Optimize oxygen supply by:
• Maintaining a careful balance between the
supply and demand for water. Ensure ample
oxygen supply during night and avoid over-
watering during periods of high transpiration.
• The temperature of the irrigation solution is
an important factor in determining the
amount of oxygen available to roots. The
higher the temperature of irrigation solution,
the lower the oxygen content. Aerate and
control the temperature and proportion of
re-circulated solution used for irrigation.
Water deficit causes stomatal closure. This
affects assimilate production and the resulting
uptake and distribution of water and nutrients
to the rest of the plant.
Irrigation Design and
Layout
The irrigation system should be designed to
meet the needs of the plant at high fruit loads
and transpiration rates. Assuming one dripper
per plant, the capacity of a single dripper
should be at least 1.5 L/m2/hr, with a mini-
mum of 5 - 6 and maximum 10 - 12 irrigation
cycles /hr.
Each greenhouse should be equipped with two
irrigation pumps. These are used in rotation and
provide a backup system in the event that one
fails. All components of the irrigation system
including pumps, filters, main and lateral lines
should be built with high quality and easily-
maintained components. The main irrigation
lines (7.5 – 20 cm PVC) that are buried should
be strong enough to withstand ground and
water hammer pressure. Row header lines (7.5
cm) and row lines (1.9 cm) should be made
from durable black polyethylene (see Figure
3-6). White PVC is not suitable for exposed
lines because it fosters algae growth under high
light intensity.
The irrigation solution is distributed to the
plants through various sizes of drip tubes. A
 systems. Replace a
system that

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

reaches 25% or
higher variability
in emitter output.
Yield losses and
decrease in fruit
quality outweigh
the cost of re-
placement.
Pressure-compen-
sating emitters are
activated only
after water pres-
sure at the emitter
Figure 3-6. Layout of a greenhouse irrigation system reaches 4 to 7 psi.
This ensures a
small diameter drip tube (0.1 cm) can be used consistent output. The effectiveness of this
where the water source is clean. A larger tube system depends on removing leaking emitters
diameter (0.15 cm) is preferred as it reduces the and keeping lines charged with solution at all
risk of plugging. Trickle or pressure emitters are times.
attached to the drip tubes.
Proper profiling of the ground and drainage chan-
For trickle irrigation, a grooved plastic stake, nels are important components of an efficient
provides accurate placement of the irrigation irrigation system The rows should not be sloped
stream on the block and simultaneously aerates more then 0.5%. Cover drainage channels with
the water. It is a simple and reliable system, but plastic that is white on the top and black under-
the output in ml/hr can be variable. Output neath. A slight slope of 0.1 to 0.2% is all that is
variability in a new trickle system can reach required to provide adequate drainage from bags
10%; increasing to 25% in 2-year or older and nutrient leachate recovery. If the slope is too
great, it can have a negative effect on water distri-
bution between and within slabs (see Figure 3-7).

Irrigation Dripper
Rockwool Block
on Sawdust

Heating Pipe

Irrigation Pipe
White Polyfilm
Transversal slope
Floor Covering for slab drainage 0 to 3%
Drainage
Gully

Figure 3-7. Growing slab/drainage collection layout

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 37

 Nutrition
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Tanks and Fertilizer Mixing
Day storage tank
Day storage tanks are usually large poly-lined
steel containers. A storage tank should have the
capacity to store two days’ water supply required
for peak conditions, i.e.10 – 12 L/m2/day. In-
ground metal tanks and metal tanks located in
the header house must be protected from con-
densation and exposure to corrosive fertilizers
and acids used for making up feed solutions.
Tanks should be equipped with a circulation
pump raised approximately 20 cm off the
bottom and a drain to remove organic matter
and other suspended materials from the bot-
tom. To ensure aeration, allow returned water
to drop 2 to 3 ft into the tank. A provision for
warming or cooling the nutrient solution will
provide better control of the root environment.
Stock Solution Tanks
A typical large greenhouse has two solution
tanks “A” & “B”, each with 1000 to 4000L
capacity, and a smaller “C” pH concentrate
tank of 100-400L plus an injector system. One
tank is sufficient for small greenhouses when
the concentration of the fertilizer solution does
not exceed the feed solution by more than X15.
The stock solutions in tanks A and B are con-
centrated up to X100. In these tanks, fertilizers
containing calcium (e. g. calcium nitrate) can-
not be mixed with fertilizers containing phos-
phates (monopotassium phosphate) or sul-
phates as they will form insoluble precipitates
of calcium phosphates and calcium sulphates.
These precipitates can plug the drip tubes and
lead to nutrition deficiency. Other methods to
prevent formation of precipitates include:
adding small amounts of nitric acid to A & B
tank, dissolving fertilizers individually in hot
water before adding to tanks and filling tanks
with water before adding dissolved fertilizers
and agitating while mixing.
38 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Feeding Formulas
Three feeding formulas are used to fertilize
peppers (see Table 3-15):
• “Start feed” is used to establish the plant
until the beginning of harvest;
• “Picking formula” is used until the irrigation
volume increases to 5 L/m2/day;
• “High daily volume formula” is used in early
summer when the daily feed volume exceeds
5 L/m2/day for an extended period of time.
Supplemental Nutritional Notes
• Peppers are sensitive to high sodium (Na)
concentrations. Do not exceed 5 mmol of Na
per liter.
• Manganese (Mn) is available to plants from
the feed and sawdust media. Plants absorb
Mn more readily at low pH (<5) than at high
pH (>7). Prolonged periods of low pH (5
and lower) in the root zone can lead to
manganese toxicity. Manganese toxicity
appears as burn spots on the leaves near the
top of the plant. Warm areas of the green-
house where there is a high transpiration rate
tend to show the damage first.
• Boron (B) is absorbed only by the young root
tips and poor root growth can lead to a B
deficiency. B deficiency is expressed by a
yellow discoloration of the growing tips 30
cm below the head and by browned leaf
veins. The latter condition is highly visible
when the leaves are held to the light. Stimu-
lating root pressure and reducing the pH will
aid the boron uptake process.
• Low light levels and VPD less than 3 during
the first set can negatively affect calcium
(Ca) uptake, reducing thickness of cell walls.
The resulting fruit has reduced shelf life due
to premature water loss and fruit shrinkage.
Monitor the nutrient solution to ensure ions
that can influence Ca uptake are in balance
(NH4, K, Na, Cl and Mg).
 Table 3-15. A general guideline for stock solutions of feeding formulas for peppers
grown in sawdust and rockwool. Each tank holds 1000 L of concentrate

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

which is diluted X 100 to make up feeding solution. Final volume of feed
solution is 100,000 L @ EC 3.0.

High Daily Volume

Start Feed Formula Picking Formula Formula !5 L/m2
Tank A
calcium nitrate 125 kg 100 kg 100 to 120 kg
potassium nitrate 25 kg 25 kg 25 kg
iron 6% 2 kg 1.5 kg 1.5 kg
ammonium nitrate* 4 kg 0 to 2 kg 0 to 4 kg
Tank B
potassium nitrate 35 kg 50 kg 25 to 50 kg
monopotassium phosphate 25 kg 20 kg 15 to 20 kg
potassium sulphate -- 10 kg 0 to 10 kg
magnesium sulphate 37 kg 25 kg 25 to 30 kg
manganese sulphate 170 grams 170 grams 100 to 200 grams
zinc sulphate 150 grams 150 grams 100 to 150 grams
boron 350 grams 350 grams 300 to 350 grams
copper sulphate 19 grams 14 grams 10 to 20 grams
sodium molybdate 12 grams 12 grams 5 to 12 grams
Note: Modifications to each formula should be based on results of weekly or bi-weekly analyses of over-drain and/or
feed.
* Use ammonium nitrate addition if pH in the slab needs to be lowered and when the feed water is buffered with
bicarbonates.
Adapted from: Diagnosis of Mineral Disorders in Plant Volume 3 -- Glasshouse Crops.
By G. Winsor and Peter Adams.

Electrical Conductivity (EC) nitrate ions do not. The EC of a solution

When dissolved in water, fertilizers (inorganic
salts) ionize forming charged particles called
ions: cations have a positive charge, anions, a
negative charge. Potassium nitrate dissolves
forming an ionized solution of K+ cations and
NO3- anions. Ionized solutions can conduct
electricity whereas distilled or de-ionized
solutions cannot. The ionized solutions of
some fertilizers conduct better then others and
some solutions, e.g. urea, do not conduct
electricity at all.
Both the total concentration and composition
of dissolved salts affect the electrical conduc-
tivity (EC) of a solution. EC of a solution
increases with an increase in the total concen-
tration of the solutes but not all solutes are
equal. For example, potassium ions strongly
influence electrical conductivity, whereas
reflects the aggregate conductivity of all the
solutes present and does not differentiate
between them.
The EC is expressed most frequently in
milliSiemens per cm of solution (mS/cm).
A typical EC feed for peppers ranges from 2.4
to 3.5 mS. Osmotic pressure created in this
range of nutrient concentration optimizes
absorption of the nutrients by the roots.
Measurement and
Interpretation of EC Value
EC is affected by temperature of the solution
and mineral composition of the water. EC
value increases by 2% in response to a tempera-
ture increase of 1oC. Modern EC meters have
a built-in feature that adjusts the EC value
according to the solution temperature. Older

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 39

 models rely on standard reading taken typically micronutrients by 25% to maintain their target
at 25oC and may require correcting. The water levels. All changes to EC’s should be done
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

source has its own EC value. Depending on the incrementally over the course of a week.
amount of naturally dissolved ions in the water,
the EC can range from 0.1 to 1.0 mS/cm. The Effect of EC on Growth Balance
EC value of the water should be subtracted The strength and composition of the feed
from the EC value of the feed and drain. expressed as EC, in conjunction with light
levels, can be an effective management tool for
Seasonal and Daily Trends in EC steering the plant into vegetative or generative
Feed EC is usually high (3.0) during low light balance:
intensity in winter, spring and fall and is reduced
to about 2.5 during high light intensity in late fall • low EC (<2.8) promotes vegetative growth;
and summer (see Table 3-16). Feed EC can fall • high EC (>3.0) promotes generative growth,
to 2.5 during sunny/cloudy weather when fruit specifically initiation of flowers.
loads are high, drain EC is lower than 4.5, and
feed volume is >5 L/m2/day (see Table 3-17). Effect of EC on Taste and
Weekly nutrient analysis of the drain solution
Shelf Life
(OD) is recommended, especially during early
establishment, in late fall and when using a re- EC has a direct influence on the taste, shelf life
circulation system. When feed EC falls from 3.0 and size of fruit:
to 2.5, the concentration of micronutrients is
• low EC (<2.5) is associated with cuticle
reduced. Increase concentrations of
cracking and reduced shelf life;
• high EC (>3) produces fruit with a high
Table 3-16. Seasonal range of EC targets for concentration of sugars and other taste
feed and drain. determining solutes;
Feed Drain Volume
• higher EC (>5) can reduce fruit size and
Winter 3.0 – 3.5 3.0 - 4.5 <5L/m 2
increase incidence of BER.
Spring 2.8 – 3.0 3.2 - 3.5 >5L/m2
Monitoring Crop Nutrition
Summer 2.5 – 3.0 3.0 - 3.5 >5L/m2
Monitor EC of the feed and drain daily. The
Fall 2.8 – 3.0 3.2 - 3.5 <5L/m2 frequency of nutrient analysis depends on
management of the drain; i.e. waste or re-
circulation. When draining to waste, analyze
Table 3-17. Daily range in feed EC for bright
and dull days.
the leachates weekly for lower than 5L/m2/day
feed volume, and reduce to a minimum bi-
Feed volume Feed volume weekly for higher than 5L/m2/day feed vol-
<5L/m2 >5L/m2 ume. When re-circulating, analyze the over-
Dull Day * Bright Day**
Dawn 2.5 – 3.0 2.5 – 3.0
drain solutions weekly to prevent potential ion
imbalances (see Table 3-18). Analysis of the
Mid-day 2.5 – 3.0 2.5 – 2.8
drain is the basis for determining the nutritional
Afternoon 2.5 – 3.0 2.5 – 2.8
requirements of the crop. Feed and tissue
Night 2.8 - 3.0 3.0 – 3.5 analyses are done occasionally, and provide
* Dull Day; radiation level at 400 watts, daily cumulative light ~1000 joules
valuable information on possible macro- or
** Bright Day; radiation level at 800 watts, daily cumulative light ~ 2000 joules micro-elements deficiencies or excesses (see
Table 3-19).

40 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Table 3-18. Target over-drain levels in growth stages of the crop, climate control set
drain to waste and re-circulation system. points and disease or pest control practices

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

need to be considered prior to implementing
EC, pH and Drain To Waste and
Nutrient Ions Re-circulation Targets
any changes.

EC mS/cm 2.5 to 3.5 The pH

PH 5.5 to 6.0
The pH value is a measure of acidity or alkalin-
NH4+ mmol/L 0.1 to 0.5
K+ mmol/L 6.0 to 9.0 ity of the solution. The solution is acidic if the
K/Ca ratio >1.5 pH is less than 7, neutral if equal to 7, and
Ca++ mmol/L 5.5 to 8.5 alkaline if greater than 7. The pH value deter-
Na+ mmol/L 1.0 to 5.0 mines, among other things, the solubility of
Mg++ mmol/L 2.25 to 4.25
NO3- mmol/L 15 to 25
various nutrients in the solution and their
Cl- mmol/L 1.0 to 5.0 availability for root uptake. At optimal feed pH
SO2= mmol/L 2.5 to 5.0 (5.8 to 6.2), most of nutrients are readily
HCO3- mmol/L 0.1 to 1.0 available to the plant (see Figure 3-8). Opti-
P mmol/L 0.6 to 1.2 mum drain pH ranges from 6.2 to 6.8.
Fe µmol/L 15 to 30
Mn µmol/L 5 to 10 Nitrogen source (NH4 or NO3), can influence
Zn µmol/L 5 to 10
B µmol/L 45 to 75 the pH of the root zone and drain. Varying
Cu µmol/L 0.5 to 1.5 proportions of ammonium in the feed can
Mo µmol/L 0.5 change the pH in the drain (see Table 3-20).

Measuring and Buffering the

Table 3-19. Target levels for tissue analysis
of sweet peppers.
Feed Solution
Collection of feed and drain samples is de-
Element Normal Range Deficiency scribed on page 36. Daily monitoring of EC
Nitrogen % 3.5 to 5.5 2
Phosphorus % 0.35 to 0.8 0.2
and pH of both feed and drain is recom-
Potassium % 3 to 6 2.0 mended.
Calcium % 1.5 to 3.5 1.0
Magnesium % 0.35 to 0.8 0.3 There are a number of buffers that can be used
Sulphur % 0.3 to 0.6 0.2 to maintain the feed solution within the opti-
Boron ppm 30 to 90 20 mum pH range of 5.8 to 6.2. The direction of
Iron ppm 80 to 200 60
Manganese ppm 100 to 300
pH change is determined by the concentration
20
Zinc ppm 40 to 100 25 of bicarbonates and carbonates in the water.
Copper ppm 6 to 20 4 Concentrations below 50 mg/L can cause pH
Molybdenum* fluctuation in the drain and bicarbonates or
*Limited information on molybdenum. Younger leaves
carbonates may need to be added to stabilize
become yellow green associated with pH<5. the feed formulation. Acidification is usually
required to correct pH if the bicarbonate
concentration is above 100 mg/L.
The feed composition needs adjustment when Buffering the day storage tank with 2.5 – 5 kg
the content of a specific ion in a drain changes of potassium bicarbonate per 100,000L of feed
10 to 25%. Plotting the distribution of indi- solution can stabilize the pH in the root zone
vidual ions over time helps identify nutritional and in the drain. Sodium bicarbonate can also
trends and provides long-term information for be used providing the sodium concentration
making irrigation management decisions. The remains within the optimum drain targets.
Carbonates should be introduced in the day

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 41

 used to dose acids or bases
and the solution is usually
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

diluted 10 to 15 times by
volume.

Water Quality
The suitability of water for
greenhouse use is determined
by pH, EC and the presence
and concentration of selected
ions, suspended solids, and
micro-organisms (see Table 3-
Figure 3-8. How medium pH affects the availability of plant nutrients. 21). Water quality failing the
guidelines may not be suitable
storage tank at least 12 hours before mixing the for greenhouse use without
feed. Dosing bicarbonates in the feed tanks is treatment or modification.
not recommended as precipitates can form and Key Unwanted Ions
plug the dripper emitters.
Sodium and chloride are the two key unwanted
Phosphoric and nitric acid are the most fre- ions. At concentrations above acceptable thresh-
quently used buffers when the feed solution is olds, these ions can compete for uptake of
too alkaline. They provide nutrients as well as essential ions and restrict plant growth. Calcium
lowering the pH. Sulphuric acid and hydro- (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphate (SO4) and
chloric acid can also be used providing they are occasionally trace elements can also be found in
horticultural grade and free of contaminants. significant concentrations in water. Water sam-
Sulphuric acid should not be used if the natural ples should be analyzed and the results factored
water source already contains sulphates in into the composition of greenhouse feed.
concentrations higher than 100 mg/L (ppm).
Frequency of water analysis depends primarily
When re-circulating, monitor the chloride and
on the water source and past records. For
sulphate ions to prevent their build up. The
example, water quality from sources affected by
amount of acid required to maintain pH of 5.8
seasonal rainfall should be monitored fre-
to 6.2 depends on the water quality and con-
quently whereas municipal water need only be
centration of the fertilizers. The “C” tank is
monitored occasionally.
Table 3-20. Preferred nitrogen sources for pH control
Water Sources
Range of pH in Nitrogen form and % NH4+ of total Irrigation volume
OD source nitrogen feed L/m2/day Water used for production of
Calcium nitrate,* greenhouse vegetables may
>6.5 ammonium nitrate or 8% <5 originate from the following
urea
Calcium nitrate with sources: municipal drinking
6.2 – 6.5 1.1% NH4+ ; decrease water, rain, wells, dugouts,
>5
ammonium nitrate or 4%
urea streams, rivers, lakes, re-
Reduce calcium nitrate circulation water and a combi-
with 1.1% NH4+;
6.0 – 6.2
remove all ammonium
4% >5 nation of the above.
nitrate or urea
Use only NH4+ free <4% Municipal Water
>5
<6.0 calcium nitrate Although often used in green-
* Regular grade calcium nitrate has 15.1% nitrogen (1.1% in the form of ammonium) house production, municipal

42 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Table 3-21. BCMAFF* Greenhouse Irrigation Well Water
Water Quality Guidelines Well water can contain dis-

3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

solved methane in concentra-
Parameter Upper Limit Optimum Range
pH < 5.0 or > 10.0 5–7
tions higher than 0.1 mg/L.
EC 1.0 mS/cm < 0.1 mS/cm The drippers can plug when
SAR (sodium absorption ratio) 4 mg/L** 0 to 4 mg/L bacteria oxidize the methane.
Alkalinity 200 mg/L 0 to 100 mg/L
Bicarbonate equivalent 150 mg/L 30 to 50 mg/L A similar problem may occur
Calcium 120 mg/L 40 to 120 mg/L
Magnesium 24 mg/L 6 to 24 mg/L
in the presence of iron (Fe
Iron 5 mg/L 1 to 2 mg/L >0.1mg/L). This can be
Manganese 2.0 mg/L 0.2 to 0.7 mg/L solved by water aeration or
Boron 0.8 mg/L 0.2 to 0.5 mg/L chemical pre-treatment.
Zinc 2.0 mg/L 0.1 to 0.2 mg/L
Copper 0.2 mg/L 0.8 to 0.15 mg/L High silicon (Si) levels in
Molybdenum 0.07 mg/L 0.02 to 0.05 mg/L well water can foster algae
Sulfate 240 mg/L 24 to 240 mg/L growth, especially when
Chloride*** 140 mg/L 0 to 50 mg/L
Sodium 50 mg/L 0 to 30 mg/L stored in an uncovered tank,
resulting in plugged irriga-
* B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries tion lines.
** mg/L = ppm.
*** Chlorine used for water purification is different from chloride ions.
Water supplied for greenhouse use should contain less than 1 ppm of chlorine. The quality of ground water
Note: For more detailed information see the BC Trickle Irrigation Manual, 1999 from shallow wells can
change throughout the
drinking water can be expensive and its compo- season in response to rainfall cycles. Concentra-
sition can change depending on seasonal de- tions of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
mands. This can affect the composition and sulphate (SO4) can rise to the point where the
buffering requirements of the greenhouse feed. feed formula may require adjustment. Elevated
Most municipal water has low micro-organism concentration of these ions can also increase the
levels as a result of chlorination and filtration. possibility of precipitates’ forming and plugging
High concentrations of chlorines can influence the dripper lines. High concentrations of sodium
pH stability and directly affect root health. (Na) and chloride (Cl) are found occasionally in
well water and can negatively affect irrigation
Rainwater suitability.
Water captured from the greenhouse roof can
supply a fraction of greenhouse water demand. Dugouts, Streams, Rivers, and Lakes
The percentage of rainwater supply can be Water collected from a variety of surface
calculated based on an average rainfall formula: sources can also be used for irrigation. Organic
rainfall 1mm = 1 liter/m2 (for B.C.: 1000 mm suspensions in these water sources are often
rainfall/year=10,000 m3/ha). high and may include root disease organisms
such as Pythium spp. Surface water runoff in
Rainwater may contain soil particles that carry agricultural areas also has the potential for
pathogens. It may also contain high levels of fertilizer and herbicide contamination. Water
Zn originating from galvanized steel construc- originating from these sources requires sand
tion. Zn concentrations higher than 2.0 mg/L filtration and purification to prevent algal
can reduce yield significantly (up to 10%). blooms and waterborne pathogens.
Rainwater has a low buffering capacity.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 43

 Growing Media
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
Media for Propagation
Rockwool “kiem plugs” (2x2x2.7 cm; 240 /
tray) and propagation blocks (7.5x7.5x6.5 cm)
are the standard seeding media for peppers.
Peat blends can also be used in 10 cm diameter
plastic pots. A good medium for seedlings or
young plants must be uniform, well-drained,
pathogen-free and have good moisture and air
holding capacity.
Properties of a Good Growing
Medium
There are a number of excellent hydroponic
media including: sawdust, rockwool, perlite,
pumice, foam and coco-fibre. The key charac-
teristics of a good medium include:
• large pores with 60 to 80% water holding
capacity and 20 to 40% air capacity for free
drainage;
• respond well to temperature changes and
remain chemically inert for good nutrient and
pH control;
• consistent physical quality that can be sus-
tained through the growing season;
• light-weight for ease of handling;
• pathogen-free;
• environmentally friendly for easy disposal; and
• inexpensive.
Each medium has pros & cons. When their
performance is similar, cost becomes a key
consideration.
Sawdust as a growing medium
Sawdust is the main growing medium used in the
B.C. greenhouse vegetable industry. Bags filled
with sawdust provide an anchor for the plant and
an environment for root development.
Yellow cedar sawdust is the industry standard
because it decomposes slowly providing a well-
drained and aerated medium throughout the
cropping cycle. Douglas fir, hemlock and pine
sawdust break down faster. This may result in
44 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
poor media aeration and lead to root death.
Sawdust from western red cedar is not recom-
mended because of its relatively high level of
secondary plant metabolites. Although yellow
cedar sawdust meets most of the above criteria,
it does have some disadvantages. For example,
non-pathogenic fungi from fresh sawdust often
colonize the surface of the rockwool block and
form a water repellant coat that reduces the
effectiveness of irrigation.
Use only horticulture grade sawdust and check
it’s conductivity for the presence of ocean salt.
Leaching the bags with fresh water before
planting can reduce salt concentration in the
sawdust. Horticultural grade sawdust should be
free of phytotoxic contaminants such as anti-
sapstain fungicides and wood preservatives.
An analysis for manganese (Mn) is also recom-
mended as this mineral can accumulate in the
wood to levels that are toxic to plants. If high Mn
in sawdust leads to plant tissue Mn levels above
500 ppm in the youngest leaves, adjust the com-
position of the irrigation feed accordingly.
Containers for Sawdust
White plastic “pillow” bags are available in vari-
ous sizes. The sawdust volume of a bag can vary
from 10 to 25 liters and hold 2 to 3 pepper plants.
Smaller sawdust volumes allow greater flexibility
in controlling the daily EC and pH levels.
The depth of the sawdust is a critical factor for
proper drainage and aeration. A target depth of
12 cm allows for some settling and decomposi-
tion as the season progresses. Sawdust bags that
are inadequately filled and aligned will be too
shallow (<10cm) and drain poorly.
Ensure good in-ground drainage and maintain a
proper slope for surface drainage of nutrients to
re-circulating catch basins. To maintain a uni-
form nutrient distribution in the sawdust bag,
ensure there is a transverse slope not greater
than 1%. The ground should be laser-profiled
and covered with white floor plastic to allow a
shallow trench (8-18 cm) between the double
row of plants. Thin (1cm) styrofoam can be used
to ensure a flat insulated profile for the slab.
In order to ensure proper rooting conditions,
the media should be ‘charged’ with a nutrient
solution prior to planting out. This initial wetting
activates bacteria that release CO2, reducing the
conductivity of the drain solution by 0.5 to 1.0
EC. The effect of the microflora on the EC level
will only last for several weeks and can be
compensated by adjusting the feed solution.
When the sawdust is uniformly wet, cut drainage
holes between the drippers at the bottom of the
bag facing the drainage trench. The holes should
extend to the bottom of the bag.
Rockwool as a Growing Medium
Rockwool is manufactured by heating rocks to
a high temperature and spinning them into
fibres of different densities and vertical or
horizontal alignment. Rockwool meets most of
the key criteria for a good growing medium. It
has high air-holding capacity when saturated
with nutrient solution (65% water:35% air -
80% water:20% air) and is used worldwide in
hydroponic systems. It is more expensive than
yellow cedar sawdust. It also tends to become
saturated more easily in changing weather
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
conditions, leading to increased root pressure,
decreased fruit quality and increased incidence
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment
of root pathogen infections.
A new rockwool product now available is a
combination of horizontal fibre alignment on the
top and vertical alignment on the bottom of the
slab. The new product can maintain 80% water
content and provide more uniform drainage.
Greenhouse pepper production requires 14 to
16L of rockwool/m2. Average growth and yield
can be obtained, however, with as little as 5L/
m2. Such a small volume leaves little room for
errors in irrigation scheduling. The size of
standard ‘slabs’ ranges from 15 - 45 cm wide,
7.5 -10 cm high and 90 - 100 cm long. There
are several densities that permit extended use
of this medium. Low-density slabs are used for
one year and discarded; higher density slabs
may be pasteurized and re-used for several
years. The option exists to re-use them without
sterilization if the previous crop was free of
problems. Slabs that have lost their depth from
handling can be double stacked to create an
adequate 7cm depth.
45
3. Optimizing the Greenhouse Environment

46 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 4. PEPPER PRODUCTION

Cultivars
All sweet bell pepper cultivars produce green
fruit that matures to red, yellow, or orange. All
cultivars have specific climate requirements,
therefore, mixing cultivars in the same green-
house is not recommended. Development of
new greenhouse pepper cultivars is a highly
competitive business between a relatively small
number of seed companies. As a result,
cultivars tend to change every few years. Grow-
ers must keep in touch with latest develop-
ments through contact with their seed suppliers.
The main seed suppliers are listed in Table 4-1.
Cultivar characteristics include: tolerance to
strains of pepper mild mottle virus (PMMV-
strains TM0, TM1, TM2, TM3), yield, fruit
characters, fruit set requirements and labour
requirements.
4. Pepper Production
Propagation
Virus Susceptibility
Pepper seedlings are susceptible to viruses.
They can be transmitted on: seed, propagation
equipment, workers’ hands and pruning equip-
ment. Control measures include:
Seed
Use heat-treated seed or soak untreated seed in a
10% solution of trisodium phosphate (TSP ; see
page 124). TSP considerably reduces seed
germination. Over-seed to compensate for
reduced germination and to ensure enough
plants.
Propagation equipment
Ensure the propagation area and all equipment,
including packing cases, trailers, etc. are
cleaned with Virkon® or another proven prod-
uct that will kill viruses.

Hands and pruning equipment

Dip hands and pruning equipment in 10%
solution of skim milk powder (100 g/L) before

Table 4-1. Seed sources for greenhouse pepper cultivars.

Seed Supplier Phone # Fax # Website

De Ruiter 614-459-1498 614-442-1716 www.deruiterseeds.com

Enza Zaden c/o Westgro c/o Westgro www.enzazaden.nl
Growers’ Consulting 519-326-6654 519-326-2480
Rijk Zwaan c/o Terralink c/o Terralink www.rijkzwaan.com
Syngenta 208-327-7239 208-378-6625 www.rogersadvantage.com
Terralink 604-864-9044 604-864-8418 www.terralink-horticulture.com
Western Seed 203-226-3050 203-454-3317 www.westernseedamericas.com
Americas 540-775-0435 540-775-0439
Westgro 604-940-0290 604-940-0258 www.growercentral.com

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 47

 handling seedlings. The 35% or greater protein
found in skim milk coats the virus and renders
4. Pepper Production
it non-infectious (see page 124).
Time of Seeding
Mid-October to early November are the stand-
ard seeding dates for peppers propagated under
supplemental light. This allows time to produce
a large enough seedling (7.5 weeks) for planting
out by mid-December. However, for new
greenhouses with good winter light, seeding
between October 5 and 10 may enable fruit set
by the first week of January.
Seed Germination
Germinate the seeds in 25 mm x 30 mm
rockwool plugs. Wet the plugs with an EC of 2.0
to 2.2 mS/cm and a pH of 6 to 7. Maintain the
media temperature at 26oC and fertilizer solution
at 25oC until the plants emerge, then reduce
media temperature to 24oC night, 25oC day.
Keep RH at 60 to 80%. Ensure the plugs remain
moistened to at least 70% of their saturated
weight during the germination process. Avoid
putting the trays on the floor as doing so reduces
drainage and oxygen levels in the plug.
Stop watering at least one day before planting
the plugs in blocks to avoid stem cracking.
Stem cracks increase a chance of Fusarium
infection. Consider using Mycostop (Kemira
Agro Oy) as a biological aid for preventing
Fusarium infection.
Provide supplemental light 15 w/m2 PAR
(measured at seedling level) for 16 hours/day
to promote vegetative growth. Avoid over-
crowding which could cause seedlings to
stretch. End the lighting cycle with natural
sunset. Reduce lighting to 4 hours/day after
seedlings are spaced out, and only use addi-
tional lighting during the day under poor natural
light conditions (<150 joules/cm2/day). See
colour photo 4.
48 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Planting Into Block
The seedling plugs are ready for transfer into
rockwool blocks (75 to100 mm) once the first
true leaves appear. Wash/flush the blocks with
over-head water two days before planting to
remove possible toxic by-products from the
manufacturing process. Next, thoroughly wet
the blocks with 2.5 EC fertilizer solution prior
to transplanting.
Inverting or “flipping” seedling plugs when
transplanting into rockwool blocks shortens the
stem and provides extra rooting area along it
This may delay plants 3 to 4 days, but flipped
seedlings are shorter and sturdier and less likely
to fall over when handled.
The floor of the greenhouse where the blocks
are grown should be covered with white poly to
ensure a good reflective surface and to prevent
root rot contamination. After planting in
blocks, apply feed solution generously to ensure
good connection between plug and block. Feed
temperature should be 20oC.
Approximately one week before the plants are
moved from the propagation area to the green-
house, supplemental lighting can be reduced to
a natural light cycle or discontinued. This will
result in fewer problems in the rooting-in phase.
Abrupt changes from an environment with light
supplement to one without, causes a “light
shock” that is exhibited as yellowing of lower
leaves and premature leaf drop. Over-use of
supplemental light in the rooting phase can also
cause faster plant development, some leaf
bubbling and more stretching .
A well-developed root system (see colour photo
5) and large leaf area of the transplant is criti-
cal to achieve optimum yield and fruit quality
throughout the growing season. Overcrowding
can decrease transplant quality and lead to the
loss of lower leaves and stretching of plants.
Leaf loss can also result from cool growing
temperatures.
Transferring to Greenhouse
At 30 days after seeding, space plants to 20/m2
and target block temperature of 21 to 22 oC.
After moving the plants from the propagation
area to the greenhouse, lower the air tempera-
ture to 20 to 20.5 oC for several days to reduce
stress related to the change of RH regimes.
Lowering the temperature helps to slow down
the transpiration rate. Once acclimatized, target
the following temperatures and VPD (may vary
with cultivar): root zone 21°C, day air 23 to
26°C (boost at 11:00 to 14:00), night air 21°C,
ADT 21 to 22°C and VPD 3 to 7g/m3.
A six-week-old plant, weighing 40 g, is the
minimum requirement for transplant age.
However, a 7- to 7.5-week-old plant will pro-
vide a better generative start (see colour photo
6). They have thicker leaves and more dry
matter. Ideally, seedlings should be 25 to 30 cm
tall and start branching at the 5th to 7th leaf
node. Grade out stunted plants with any abnor-
mal growth (potential virus). Small but healthy
seedlings can be planted out on west or south
walls or warmer areas of the greenhouse where
they can catch up.
Once rockwool blocks dry down to 70% of their
saturated weight, water plants with a complete
nutrient solution. Feed from the top of the block
to aid in flushing salts and contaminants from
the block. Over-head watering at this stage also
helps to restore oxygen levels to the rockwool
block and promote root growth. Don’t use
recirculated solution at this stage because of the
risk of introducing root pathogens.
Maintain CO2 levels at 400 to 500 ppm with
liquid CO2. If the CO2 is supplied by a boiler,
avoid levels greater than 1000 ppm, especially
in a new, tightly-sealed greenhouse. Seedlings
are very sensitive to combustion by-product
gases like ethylene. Provide adequate boiler
purging time when switching from oil fuel to
natural gas to prevent unburned hydrocarbons
from causing pollution damage to the plants.
Fungus gnat larvae can tunnel into seedling
crowns and cause considerable damage to
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
developing roots (see colour photo 7). Start
control of fungus gnats during propagation by
4. Pepper Production
using yellow sticky traps, Hypoaspsis spp. and
nematodes (see page 91).
Acclimatization in the
Production Greenhouse
Plants moved to the production greenhouse are
spaced wider apart and must cope with signifi-
cant changes in microclimate (temperature, RH
and light levels). This can be very stressful to
the seedlings unless they are acclimatized to
their new environment over a period of several
days. Start by lowering the temperature and
minimum pipe to promote buildup of RH. Use
a fixed or moveable screen to create a more
moderate climate. This will reduce transplant
stress related to extreme climate conditions.
To ensure rapid rooting the rock wool block
needs to be firmly positioned in the sawdust. Slit
the plastic bag and insert the rock wool block so
the plastic edges of the bag are holding the block
securely in place. This method of anchoring the
block in the sawdust bag is preferred to cutting a
hole in the bag and setting the block on the
sawdust. It creates a better microclimate for
rooting and protects plants from falling over
before they are firmly rooted.
Insert irrigation drippers vertically into
rockwool block so that nutrient solution will
flow into the block rather than drip onto the
bag or ground plastic. Irrigate with long inter-
vals between cycles to promote contact with
the sawdust slab and encourage root develop-
ment but do not over-saturate the block. The
number of irrigation cycles will depend on pipe
temperatures, and pre-charging of sawdust bags
with irrigation solution. Typically, 2 to 3
irrigations over a 24-hr period are sufficient; the
rock wool block should not be allowed to dry
out. As soon as the first roots appear, reduce
the irrigation to encourage roots to search for
water, but be careful not to let the media dry
out during this process. See colour photo 8.
49
 Crop Management
4. Pepper Production
Planting Density
Plant peppers in 5 rows per 8 m bay. For crops
planted out before May, maintain a density of
3.3 to 3.5 plants/m2 (6.5 to 7.1 stems/m2) with
38 to 39 cm between plants. For crops planted
after May, a spacing of 2 plants/m2 and 4
shoots per plant may be used. Plant density is
based on light availability (location or green-
house design) e.g. density of red cultivars in an
old greenhouse may be 6.0 stems/m2; in a new
house it may be 6.4 stems/m2 or higher.
Stem Densities
The currently recommended plant density is 3.3
to 3.5 plants/m2 using a system of two stems per
plant. Past research demonstrated that the two-
stem system was the most productive. The option
of using 3 or 4 stems per plant with a V- system
can save on plant costs. See colour photo 9.
Each of the systems has specific plant manage-
ment requirements.
• In the 3 to 4-stem system; fruit set is delayed
compared to the two-stem system for the
same seeding dates. The plant needs to pro-
duce extra shoots before it is allowed to set
fruit. Saving on plants/m2 can be offset by a
delayed first harvest and this delay should be
factored into the net $/m2 for the crop.
• Plants are seeded earlier for the 4-stem
system, as it requires more leaves than two-
stem system before 1st fruit set.
• B.C.’s experience with 4-stem system sug-
gests that total yield in kg/m2 and fruit size
are similar to the two-stem system.
• Plant height tends to be shorter in the 3 and
4-stem system and requires less maintenance
than the 2-stem system. Sunscald appears
less frequently in 3 and 4 stem systems
because the plants have more leaves to
provide shade.
• Uneven stems is an issue with the 4-stem
system. Application of similar string tension
to the stems and tying the stems at the same
50 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
time can reduce height differences. Regulate
individual stem growth by thinning fruit or
flowers or by removing the growing point of
the strongest stem.
• In the 4-stem system the loss of one plant
can create a large gap in the row.
• Several cultivars have been successfully
grown in the 4-stem system in South Coastal
B.C.
In the 3 or 4 stem system, extra stems are
removed in late summer to compensate for
declining light.
Training and Pruning in the
Two-stem System
The young transplants naturally branch into two
or occasionally, three shoots. This occurs be-
tween the 5th & 8th leaf. Plants are initially
trained to 2 or 3 stems each. At about 4 weeks
after planting out, select the two strongest
shoots. Tie the stems to strings supported from
overhead wires at 3.5 to 4.0 m. Clips should be
avoided when initially tying the plant stem to the
wire as they are prone to failure, resulting in
plant slippage. A loose slipknot is recommended
to avoid the string cutting into the stem as it
grows. Open stem wound sites can be infected
with Fusarium stem rot. If clips are used, alter-
nate between twisting and clipping to provide a
secure stem support. The stem will require
twisting around the string every 10 to 14 days.
Prune side shoots that are 10 to 15 cm below
the growing head. Pruning too close to the head
is labour inefficient and can cause damage to
developing flowers. Pruning slows down the
transpiration process, which in turn can nega-
tively influence VPDs. In order to limit this
negative effect, prune alternate rows on a
rotational basis. If a head is damaged through
the course of cropping, a side shoot can be
trained as the new head.
Remove side shoots allowing one leaf per shoot
for better light penetration and larger flower
development. The option of leaving 2 to 3
leaves per shoot should be considered starting
in March. This provides a fuller canopy for
better protection against sunscald. Start prun-
ing to 2 or 3 leaves early enough to protect fruit
in rows with edge exposure and for cultivars
that do not produce a full leaf canopy. Remove
secondary and tertiary axil flowers as they tend
to produce lower quality fruit than the primary
flowers, reducing overall growth speed and
plant balance.
Dip hands and pruning equipment in solution
of 10% skim milk powder (100 g/L) before
handling plants to prevent virus spread. Milk
should be used at least until June, but if there is
a previous history of virus or cultivar suscepti-
bility, milk use should be continued through to
September.
A vigorous, 60 to 75-cm-tall plant with 4-5 leaf
axils above the first fork is ready to set fruit.
Ideally allow one fruit to set for every two
leaves. Maintenance of correct fruit load will
prevent the pepper plant from producing extra
side shoots and will optimize the use of labour.
Maintain fruit balance when removing any
misshapen fruit. Avoid too early removal of the
fruit that will cause plant to set again; but
prevent the unmarketable fruit reaching larger
than 4 cm diameter as that would be a waste of
limited assimilate reserves.
Management of Extra Stems in
the Two-stem System
The system involves adding extra shoots to the
plant during the growing season, thereby in-
creasing the plant head density per m2 as light
levels increase.
• Start during re-growth period after the 1st or
2nd set is established around week 8 to 9.
Then add an extra stem to every 7th head in
the row.
• Remove tip (head) growth and allow side
shoots to grow.
• Select the best two heads.
• One of the new heads can grow on the old
string; fasten a new string to the extra head.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• The picking pattern is very stable with this
system
4. Pepper Production
• Fruit size is not affected
• The 2nd set is delayed as a result of
“deheading” the main head to create the
extra shoot.
• Labour input increases by 25%: i.e. there is
15% labour increase related to extra stems
handling and 10% increase related to extra
pruning and twisting. This amounts to extra
75 hours per ha.
• Prune fruit one leaf above the first leaf of
the “new double head”
Pollination
Numerous studies have shown that bumblebees
or honeybees improve pollination especially the
first and last sets when pollination of the
flowers can be impaired by environmental
conditions. Improved pollination results in
faster fruit growth, higher percentage of large
and extra large fruit with thick walls, and lower
amount of unmarketable fruit. Effectiveness of
pollinators appears to vary with cultivar.
Honeybees are effective and less expensive
than bumblebees but are a greater nuisance in
the greenhouse. They should be introduced to
the crop three to four weeks prior to flower
development to aid in acclimatization of the
hive. Leasing beehives from an apiarist may be
an option. Ensure the hive is supplied with a
feed source during the introduction. In order to
ensure proper colony health, the hive should be
inspected at least weekly and the necessary
medicinal supplements added.
Harvesting
From fruit set in early to mid-January until colour
ripening requires 8 to 10 weeks (depending on
cultivar). It takes approximately four weeks from
mature green to red, orange or yellow stage of
ripeness. Time from fruit set to harvest shortens
as the season progresses into the summer months.
The last set in early to mid-September takes
approximately 90 days to mature.
51
 Although it is difficult to achieve, target a Yellow peppers generally have a low shelf life
uniform fruit harvest of 6 to 7 fruits/m2/per and are more susceptible to moisture loss.
4. Pepper Production

week. Harvesting larger numbers of fruits (10 Shrink cracks in colored peppers significantly
to 13 fruit/m2/week) may cause root dieback reduce their shelf life.
and negatively affects plant balance. Fruit
flushes also hinder calcium uptake and can Moisture (RH) needs to be added in storage
result in BER. facilities to prevent fruit desiccation. At low
RH, fruit can lose its firmness (2% moisture
Harvest when fruit is 85 – 90% coloured. loss) or show shriveling (6% moisture loss)
Generally, pick one to two times per week within a few days.
depending on the week of production and
colours. Peppers should be cooled as soon as Seasonal Management
possible and stored at 7 to 8oC and 90% RH.
Strategies
Use a sharp knife with a blunt end to remove
The production stages for a pepper crop can be
the fruit. This ensures a clean cut, reduces the
subdivided into a number of growth periods:
incidence of stem infection and avoids damag-
Winter (December to January); Early Spring
ing the adjacent fruit. By-pass or scissor prun-
(February to April); Late Spring/Summer (May
ers should be avoided as they leave rough
to August); and Fall (September to November).
wound sites prone to pathogen infections.
Each growth period requires specific manage-
Options for harvesting fruit at the end of the ment strategies to maximize yield and plant
season include: growth. These include: control over the average
24-hour temperature (ADT), irrigation (feed
• Two weeks before end of the crop, pick and over-drain), carbon dioxide level, vapour
green fruit, which will not ripen in time for pressure deficit (VPD), leaf number, and fruit
cleanup (providing there is a market for number. The following recommendations are
green fruit). guidelines only. Variations in greenhouse con-
struction, seeding date, location, cultivars and
• One week before the end of the crop, pick
personal experience influence decisions. Summary
all ripe fruit.
tables of each growth period are also provided for
a quick checklist of target strategies.
Storage
Peppers are sensitive to low temperatures
(>2oC) and low humidity, especially if the fruit
is cold-stored and then exposed to temperatures
of 19 to 21oC. Recommended storage tempera-
ture for green peppers is 10oC and for coloured,
7 to 8oC. Storage temperatures can affect the
rate of colour development. At 70% colour,
yellow peppers take 23 days to reach maturity
at 8oC and only 7 days at 24oC; reds take 13
and 10 days respectively.

52 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

WINTER PRODUCTION (December/January) to Week 4
Temperature and Light
Winter production starts by promoting fast and
strong vegetative growth of the 7.5-week-old
seedling prior to the fruit set at early to mid-
January. Maintenance of optimum growing
conditions during December and January
depends mainly on temperature control. During
this period, temperature settings are based on
light levels and ADT is adjusted in relation to
accumulated light. In December and January,
accumulated light can vary from 50 to 600
joules/cm2/day. The average for the two
months is 250 joules/cm2/day. Frequent
temperature adjustments are required to main-
tain balance between production and consump-
tion of sugars. Under low light and high tem-
perature, consumption of sugars may exceed
their production; plant growth and fruit quality
can be compromised.
The rail pipes can be heated to a maximum of
65oC to maintain desired air temperature.
During snowfall rail pipes may require tempera-
tures of 70 to 80oC to melt snow and prevent
the greenhouse from collapsing. On clear, cold
nights tissue temperatures can drop 5oC below
air temperature even at a maximum pipe tem-
perature of 65oC. Increase day temperature to
compensate for lower than targeted night
temperature.
A combination of rail and grow pipes creates a
‘softer’, more uniform climate, which promotes
vegetative growth and fruit setting. Locate the
grow pipes away from the plant head during
fruit setting.
Use of a permanent screen or a temporary
overhead anti-condense polyethylene sheet (20
x 20 cm hole spacing) will create more uniform
climate throughout the greenhouse. Without
the screen, temperature differences between
the growing medium and plant canopy can vary
as much as 5 oC. Such a range can negatively
affect the plant’s ability to set fruit.
Use of screens reduces light intensity in the
greenhouse. During this period, however,
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
4. Pepper Production
maintenance of optimum and uniform tempera-
tures is more important than light interception.
Screens accelerate fruit production, save energy
and can be used to extend the day temperature
two to three hours during winter days. The
temporary overhead screen is used only for the
first 5 to 6 weeks in order to build a strong
vegetative plant. Plants grown under the screen
for too long will stand a greater chance of
pathogen infection and may produce large
vegetative flowers that result in low fruit
quality. Excessive use of the screen lowers
VPD and transpiration rate. It is important to
maintain VPD between 3 to 7 grams/m3 when
using the screen; vent above the screen if
humidity control is required.
Irrigation
During winter production maintain feed EC at
3.0 to 3.5 and pH at 6.0 to 6.2. Recommenda-
tions for high EC levels are based on plants
receiving low volumes of feed and sawdust-
composting bacteria tying up nutrients. When
EC of the drain is > 5.0 and pH is > 7.5,
reduce feed EC to 2.8 and pH to 5.8.
Irrigation volumes are larger (120 to 150 ml) in
the winter than in the summer (80 to 100 ml).
This ensures even feed distribution within the
growing medium and that drain EC reaches
target levels. Total irrigation in ml/m2/day,
should amount to 2.5 times the daily radiation
(i.e. 300 joules/cm2/day X 2.5 = 750ml/m2/
day). A general guide for watering during winter
production is based on time: water every 2
hours during the day (i.e. 4 times) and every 4-6
hours during the night (i.e.twice) if hot heating
pipes (65oC) are used. The over-drain (OD)
should be kept between 0 and 5%. As a rule of
thumb, the sum of the feed and drain EC
should total 6.0; e.g. 2.8 EC of feed + 3.2 EC
of drain = 6.0 EC total.
CO 2
There is little ventilation during winter produc-
tion and CO2 can build up very quickly. Do not
exceed 1000 ppm as higher CO2 levels increase
53
 the risk of flue gas contaminants (e.g. ethylene).
The carbon monoxide (CO) reading should be less
4. Pepper Production
than 2 ppm for acceptable quality of flue CO2.
Plant and Fruit Development
Winter production starts with promoting strong
vegetative growth prior to fruit set in early to
mid-January. Establishing a strong plant prior to
fruit set ensures a large leaf area (2-3 m2 /m2 of
floor area) and abundant assimilate production.
Adequate supply of assimilates is an essential
condition to ensure quality flowers and good
fruit set.
Vigorous vegetative growth can be promoted by
frequent adjustment of ADT based on light
levels. Excessive vegetative growth should be
avoided as it increases the risk of Fusarium
infection and BER. Do not start with plants that
are too young as they tend to be vegetative,
especially when growing in sawdust. Flowers are
harder to establish in young, vegetative plants
and fruit production is delayed.
Set first fruit as early as possible in January, but
only after the plant has reached 4 to 5 leaves
above the fork. This will ensure the optimal
number of sets for the season (6 sets/stem).
Early fruit set can be encouraged by:
• increasing day/night differences in tempera-
ture (night as low as 15oC);
• optimizing light levels by opening the screen
during the day;
• increasing CO2 levels up to 1300 ppm for a
short time;
• increasing irrigation EC up to 4.0;
• lowering the moisture content in the media.
Under limited light conditions it is easier to
initiate fruit set in a small, generative plant than
in a strong, vegetative one. This is probably why
fruit set in strong pepper plants is often delayed
to the 5th or 6th week.
Presence of vigorous flower buds bent down-
wards 90 o is a good predictor of a successful
fruit set. Lowering of average night and media
temperatures may be required to improve the
54 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
chances of pepper plants producing strong
flower buds.
Early setting of 2 to 3 fruits per plant or 1 to 1.2
fruits per stem, ensures plant balance and maxi-
mum total yield per plant. Do not over-load fruit
on the first set because February traditionally has
poor weather and the following fruit sets may be
compromised.
Watch head thickness and distance of the flow-
ers from the head. Thick heads lead to large,
vegetative flowers which produce poor quality
fruit. Higher ADT can correct head imbalance.
Several techniques are used to maintain growth
speed and fruit development. These include:
raising temperature, harvesting mature green
fruit, and thinning fruit. Raising the temperature
at the mature green stage accelerates ripening
and helps the ‘swelling’ phase of the remaining
fruit. The temperature increase should be
gradual to avoid a risk of fruit abortion. Har-
vesting mature green fruit will induce a new
flush of fruit set. Avoid fruit thinning too soon
after fruit set since the energy demand on the
plant is relatively low. This may cause the plant
to start setting all over again.
Climate Strategies
Promoting Rooting
• For two days after planting, ADT should be
kept at 21oC day and night.
• Thereafter target root temperature at 2-3oC
below air temperature. Ensure that bags are
well drained; the temperature of rooting
media is between 20oC - 21oC and irrigation
water is over 18oC. This will optimize rooting.
Plants should start rooting in 2 to 6 days.
• Maintain uniform rooting conditions through-
out the media. Fill the bags with feed solution
for a few days prior to cutting draining holes.
To distribute moisture uniformly, ensure that
the drainage hole is a vertical 4-5 cm cut on
the side extending to the bottom of the bag.
Cut 2-3 slits per bag. Let the roots search for
 water. This process helps build a strong root
system throughout the entire growing media
base. Over-watering, poor profiling and
inadequate drainage can create an oxygen
deficiency, restricting the growth and distribu-
tion of roots.
• Make sure there is good contact between the
block and the media. Irrigate 2.5 times the
daily radiation (i.e. 300 joules/cm2/day X 2.5
= 750ml/m2/day) and ensure maximum 5%
over-drain.
• Once the plant is anchored, reduce the irriga-
tion feed cycle by a third. For example, at 300
joules/cm2/day use 500 ml/m2/day. This will
aid the roots in spreading uniformly through-
out the media in search of moisture.
Promoting Vegetative Growth
Target Temperature
• To aid acclimatization of the seedlings in a
greenhouse, keep the average night and day
temperatures within 1 to 2°C. After the plants
have acclimatized, set the temperatures at
23oC day and 21oC night.
• Under low light intensity (<100 joules/ cm2/
day), reduce the ADT by 0.5 to 1.0oC
• During prolonged low light intensity (<150
joules/cm2 /day), typical in December, keep
the ADT at 19.5 to 20.5oC and lower the night
temperature to 14 to16oC for 4 to 5 days.
• In January when light intensity is high (>200
joules/ cm2/day), increase ADT to 20.5 to
21.0oC.
• Target to reach day temperature at sunrise by
increasing night temperature at the rate of 1oC
per hour.
• Set minimum rail pipe temperature at 45 to
50oC; maximum at 65oC.
• If a cold period requires maximum pipe
temperature of 65oC but ADT is still below
the target, compensate by increasing ADT
over the next few days.
• If outside temperatures are cold for long
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
periods, leave the screen closed in order to
conserve temperature. Do not open the
4. Pepper Production
screens for light benefit.
• Management of grow pipes:
- with energy screen available, increase grow
pipe temperature from 40oC to 50oC only if
target temperatures are not reached.
- without energy screen available, increase
grow pipe temperature to 50oC and above
only if target temperatures are not reached.
Target CO2
• Target minimum of 500 to 600 ppm CO2 in
December.
• Avoid CO2 level higher than 1000 ppm,
especially if a temporary screen is used.
• Maintain 500 ppm at night by shutting off the
CO2 supply one to two hours before sunset.
This target is difficult to achieve in the first
month of growing because of the CO2 being
generated from sawdust decomposition.
Target VPD
• Maintain VPD at 3 to 7 g/m3. This will en-
hance plant growth and disease resistance.
• VPD exceeding 14 g/m3 for a short time is not
a problem, providing the plants are not wilt-
ing.
• Maintain VPD higher than 3 when using a
fixed screen. A small vent opening (0.5 cm)
on the leeward side may be required above the
screen.
• To raise VPD:
- Cut holes in the screen for the last 10 days
of use to allow better air exchange between
‘attic’ air and that below the wire. Tempera-
ture differences created by venting should
be minimal to avoid cold air reaching the
heads.
- Use vents on a limited basis (<1cm) if the
outside temperature is greater than 7oC and
the radiation is >150 joules/ cm2.
55
 • At low VPD (<3) avoid day temperatures
being reached too early in morning.
4. Pepper Production
Target Irrigation and Feed
• Target feed EC 3.0 to 3.5 and pH 6.0 to 6.2.
o
• Maintain nutrient feed at higher than 18 C. A
temperature difference between the head and
roots higher than 5oC negatively affects plant
growth. Water temperatures lower than 18oC
also decrease fertilizer solubility and uptake.
• Target an over-drain of 0 to 5%.
• If pH in the drain is too high, reduce it by
increasing ammonium concentration in the
feed. Avoid use of ammonium when the drain
pH is low (5.5), or manganese will exceed
normal levels. High pH levels in sawdust (7 to
7.2) can be tolerated for short periods, espe-
cially in the early stages of rooting.
• Optimal phosphorus levels for this period
are 1.0 to 1.75 millimoles/L. Phosphorus
above or below the recommended range can
compromise flower, fruit and root develop-
ment. If you are required to add phosphoric
acid to adjust the pH, keep the concentration
of phosphorus below 1.75 millimoles/L. Too
high levels can cause calcium precipitation at
the drippers and also interfere with magne-
sium uptake; too low P can increase inci-
dence of BER.
Promoting Fruit Setting
Target Temperature
• Target ADT between 19.5 and 21.0oC (17 oC
pre-night for 1.5 to 2.5 hours, 18 to19oC
night, 22oC day). Increase day temperature to
23 oC or 24 oC under sunny conditions to
promote fruit set.
• Keep moderate temperatures during the first
two weeks in January (i.e. 18oC night, 20.5oC
day and 22oC afternoon for a short period).
Maintenance of such a temperature profile
will improve assimilate allocation to flowers
and fruit set.
• Maintain plant growth speed through the
maintenance of an active climate (3 to 7
56 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
VPD) and target temperatures, especially
when natural plant growth slows at the end
of January to the beginning of February as a
result of initial fruit set.
• When light levels are low (<150 joules/cm2/
day), it may be necessary to use a 14 to 16oC
pre-night for 3 to 4 hours to initiate the first
flowers. Use 50oC minimum pipe tempera-
ture between 10:00 and 15:00 hour, and vent
at 1oC above the set point to encourage air
exchange. Avoid limiting maximum vent
setting in the new computer programs. Use
outside temperature and wind speed to
modify (P-band) temperature factor.
• With cold outside temperatures (>0 oC), the
use of maximum pipe temperatures higher
than 65oC may be required to maintain target
temperature. During fruit setting, do not
exceed 65 oC even if ADT falls below target.
• Limit the ventilation set point to a maximum
of 23 oC to balance fruit development and
plant speed. Too high ADT under limited
light conditions can lead to fruit abortion.
• Once fruit size is large enough to prevent
abortion (>2 cm in diameter), increase ADT
by 1oC. This will maintain growth speed if
light conditions are above average.
• Minimize the use of grow pipes during the
critical fruit setting stage. Higher tissue
temperatures in the head created by grow
pipes can negatively influence fruit setting,
especially under low light conditions.
Target CO2
• In January target 700 ppm CO2 during dark
weather and increase to 1200 ppm during
sunny weather to promote good fruit set.
The more frequently the CO2 system turns
on, the stronger the indication of CO2 use
and the better assurance of fruit set.
Target Irrigation and Feed
• Maintain an over-drain (OD) of 0 to 5% in
the 1st irrigation cycle, 25% in the 2nd and
up to 50% in the 3rd.
• Total daily irrigation volume during this time
of the year amounts to 2.5 times radiation
(e.g. 300 joules/cm2/day radiation x 2.5
factor for peppers = 750 ml/m2/day).
• Under poor conditions for fruit setting,
temporarily lower the volume of irrigation
and increase EC in the drain. This can aid
the flower setting process.
Target VPD
• Optimal VPD is 3 to 7 g/m3. VPD lower
than 3 can decrease flower quality.
Plant Management
Leaf Number
• It is important to space young plants uni-
formly in the row by aligning vertical string
spacing and tension. This will optimize light
interception by the plant canopy.
• Prune main stem to one leaf weekly until
fruit development starts. Delaying the proc-
ess draws limited carbohydrate reserves from
the developing plant. Setting fruit reduces
shoot development and extends the pruning
cycle to 10 days.
Fruit Number
• Remove flowers and fruit buds until the 4th
node (leaf) above the fork as they draw as-
similates which should be used for plant
growth and root development.
• Small generative flowers on the main stem
produce the best quality fruit; avoid second-
ary side-shoot flowers that produce lower
quality fruit. In the event of difficult and
limited setting of the main flowers, secondary
flowers can be used for setting. See colour
photo 10.
• The rule of thumb for the optimum number
of fruit per stem for the first set is to divide
the week number in which the fruit set by
two. Exceptions to the rule are: generative
cultivars, three-stem systems and late sowing
dates, all of which have less fruit per stem
than the suggested optimum.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• For October seeding dates: It is important to
prevent higher than 1.2 fruit/stem. February
4. Pepper Production
is historically a dark month and fruit set
greater than 1.2 often reduces growth speed,
fruit development, fruit quality and chances
of subsequent fruit setting. A conservative
approach is to set 1 fruit per stem on the 1st
set, thus encouraging balance and speed and
an easier second set. Early production is,
however, reduced to approximately 1.4 kg/m2.
• For November seeding dates: Two fruits per
stem is equivalent to 2.4 kg/m2. If the fruit
loads are too heavy for the light levels and
heads begin to thin, reduce the fruit load.
Skilled workers can judge individual plant
vigor, allowing 2 fruits per stem for strong
plants and 1 fruit per stem for weaker plants.
• Excessive fruit load (1st fruit set $ 20/m2) can
cause compacting of the head and shortening
of distance between flower and head. Bring
the day and night temperatures closer together
(21 to19.5oC), keep the screen closed to
increase RH, prune fruit to 11 fruit/m2, and
ensure adequate irrigation to correct for an
overly generative plant. When applied gradu-
ally, these management techniques will restore
balance between growth and fruit load.
• A high fruit load of uniform size will draw
too many assimilates at the expense of root
and shoot growth. A moderate set and grada-
tion of fruit sizes will allow a more uniform
partitioning of assimilates among the fruit,
roots and head.
• When the first fruit set is followed by ex-
tended periods of low light intensity, remove
part of the set (1.2 fruits/stem) to maintain
growth speed and plant vigour.
• Remove wings and tails from the fruit as early
as possible to allow the scars to heal during
early fruit growth. To avoid leaving a large scar,
this should be done only when fruits are firm.
• It takes 8.5 to 10 weeks from flower to har-
vest for the first set, depending on fruit load.
Beyond this, the longer the fruit remains on
the plant, the greater the risk of poor quality.
57
 4. Pepper Production

58
Table 4-2. Winter production cycle / December-January (up to week 4)
Growing Strategy
1. Start: with a 7 to 7.5-week-old, compact plant grown under supplemental light (ca. 40 grams).
2. Promote: a strong vegetative growth with a large leaf area and well developed root system through December to mid-January. Set fruit in early to mid-January
when plants have 5 leaves past the axil, or in mid- to late January when plants have 4 leaves past the axil.
2
3. Finish: with 7-10 fruit /m by the end of January.
o 3
Growth Temperature ( C) CO2 (ppm) VPD (grams/m ) Irrigation Plant Management
Stage and Ventilation
o Target VPD 3 - 7
Set 24hr at 21 Use 500 –700, liquid gas Pre-charge bags with nutrient Plant height 60 - 75 cm tall
o preferred. solution at temperature higher
Media at 20-21 Weight higher than 40g/plant
Start at sunrise, stop 1-2 hours than 18oC
Irrigation at temperature higher

Rooting
than 18o
Set 24hr at 20.5o with a day up
to 23o, night 19 - 20o
2
If light is less than200 J/cm
o
/day, set at 19.5 to 20.5
If light is more than 200
J/cm2/day, set at 20.5 to 21.0o
o p.m. to reduce night levels
Minimum rail pipe at 45 to 50 ,
maximum at 65o
before sunset
Use 700 to max 1000, boiler
gases
If light is less than 200 J/cm2
/day for a few days, reduce to
500 - 700
Shut off CO2 dosing early in
generated from sawdust
Start 2 hours after sunrise, stop
2 hours before sunset
Target VPD 3 - 7 Total watering 2.5 times Prune to 1 leaf every 10 days
Vent on lee side radiation Do not prune above 10 cm below
less than 1 cm EC feed 3.5; pH 6.0 the head
above screen if EC drain 2.5-4.0; pH 5.8 –6.8 Allow to set only 4 - 5 leaves past
VPD is less than 3 the fork
and only when Time 1.5 - 2 hours or every 80 -
90 joules/cm2 During prolonged dark weather,
outside is higher
than 0oC Volume 120 - 150 ml remove green fruit to 1 - 1.2/stem

Vegetative Growth
Less than 1 cm venting may be
needed to reduce night levels
below 500
Set 16o - 18o pre-night for fruit Use 700 to max 1000
setting
1 or 2 night waterings
depending on pipe temp. If
%OD >10%, discontinue
Good quality EC feed 3.0 - 2.5; pH feed 5.8. Target stem flowers rather than
generative flowers side shoot flowers
are produced when EC drain 4.0; pH drain 6.0-6.8
st nd Early set 1.2 fruit/stem, mid-late
VPD > 3 OD-5% 1 set, OD 25-35% 2
higher or equal than 2

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

set

Fruit Set
Volume 80-120 ml Remove deformed or crowded
fruit in excess of 2/stem

Biological Control Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Propagation Diseases
Monitoring pests Remove and replace plants with stunted or abnormal leaf growth. Test the plants for
Introduce preventive measure of Hypoaspis spp. and A. cucumeris and possible Pepper Mild Mottle Virus.
others if necessary
Transfer the information on the pest status to the grower Watch for symptoms:
Distorted leaf growth in the head plus the presence of thrips –
Once the plants are in the greenhouse continue monitoring and establish possible Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus.
preventive control for: Basal stem discoloration - Fusarium crown rot.
Thrips: A. cucumeris Rhizopus, Erwinia on fruit.
Fungus gnats: Hypoaspis spp,
Aphids: banker plants with Aphidius spp.
Physiological Fruit Disorders
Spider Mites: Start curative and preventive introduction of P. persimilis at the first
sign of infestation Watch for cuticle cracking, wings, tails, internal growths.
Loopers: place pheromone traps to monitor their presence
Do not introduce diapausing bio-control agents
SPRING PRODUCTION (February/March/April) Weeks 5 – 18
Temperature, Light and Ventilation
By this time plants have been growing for two
months; the first set is established and the
second set is being initiated. Maintaining bal-
ance between growth speed and fruit load is the
main issue. Optimum growing conditions from
February to April are maintained by controlling
temperature, VPD, CO2 and irrigation.
During this period intensity and duration of
light increase progressively. Accumulated light
levels range from 540 to 1800 joules/cm2/day.
Minimum light levels required for maintaining
plant growth range from 150 to 300 joules/
cm2/day. To ensure the quality of flower buds
and fruit set, the plant must produce a surplus
of energy, which requires light levels higher
than the minimum. An energy shortage during
fruit development may cause growth to stag-
nate and roots to die-back.
As in winter, temperature settings are based on
light levels to maintain balance between produc-
tion and consumption of assimilates. ADT is
strongly influenced by radiation, especially as it
relates to daytime temperatures. The minimum
night temperature can be set low (e.g. 16oC)
providing that day temperature compensates.
The rail pipes are still essential for control of
temperature but there is increasing reliance on
light levels for temperature control. Light
intensity higher than 300 watt/m2 is the thresh-
old above which the minimum pipe is removed.
ADT can also be adjusted with the use of “pre-
night” temperatures. It is a particularly useful
method when large temperature differences are
needed between the day and night to promote
flower initiation.
During February and March and at outside
temperatures below 8oC, condensation of water
vapour on the glass removes 0.8 to 1.0 L/m2 /
day of water from the greenhouse air. It is not
until late April that ventilation consistently
plays a significant role in climate control. It is
used to reduce temperature, humidity and CO2
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
4. Pepper Production
levels at night. Frequency and degree of vent
opening depends on outside conditions.
Irrigation
During spring production radiation levels are
inconsistent and irrigation volumes are still
relatively low (< 5 L/m2), therefore the EC of
the feed is allowed to fluctuate between 2.5 and
3.0. Typically EC decreases with increasing light
intensity and volume of irrigation cycles. At low
light intensity a higher EC is needed to meet the
nutritional demand for growth and fruit develop-
ment. Adjustments in EC levels should be
implemented gradually as abrupt changes in EC
can cause root damage and slow growth. Extra
irrigation cycles may be required during rapid
fruit development.
As in winter total irrigation is calculated at 2.5 to
3 times the radiation level but the start and stop
irrigation times are different. Irrigation starts 1.5
to 2 hours after sunrise and stops 1.5 to 2 hours
before sunset to reflect the increasing intensity
and duration of light. Correspondingly, irrigation
volumes are reduced from between 120 and
150ml/cycle to between 100 and120ml/cycle. It
is during this period that the percentage of over-
drain (OD) increases (25% for the 2nd fruit set
and up to 50% for the 3rd fruit set) and re-
circulation begins. The first OD is required by
the second irrigation cycle in order to refresh and
lower EC and restore moisture in the media. The
interval between subsequent irrigation cycles can
increase.
In transition weather (bright to dark), use less
frequent cycles. They will provide a more uni-
form EC and pH in the media. Stop the last
irrigation cycle earlier to allow the media to dry
down. Less frequent cycles, along with drier
media by the end of the day, will keep the roots
active and reduce the risk of BER.
CO 2
In spring plants use more CO2 than in winter.
The higher consumption of CO2 is due to in-
creasing uptake by plants and venting losses to
59
 the outside. It is important to monitor and adjust
daily targets of CO2 levels.
4. Pepper Production
Plant and Fruit Development
As emphasized earlier the pepper plant sets fruit
only when assimilate supply exceeds demand.
Light levels are critical for fruit set and develop-
ment. Optimize light levels by reducing the use
of movable screens during fruit set, especially
under low light intensity. Movable screens can
reduce light transmission by 20 to 40%.
Size of the second set influences ongoing bal-
ance of the plant through the rest of its produc-
tion cycle. A small second set can lead to an
overly vegetative plant with strong head and
strong vegetative flowers. By contrast, a large
second set will slow the plant’s growth.
Different stages of fruit development require
varying amounts of energy (assimilates) from the
plant. For example, newly set fruit or colour
development in mature fruit demands a rela-
tively small amount of energy compared to the
demands of the mature green stage. A range of
fruit stages on a plant ensures uniform partition-
ing of assimilates among the developing fruit,
roots and head.
Throughout the spring period, build a strong and
vigorous plant with abundant leaf area and well-
matted root system. These characters are critical
for maintaining optimum fruit production during
the summer.
Climate Strategies for
Vegetative Growth and Fruit Set
Target Temperatures
• ADT can range from 20 to 23oC depending on
light levels, fruit set and fruit size.
• Increase ADT at the beginning of the second
set (week 7) to stimulate development of the
first set.
• Under low light (<100 joules/cm2/day), keep
ADT above 20oC to maintain plant growth
speed.
• Under extended periods of dull weather, drop
60 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
ADT to 19.5 to19.8oC and provide mid-day
boost.
• Target ADT of 21 to 22oC during fruit setting.
• Maintain growth speed by increasing night
temperature from 18 – 19oC once the fruit
exceeds 40 mm in diameter.
• Use the length of the pre-night temperature
rather than the lowest temperature at night as
a means of controlling ADT.
• It is important to meet day temperatures just
prior to or at sunrise. Target day settings just
before sunset to build up a higher RH in the
greenhouse.
• Maintain climate conditions favouring the
development of small generative flowers (i.e.
a large difference between day and night
temperatures). These produce thick-walled
heavy fruit.
• Once 60% of flowers are set, remove the pre-
night temperature control.
• During transition weather from <500 joules/
cm2 to > 2000 joules/cm2, use screens to
protect the fruit from sunscald.
Pipe Management
• Run a minimum rail pipe temperature of 40oC
and maximum of 65oC.
• Use ADT of 23oC and provide a rail pipe of
50 to 55oC between 10:00 to 15:00 hours to
provide a temperature boost to promote
growth. This is especially important with
strong crops.
• Light level above 300 watts/m2 is the thresh-
old to start venting and discontinue minimum
pipe temperature.
Target C02
• Maintain CO2 levels at 700 to 1000 ppm from
one hour after sunrise until one hour before
sunset.
• Higher than 1000 ppm of CO2 can reduce
leaf size and cause yellowing of leaves.
• Reduce CO2 levels during transition weather
(dark to bright). Under such conditions high
levels of CO2 can cause tissue damage.
• Sawdust and soil on the floor area can gener-
ate high levels of CO2 (>1000 ppm) during
the night. Turn off CO2 dosing 2 hours before
sunset and vent slightly to keep the CO2
levels below 500 ppm.
• CO2 levels can be used as a tool to direct the
crop in a vegetative or generative direction.
CO2 concentrations of 700 to 1300 ppm
supplied for a short period can provide a
generative signal to the plant.
Target VPD
• Target 3.0 to 7.0 VPD with 4.0 before mid-
day and from 3.0 to 3.5 in afternoon.
• During hot weather, activate the plant early in
the morning using a minimum pipe. This will
increase the RH in the greenhouse and allow
plants to cope better with the stress related to
the high temperatures in the afternoon.
• Use a maximum vent followed by roof sprin-
klers if VPD is higher than 7.0 or inside
temperature exceeds 28oC and the plant is
showing wilt stress.
Target Ventilation
• Start ventilating during bright days when the
outside temperature is above 8oC and there is
little chance of cold air chilling the plant heads.
Start with the lee side and use the wind side
only when wind speed is less than 2m/sec.
• Use a large dead zone and very reactive p-
band in the early part of the spring period.
• Vent when temperatures inside the green-
house reach 24oC and outside temperatures
are higher than 8oC. New, tightly-sealed
houses may require a slight vent opening (1 -
2 cm) on the lee side when outside tempera-
tures are close to 0oC to avoid low VPD.
• A small vent opening (1 to 2 cm) especially
in morning will aid in controlling humidity.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Be aware of and avoid condensation as a
sudden drop in air temperature can result in
4. Pepper Production
condensation on fruits and plant tissue.
Target Irrigation and Feed
EC targets
• Target feed EC of 2.5 to 3.0 until the end of
April.
• During cloudy weather increase EC up to 3.2.
• If the plant is too vegetative, increase EC.
• Target drain EC of 2.8 to 3.5.
pH targets
• Target feed pH of 5.8 to 6.2.
• Target drain pH of 6.5 to 6.8.
• Feed pH lower than 5.5 will damage
rockwool fibers.
• pH in sawdust bags can be lowered by using
0.5 to 1 mmol/L ammonium in the feed.
Note: the incidence of BER may increase
when using high levels of ammonium.
Nutrient targets
• Buffer water with bicarbonate (sodium
bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate) if
water source contains less than 50 ppm
bicarbonates. Introduce the bicarbonates in a
day storage tank prior to mixing in the con-
centrate from A and B tanks. Ideally, the
bicarbonates need 12 to 24 hours to reach
chemical stability.
• Follow general feeding guidelines adjusted
for over-drain analysis; note differences
between start, picking and high volume
formulas (see Table 3-15, page 39).
• When re-circulating nutrient solution, blend
one part of the old solution with two parts
of the new solution in order to avoid nutri-
ent imbalances.
61
 • In re-circulated solution, target:
4. Pepper Production
- chloride (Cl-) of 1 to 3 mmol/L;
- sodium (Na+) of below 6 mmol/L.
Volume and over-drain targets
• Target irrigation volume (ml/m2/day) ap-
proximately 2.5 times the value of accumu-
lated light.
• Start irrigating 1.5 to 2 hours after sunrise
and stop 1.5 hours before sunset.
• Feed from 120 to 150 ml/m2 / cycle until
March, then reduce it to between 100 and
120 ml/cycle.
• If a night watering is required, 80 ml/cycle is
sufficient.
• It is important not to over-wet the sawdust
or rockwool when ADT is at 25oC or above.
Under these conditions, oxygen concentra-
tion in the feed solutions and growing media
becomes limited and roots may be damaged.
• During bright weather, target first over-drain
by the 3rd irrigation of the morning at 25 to
30%.
• During dark weather, target OD of 15 to 20%.
Plant Management
Leaf Number
• In March start leaving two leaves per shoot
for generative cultivars or low density
plantings. Increased canopy protects fruit
from sunscald and provides better cooling
through transpiration.
• Cultivars like Eagle, with thin canopies
require two leaves per shoot starting in mid-
February. Prune extra flowers.
• Maintain a 10-day pruning cycle and remove
only leaves 10cm below the head.
• Alternate row pruning cycles to reduce plant
stress and its indirect effect on climate.
Fruit Number
• Accumulated light and size of first set deter-
62 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
mines the timing and success of the second
set. Under low light levels, reduce night
temperature but elevate day temperature to
promote strong flower buds. Lowering ADT
is counter productive. It slows the ripening
of the first set and has no effect on initiating
the second one.
• Maintain more fruits on a vegetative plant
and less on a generative one to condition
plants for the approach of summer.
• Target 35 to 40 fruit/m2 for most cultivars,
with 30 fruit/m2 for large-fruited cultivars
like 444.
• Use 1 to 2 hour pre-night temperature of 16
to 18oC to bend flowers downward.
• During pruning avoid brushing the flowers
and small fruit with twine. This could result
in ‘stitching’ or scarring as the fruit enlarges.
Generative plants tend to set fruit high,
increasing the incidence of sunscald. Keep
extra leaves to protect the fruit and use roof
sprinklers, white wash or movable screens in
transition weather or when the temperature
is higher than 28oC.
Fruit Nutrition
• Fruit loads can be very high in April and can
slow down the vegetative growth of the
plant. Under conditions of slow vegetative
growth, the incidence of BER increases.
Ensure adequate calcium levels (add 1milli-
mole/L) and maintain an active climate.
• Ammonium-free calcium nitrate and pH 6 to
6.2 of the feed will also aid the uptake of
calcium.
• High sodium (Na) as indicated by >12
mmol/L in the drain, significantly reduces
fruit number and interferes with the
K:Ca:Mg ratio and uptake of individual ions.
 Table 4-3. Early spring production /February-March-April (weeks 5 – 18)
Growing Strategy
1. Start: with approximately 15-week-old plants that have the first set established and the second initiated.
Promote: a balance between the growth speed and the fruit load. Build a strong and vigorous plant with abundant leaf area and well-matted root system.
These plant characteristics will be critical for maintaining the optimum fruit production during the summer period.
3. Finish: with >25 fruit /m2 by the end of April.

Growth stage Temperature (oC)
o o
Set ADT 20 and 23 ,
depending on light intensity,
fruit set or size
Lower to 20o during
extended periods of dark
weather
Use pre-night length to
control ADT
Set minimum rail pipe at 40q,
maximum at 65o
CO2 (ppm)
Start 1 hour after sunrise,
stop 1-2 hours before
sunset
Maintain 700 –1000
during day and lower than
500 at night
Lower CO 2 concentration
during transition weather
VPD (grams/m3) and Irrigation Plant Management
Ventilation
Target VPD 3 – 7 with 4 Start 1.5 –2 hours before Prune to 1 leaf/shoot every 10
VPD before mid-day sunrise, stop 1.5 hours before days
and 3.0 to 3.5 before sunset Starting in March prune to 2
the afternoon Target feed volume 2.5 times leaves/shoot
Start venting during accumulated light m2/day Do not prune above 10 cm
2
bright (>300 w/m ) and Reduce cycle volume to 100- below the head
o
warm days (>8 C) or 120 ml in April Alternate row pruning cycle
when inside Use 80 ml for night watering
temperature is higher
Feed EC 2.5 to 3.0; pH 5.8 to
than 24oC
6.2

Vegetative growth
Use a small dead zone
Remove minimum pipe at Drain EC 2.8 to 3.5; pH 6.5 to
(0.5 –1.0) and very
light intensity higher than 6.8
reactive p-band
300 w/m2 OD 25-30% by the 3rd irrigation

Keep a large difference
between night and day. This
will produce a thick walled
fruit
If required, use 1-2 hr pre-
night to bend the flowers
Use 700 to 1300 for a
short period to stimulate
fruit setting
Target VPD 3 - 7 If required, increase feed EC
to promote fruit setting
Target 35 to 40 fruit/m2 or 25
fruit/m2 for cultivars with large
fruit (444)
Avoid brushing the flowers or
small fruit with the twine. This
will result in fruit scaring.

Fruit set or
downward Remove extra flowers

development
Remove pre-night when
60% of flowers are set

Biological Control Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Establish bio-control agents for: Diseases

Thrips: A. cucumeris , Orius. Watch for symptoms:

Fungus gnats: Hypoaspis.
Basal stem discoloration - Fusarium crown rot.
Aphids: banker plants with Aphidius and release Aphidoletes.
Soft rot on fruit - Rhizopus, Erwinia.
Spider Mites: Start curative and preventive introduction of P. persimilis at
the fist sign of infestation. Establish preventive control with Feltiella
Physiological Fruit Disorders
Stethorus, and Amblyseius.
Loopers: Establish Podisus, Trichogramma and Cortesia. Watch for cuticle cracking, wings, tails, internal growths and misshapen fruit.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

4. Pepper Production

63
 SPRING-SUMMER PRODUCTION (May to August) Weeks 19 - 35
4. Pepper Production
Light, Temperature and Ventilation
Maintaining balance between speed of growth
and fruit load is of key importance. During
spring-summer light levels range from 1100 to
2700 joules/cm2 /day with monthly averages
close to 1900 joules/cm2/day, outdoor tem-
peratures are high and RH low. Developing
fruit must be protected from the high radiation
by canopy shading, irrigation and use of
screens. A full canopy will not only shade the
fruit but will also provide abundant transpira-
tion to cool the crop during summer heat. In
the summer, the pepper plant has a tendency to
be generative. Effective climate management
will ensure balance between growth and fruit
production.
During this period temperature and RH greatly
influence growth and fruit development. Rail
pipes and venting are the major tools in con-
trolling the temperature. The rail pipes are used
mainly during the night and for plant activation
in the morning. Pre-night temperatures, screens
and rooftop sprinklers are frequently used to
control temperature during this period.
Venting is used continuously throughout the
day and becomes the most important tool for
temperature control during the summer. Skillful
venting throughout the day has a significant
influence on total yield. Over-use of vents can
result in excessive transpiration and reduced
speed of growth. Reduction of venting at the
end of the day (<108 joules/cm2 /day) is an
important strategy for improving VPD and
maintaining optimum CO2 levels.
Irrigation
During this period transpiration often exceeds
water uptake. If this is not compensated for
throughout the day, excessive transpiration can
lead to accumulated water stress for the plant.
By mid-summer fruit counts per m2 are reaching
their peak. This period of fruit development
coincides with increased sensitivity to BER.
Irrigation capacity should be maintained at 1.4
64 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
liters/m2/hour (6 to 7 irrigation cycles/hour) to
accommodate maximum transpiration and
nutritional requirements of developing fruit.
Extra irrigation cycles may be required under
high fruit loads (> 25 fruit/m2) and/or when
EC in the media increases. In either case,
extending the watering later into the day may
be required to meet the plant needs. Well-
managed irrigation will show a tendency for
over-drain to increase until 15:00 and decline
thereafter.
In re-circulation systems, it is recommended to
use 50 to 70% new feed and 30 to 50% re-
circulated feed. For example, if the feed EC is
2.5 then use 0.75-1.25 EC of re-circulated
feed and 1.25-1.75 EC of new feed. Using
higher than 70% re-circulated feed will create
nutrient imbalances and can lead to chlorosis
and possibly death of the head.
In extreme summer conditions, salt concentra-
tion in the slab can be reduced temporarily by
irrigating plants with an EC below 2.0 for a
short period of time or by increasing the over-
drain above 35%. Such a strategy, however,
can damage roots by decreasing their ability to
absorb nutrients and consequently EC will
increase just as fast. Damage to roots has a
long-term negative effect on plant growth.
By late summer the light intensity declines and
plants need less water, despite air temperature
still being high. Stop irrigating earlier in the
afternoon (e.g. 17:30) but maintain the target
over-drain.
CO 2
Ensure the CO2 distribution tube is placed
approximately 75 cm under the top of the head
during the spring/summer period to optimize
CO2 uptake. The concentration of CO2 during
the day is related to vent management. In
general, CO2 is optimized in the morning for as
long as possible until venting losses become
too high (>20% vent). Maintaining daily
targets of CO2 at 25 kg/1000m2/hour requires
continuous monitoring and adjustments. Keep
CO2 at 350 to 400 ppm during full venting. At
the end of the day (<300 watts/m2) and during
restricted venting, CO2 can be increased up to
1000 ppm.
High levels of CO2 (up to 1300 ppm) applied
for a short period of time can improve flower
initiation, while low levels applied at the end
of day under reduced venting can promote
vegetative growth.
Too high CO2 concentration can cause reduc-
tion in stomatal opening. Keep CO2 <450 ppm
during the highest temperature period (13:00 to
17:00 hrs) to maintain optimum transpiration.
Too high CO2 combined with high radiation
can cause discoloration of leaves (grey-yellow),
similar to boron deficiency.
In transition weather (cloudy to sunny) and
when the plant is too generative, maintain CO2
levels below 450 ppm. Similarly, CO2 levels
should be less than 450 ppm when high radia-
tion is combined with high moisture deficit.
Plant and Fruit Development
Pruning management depends on cultivar,
growth speed, fruit load and other factors.
During the summer, leaf pruning is typically
reduced as more leaves protect developing fruit
from sunscald and provide better cooling. High
transpiration rates improve RH in the green-
house climate.
Keeping the balance between growth speed
and fruit load is the primary challenge during
summer production. Plants with too high fruit
loads will compromise the growth speed and
the fruit will have a higher chance of develop-
ing BER. With too low fruit loads, the plant
has a tendency to be vegetative and will lose its
yield potential.
Climate Strategies for
Vegetative Growth and Fruit
Set
Target Temperatures
ADT for this growing period ranges from 22 to
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
23oC. Use 23oC for stronger crops and >21oC
for weaker crops.
4. Pepper Production
• Healthy and vegetative crops can tolerate an
increase of 2-3oC above the ADT target of
23oC. Temperature of 26-27oC in the after-
noon along with optimum RH (80%) and
CO2 (500-700 ppm) promotes growth and
formation of strong flowers.
Maintain pre-night temperature of 15oC until
2:00 am and pipe at 25 to 30oC.
Target a night temperature of 20oC by 5:00 am.
• Generative crops with flowers close to the
head will perform better at 23-24oC by late
afternoon. It may be necessary to vent at
sunset to reduce temperature.
• When outside temperature is higher than
25oC: maintain as cool temperature as possi-
ble in the morning. At the same time, acti-
vate the plant with pipes (45-50oC). Increase
tissue temperature up to daytime tempera-
ture 1 to 2 hours before sunrise.
Keep the minimum night temperature at
14oC. It will take too long to warm the fruit
to the daytime temperature when the night
temperature drops below 14oC.
• On clear nights maintain night temperatures
1-2oC degrees higher than the night tempera-
ture target.
• Use roof sprinklers, white wash or fog when
temperature is higher than 27oC and light
higher than 800 watts/m2. This can reduce
the temperature by 2oC. Sprinklers and fog
are used typically at mid-day or when the
leaves on the head are flagging.
Pipe Management:
• Set the minimum pipe temperature at 50oC
by 5:00 am and drop the pipe to 40oC when
light intensity reaches 300 watts/m2 or one
hour after sunrise. When the canopy is full,
keep minimum pipe of at least 38 to 40oC to
ensure good air circulation. The occurrence
65
 of dull fruit is often related to the lack of
good air circulation.
4. Pepper Production
• Drop the pipe temperature to 30oC between
19:00 and 23:00 for 2 to 3 hours in order to
reduce temperature. From an economic point
of view, turning off the pipe completely is
inefficient since it requires more energy to
reheat the water than to maintain it at 30oC
or higher.
• Use the grow pipe when the canopy is full
and when the light is higher than 300 watts/
m2 in order to maintain air circulation. This
improves climate in mid-canopy.
Ventilation
Ventilation strategy depends on outside tem-
perature and wind.
• When outside temperature is lower than 8oC:
Set dead-zone at 1 to 2oC higher than the air
temperature along with slow acting p-band.
This setting will prevent too much cold air
from coming into the greenhouse.
• When outside temperature is higher than 12oC:
Set dead-zone at 0.5oC higher or equal with a
fast reacting p-band.
• When outside temperature is expected to be
higher than 25oC:
Set the vent settings to depend on light
rather than temperature. Start venting with
the lee side (100%) when light intensity
reaches 300 watts/m2. Open the wind side
when temperature increases 2o above that of
the light threshold. Such a venting strategy
will conserve RH and prevent temperature
and VPD from rising too fast before mid-day.
After 13:00, the climate can be adjusted
based on crop strength, radiation and wind
speed. When wind speed is < 1m/sec, wind
and lee side vents can be opened evenly; at
> 1m/sec, delay opening wind side; at >
3m/sec, limit wind side opening.
66 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• During summer, venting between 23:00 –
9:00 hours becomes the best assurance of
lowering the ADT. The night temperature
can be set at 12oC. Although unrealistic, it
will keep the temperature within target. Low
night temperature will optimize fruit size.
• Rate of temperature dropping to reach night
time set point:
Outside evening temperatures between 10
to16oC; 1oC drop every 30 minutes.
Outside evening temperature higher than
16oC; cooling rates can be faster than 1oC
every 30 minutes. The target air temperature
can be reached within 2 to 3 hours. It may
take 5 to 6 hours to reach the target plant
tissue temperature.
Screen Management
• In transition and hot weather (>800 watts/
m2), use sunscreens to protect fruit from
sunscald and help plant acclimatization.
• Use screens (2/3 open) during hot weather,
especially when there is a high percentage of
small fruit (20 mm) or the crop is generative
with many flowers. Screens will shade ex-
posed fruit, reduce BER occurence and
lower leaf and fruit temperature. Leave 30%
of the greenhouse unscreened to maintain
active climate.
Target C02
• Target 20 to 25 kg/1000 m2/hour as higher
CO2 levels aid in flower setting.
• Adjust CO2 levels according to temperature
when vents are 35 to 40% opened:
< 25oC, maintain 700 to 800 ppm;
> 25oC, maintain 350 to 400 ppm.
• Maintain 800 to 1000 ppm during late after-
noon (< 300 watts/m2) to sunset with less
than 20% vents opened.
Target Irrigation and Feed
EC
• Maintain feed EC at 2.5 to 3.0 and drain EC
at 2.8 to 3.5.
• Reduce EC with an increasing light intensity
by dropping 0.1 EC at 108 joules/cm2, to 0.4
EC at 180 joules/cm2.
• During extended hot periods increase the
drip EC from 2.8 to 3.0 provided the plants
are not flagging and OD is within targeted
range. The increased EC provides a more
uniform osmotic pressure throughout the
plant. Reduce EC slightly during the bright-
est period of day but ensure EC comes up
again before sunset so that average feedings
are at target EC.
• When EC of the feed is reduced from 2.7 to
2.2, micronutrient levels are reduced by
25%. Increase micronutrients by 25% when
reducing EC of the feed in order to maintain
acceptable shelf life of the fruit.
pH
• Target pH in the feed between 5.8 and 6.2.
• Target pH in the drain between 6.5 and 6.8.
• If pH is higher than 6.5 in the drain, use
solid calcium nitrate with 1% ammonium,
ammonium nitrate or urea.
• If pH is between 6.2 and 6.5 in the drain,
remove the ammonium nitrate and the urea
but use a reduced amount of solid calcium
nitrate with 1% ammonium.
• If pH < 6.0 in the drain, remove all ammo-
nium sources and use the liquid calcium
nitrate only.
Over-drain
• In July typical use includes 7 L of feed per
m2/day or more with target OD at 30%.
Higher than targeted OD, especially in re-
circulation systems, can cause root problems
related to lack of oxygen. Elevated water
temperatures can also reduce the oxygen level.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Frequency of irrigation
4. Pepper Production
• At light intensities between 1350 and 1620
joules/cm2, use 3 to 4 irrigation cycles per
hour, with 80mL per cycle.
• At light intensity higher than 1890 joules/
cm2, use 5 to 6 cycles per hour. Time or light
based cycles should be verified by the over-
drain percentage.
• During peak light hours (11:00 to 16:00),
irrigate every 65 to 70 accumulated joules
with 80 mL per cycle. After 16:00 hours, use
100 to 120 mL.
• On sunny days, apply the last cycle at sunset.
On dark days, apply it 2 to 3 hours before
sunset. If required, adjust to satisfy over-
drain targets.
• Avoid irrigating plants too early; it may cause
high root pressure and fruit cracking.
• Irrigation after 16:00 depends on the crop
condition, climate and fruit load. For exam-
ple, provide extra irrigation cycles when
promoting vegetative growth with higher
temperatures, RH, and CO2 during late
afternoon.
Target nutrition
• The ratio of K:Ca should be close to 1:1.
· K and NO3 have a wide optimal concentra-
tion range but P has a narrow one. Concen-
tration of P below recommended levels
could increase the chance of BER incidence
as Ca uptake is proportional to P level.
• Plant uptake of Na, Cl and SO4 ions is
limited and they tend to accumulate in the
nutrient solution, particularly in a re-circula-
tion system. Monitor concentration of these
ions carefully.
• The optimum concentration ranges for
micro-elements are quite narrow; deficiency
or toxicity is easily triggered.
• Too high levels of ammonium (>1 mmol/L)
and poor pH control can lead to high inci-
dence of BER.
67
 Plant Management
4. Pepper Production
Target Leaf Number
• Prune to two leaves depending on fruit
exposure, especially plants in edge rows.
• Avoid twisting and removing shoots during
hot weather. Use clips or twist every other
row in alternating cycles. This will prevent
the climate from being affected due to re-
duced transpiration by the handled plant.
Target Fruit Number
• Starting in May and through the summer
target 35 fruit/m2, or 25 fruit/m2 for
cultivars that produce larger fruit. Excessive
fruit loads will compromise plant growth.
• Target cumulative yield of 12 kg/m2 by mid-
July. Selective fruit pruning to 20 – 30 fruit/
m2 will improve fruit size.
• Harvesting 3 fruits/m2 per week encourages
balanced growth. Exceeding 10 fruits/m2 per
week may result in a vegetative imbalance.
• Let primary and secondary flowers set on the
third set (5 to 6 fruit/stem) providing the
plant is in balance.
68 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• Target the fifth setting for the end of June in
order to target the sixth set for the end of
August for harvest in November.
• It takes an average of 8.5 weeks from set to
harvest in the spring and fall and 7.5 weeks
in the summer.
Target Fruit Grades/Size
• Extend the fruit development period by
lowering ADT. This will produce larger,
better quality fruit. Lowering ADT can be
achieved by using roof sprinklers.
• Cull rates of 5% are common at this time of
year. The majority of culls are associated
with sunscald and knife cuts at harvest.
• Large fruit are more sensitive to sunscald
and cracking than medium and small-sized
fruit.
• BER is more frequent under high fruit loads.
Do not remove fruit larger than 50 mm
affected by BER; it could upset fruit balance
of the plant.
• Harvest minimum once a week.
 Table 4-4. Late spring and summer production cycle / May-August (week 19 – 35)
Growing Strategy
1. Start: with 25-35 fruit/m2 and a plant that is slightly vegetative in balance.
2. Promote: plant balance by maintaining speed of growth, optimum fruit load and staggered harvest. Maintenance of balance between growth
and fruit production will maximize overall production.
3. Finish: with 25 fruit /m2 by the end of August
Growth Temperature (oC) CO2 (ppm) VPD (grams/m3) and Irrigation Plant Management
Stage Ventilation
Set ADT between 22o and 20-25 kg/1000m2/hr Target VPD 3 - 7 Start time 1.5 to 2 hrs after Prune to 2 leaves every 10
23o, depending on the crop as an upper end If outside temperature sunrise days
strength target. is less than 8o -set Finish on sunny days at sunset; Avoid twisting and pruning
Set minimum pipe at 50o by At 35 –40% opened dead zone at 1 – 2o on cloudy days 2-3 hours before during hot weather.
05:00 and drop to 40o when vents use 700 - 800 and a fast acting p- sunset Do not prune above 10 cm
light is higher than 300 ppm when band EC feed 2.5 – 3.0; pH 5.8 – 6.2 below the head
w/m2 or 1 hour after sunrise temperature is less If outside temperature
than 25oC and EC drain 2.8-3.5; pH 6.5 –6.8 Let primary and secondary
Drop the pipe to 20o is 12 o or higher –set fruit set on third set
between 19:00 and 23:00 decrease to 350 –400 dead zone at 0.5o and Use 80 ml irrigation cycles during
when temperature is peak light hours and reduce providing plant is in balance
for 2-3 hr. slow acting p-band.
higher than 25oC number but increase volume to
Use a grow pipe when light If outside temperature
Use 800 – 1000 100 –120 ml after
intensity is less than 300 is higher than 25o –
w/m 2 to promote air between late set vent setting At 500-600 w/m2 use 3-4

Vegetative growth
circulation
Set day temp 0.5-1.0o
higher to ensure faster fruit
development
afternoon to sunset dependent on light irrigation cycles/hr
when vents are 20% At light intensity higher than 700
opened w/m2 use 5-6 irrigations cycles/hr
Add 1 night irrigation, if required
Target OD of 30% when feed is
higher than 7L/m2 /day
Use 700 to 1000 to Maintain 3 - 7VPD. Increase feed EC to 3.5 and Target 35 fruit/m2 for a
promote fruit setting This ensures good drain to 4.5 for a short time to medium fruit cv. or 25
quality flowers. enhance fruit set. fruit/m2 for a large fruit cv.

and
ment
Use pre-night to enhance Harvest 3 fruit/week to

Fruit set
develop-
setting maintain plant balance

Biological Control Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Continue monitoring to prevent outbreaks of insect and mite pests. Watch for symptoms of diseases:
xBasal stem discolouration - Fusarium crown rot.
xThrips: A. cucumeris , Orius spp.
xSoft rot on fruit - Rhizopus, Erwini.
xFungus gnats: Hypoaspis spp,
xAphids: banker plants with Aphidius spp. Release Aphidoletes spp.
Physiological fruit disorders:
xSpider Mites: Use P. persimilis for control of outbreaks Establish preventive soft spots, silvering, BER ,sunscald, misshapen fruits and fruit mottling are often
control with Feltiella spp. Stethorus spp., and Amblyseius spp. associated with summer heat stress.
xLoopers: Establish Podisus spp., Trichogramma spp., Cortesia spp. Root condition and diseases:
Check root conditions. Flagging of the head in mid-day and discolouration of roots can
Monitor for the presence of Lygus spp. and psyllids. indicate Pythium infection.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

4. Pepper Production

69
 FALL PRODUCTION (September to November) Weeks 36 - 46
4. Pepper Production
Light, Temperature and Irrigation
Although close to the end of the growing
season, maintain growth speed and fruit devel-
opment in order to establish the final fruit set.
From September through November, accumu-
lated light levels can range from 380-1450
joules/cm2/day. During this period, light inten-
sity and duration drops dramatically and there is
a corresponding decline in temperature.
Reduced solar radiation combined with declin-
ing fruit number/m2 and later the removal of
the growing head, require careful reductions in
the irrigation cycles. This is to prevent fruit
quality problems such as cuticle cracking
caused by excessive root pressure.
Reduced radiation combined with increased
outdoor RH and low wind speed highlights the
importance of creating an active plant climate
using a combination of minimum pipe tempera-
ture (45oC) and moderate venting.
In the fall the physical property of the media (air
to water ratio) often declines due to composting.
Maintain over-drain target in the fall and inspect
the growing media for general vigour of the
roots. High RH, combined with full canopy and
high water retention by the media translates into
less water demand by the plant. In the fall, longer
periods between irrigation cycles are preferred to
keep the roots active through the entire volume
of media. Frequent irrigation cycles cause roots
to deteriorate due to saturation of the media
with water, breakdown of the physical structure
of the media and oxygen deprivation.
Timing of the first and last irrigation must be
related to the water buffer available to the plant
and depends on the condition of the media.
Avoid irrigating before plants start to transpire.
Irrigating too early in the day creates root pres-
sure, causing fruit splitting and cuticle cracking.
70 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Climate Strategies for
Vegetative Growth and Fruit
Set
Target temperatures
• ADT, based on radiation, for August to
September is 20.5oC to 21.5oC; for October,
20.0oC to 20.5oC; and for November, 19.0oC
to 20.0oC.
• Maintain plant growth speed in order to
achieve the last set by early to mid- Septem-
ber. Note that new cultivars can set easily at
20oC average temperature.
• ADT can be further dropped to 19oC -
19.5oC only when the last fruit reaches
mature green stage. This will delay ripening
of the fruit and may not ensure a better
price.
• Increase temperature gradually, 1oC every 90
–120 minutes, early in the morning when the
light levels reach 300 watts/m2. This will
keep tissue and air temperatures about equal
and prevent condensation, reducing chances
of pathogen infections.
Pipe management
• Maintain a minimum rail pipe of 50oC to
60oC two hours before sunrise to provide air
circulation at the base and throughout the
canopy to prevent Fusarium infections.
• The temperature near the rail pipe and near
the heads can differ by more than 5oC. These
differences can decrease the quality of fruit.
To create an active climate, use the grow
pipe two hours before sunrise with setting of
45oC at 0.5 metres below the head or 55oC
at 1 metre below the head.
Ventilation
• Set target temperature for venting to equal
target temperature for heating.
• High RH outside and inside the greenhouse
can lead to poor VPD (<3). Keep a mini-
mum pipe (45oC) and slight vent to activate
the climate until light intensity is higher than
300 watts/m2.
• A small vent of 3-5% may be required to
remove moisture above the screen.
Screen Management
• Open screens at sunrise, or one hour later if
outside temperature is still very cold.
• During the last three weeks of cropping, the
screen can be used more intensively. Keep
the screen closed when light intensity is less
than 72 joules/cm2 /day but leave a small
opening. Open at light levels above 72
joules/cm2 /day to improve humidity.
• Screens can be used to save energy when
outside temperatures is lower than 12oC.
Keep the screen closed and target a tempera-
ture of 18 to 19oC. The heating set point for
the day can be lowered to 20oC.
Target C02
Maintain optimum levels of CO2 at 20 to 25
kg/1000 m2/hour for the establishment of the
last set. After the last set is established reduce
this slightly to promote growth and speed.
Target Irrigation and Feed
EC
• Set EC of feed at 3.0. In the last 2-3 weeks
reduce EC to allow roots to feed on residual
salts in the growing media.
• EC of the drain: September 2.5 to 3.0,
October 3.0 to 3.5, November 3.5 to 4.0.
The increase in EC reflects the decline in the
irrigation volume.
pH
• Target feed pH between 5.8 and 6.2.
• Target drain pH between 6.5 and 6.8.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Over-drain
4. Pepper Production
• In September apply approximately 3 L/m2/
day with 40% over-drain in good light.
• In October and November gradually reduce
volume of irrigation to 1.5 L/m2/day with
20% over-drain.
Irrigation
• During sunny weather the plants still require
high amounts of water at mid-day. Reduce
the frequency and increase the volume of
irrigation cycles. Higher volume (150-200ml)
will prevent saturation and maintain even
moisture and optimum EC in the media.
• Start watering two hours after sunrise and
stop two hours before sunset. Watering too
early can create silvering and cuticle cracking
in fruit due to high root pressure. In dark
weather, start watering 3 to 4 hours after
sunrise to maintain fruit quality.
• Keep a slightly drier slab by increasing the
irrigation volume from 120 to 150mL/cycle.
This will promote more oxygen in the grow-
ing media.
Nutrients
• Target drain K:Ca:Mg ratio at 6.0 : 4.0 : 3.0-
3.5 millimoles, respectively.
• At EC below 3.0, increase micronutrients by
25% in both A and B tanks.
Plant Management
Target Leaf Number
• Prune to one leaf providing the plant is not
too generative. Plants require less cooling
and shading in September when the radiation
intensity and duration are reduced.
Topping and Pruning
• Topping is recommended only after the last
fruit set. Remove the head in mid- to late
September to aid in fruit sizing
71
 • Maintain regular pruning and remove longer
shoots back to the main stem.
4. Pepper Production
• For late setting, which can take place in the
beginning of October, keep the side shoots
short so the flowers can get maximum light.
To aid setting during the last set do not
prune or train the crop during this time and
temporarily reduce irrigation by starting later
and stopping earlier.
• Maintain 20-35 fruit/m2 ; 25 fruit/m2 for
large-fruited cultivars.
• Remove any poor quality fruit.
• Target fruit grade-out of 7% XXL (minimum
diameter of 90mm); 42 to 57% XL (mini-
mum diameter of 80mm).
Conditions Influencing Late Setting
In order to optimize the last set and obtain
mature fruit by November, plants are usually
topped by mid-September. Occasionally, top-
ping is left to early October and harvest is
extended into December. Plant balance is an
important factor influencing the last setting. In
order to maintain plant balance, target the
correct number of fruit per plant and optimize
RH, irrigation supply and stem density. It is
also important to use pre-night temperatures to
initiate this last flower set.
72 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Fruit per Plant
Flower quality declines with decreasing light
intensity and the number of newly initiated fruit
will be less than the number being harvested.
This results in a declining number of fruit per
plant. The reduction of fruit load should not
happen too fast or be too dramatic. Avoid heavy
fruit thinning as it can cause a surge in vegeta-
tive growth and lead to poor quality flowers that
are hidden in the plant head.
Root Temperature
In the fall a lower or reduced root temperature
has a positive effect on fruit set. Avoid high
pipe temperatures (50 to 60°C) during late fruit
setting. Use low irrigation temperatures (12 to
14oC) to improve oxygen availability for roots.
This also provides a generative signal to the
plant and aids the last fruit set.
Stem Density
The three-stem system is beneficial in the spring
but under fall conditions, it creates too much
competition among the stems. This results in
weaker flowers than in the two-stem system.
 Table 4-5. Fall production cycle / September-November (week 36 – 46)
Growing Strategy
1. Maintain plant speed and fruit harvest in order to achieve the last set by early to mid-September.
2. Create an active climate with minimum pipe temperature of 40q if light < 810 joules/cm2 and moderate venting.
3. Target a healthy root system by careful control of water and oxygen levels in the slab

Growth Temperature (oC)
Stage
Set ADT between 20o and
20.5o in Sept. & Oct.; and
19o to 20o in Nov. based on
radiation levels
Full canopy requires
minimum pipes 40o if the
light levels are less than
810 joules/cm2
During clear cold nights
prevent heads from
CO2 (ppm) VPD (grams/m3) and Irrigation Plant Management
Ventilation
20-25 kg/m2/hr Target VPD 4 – 7 two Start time 2 to 3 hrs after Remove head in mid- to late
especially to aid the hours before sunrise sunrise Sept to aid fruit sizing
last set. 45o to 60o pipe until Finish 2-3 hours before sunset A “soft pinch” to all extra
two hours after foliage to protect the final
EC feed 3.5; pH 6.0
sunrise or >675 pepper set from the sun
joules/cm2 EC drain 2.5-4.0; pH 5.8 –6.8
35 to 40 fruits/m2, remove
Avoid large vent First irrigation may be delayed poor quality fruit
opening when outside to 3-4 hrs after sunrise in dark
weather to prevent fruit quality Ethrel option for remaining
temp.<15oC with low fruit
radiation problems

Vegetative growth
reaching low temperatures,
particularly in low
greenhouses
Set day temp 0.5-1.0 oC
higher to ensure faster fruit
development
Restrict irrigation feed rate to
allow a drier slab and promote
more oxygen. This can be done
by increasing cycle volume
from 120 to 150 ml
Use 700 to 1000 ppm Maintain 3 – 7 VPD. Increase feed EC 3.5 and drain Target 35 fruit/m2 for a
to promote fruit This ensures good to 4.5 for a short time to medium fruit cv or 25
setting quality flowers. enhance fruit set. fruit/m2 for a large fruit cv.

and
ment
Use pre-night to enhance Harvest 3 fruit/week to

Fruit set
develop-
setting maintain plant balance

Biological Control Diseases and Physiological Disorders

Continue monitoring to prevent outbreaks of insect and mite pests. Watch for symptoms of diseases:
Basal stem discoloration - Fusarium crown rot.
Aphids: use Aphidius spp. or Aphidoletes depending on the presence of
Soft rot on fruit - Rhizopus, Erwinia.
hyperparasitism. Monitor populations of naturally occurring predators in
the greenhouse.
Physiological fruit disorders:
Spider Mites: Use P. persimilis for control of outbreaks.
soft spots, silvering, BER ,sunscald, misshapen fruits and fruit mottling are often
associated with late summer heat stress.
Monitor for the presence of Lygus species and psyllids.
Root condition and diseases:
Watch for signs of flagging of the head in mid-day; this may indicate a Pythium
infection. Roots infected with Pythium have brown soft tissue as opposed to
white firm roots.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

4. Pepper Production

73
4. Pepper Production

74 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 5. PEST AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
The management of insect and mite pests is an
essential part of crop production and its main
objective is to maintain pest populations levels
below the damage threshold. Effective pest
management requires implementation of inte-
grated pest management programs during the
growing season and thorough end-of-year cleanup.
Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) for
Insect and Mite Pests
IPM uses cultural, biological, and chemical
controls together with pest monitoring to
prevent or suppress outbreaks of insect and
mite pests. Pesticides are part of IPM but they
are used only when monitoring indicates that
biological and cultural controls have not been
effective. IPM has gained industry-wide ac-
ceptance whereas sole reliance on chemicals in
the past has lead to the development of resist-
ance and the buildup of secondary pests. Key
components of effective IPM programs include:
crop monitoring, cultural control, biological
control, and chemical control.
Monitoring
Monitoring is key to a successful IPM program.
An effective monitoring program should in-
clude the following components:
Trained staff to recognize the feeding damage
and pest species. Every greenhouse should
have a pest manager to oversee the IPM pro-
gram, but the crop workers should also be
actively involved in crop monitoring. Time
invested in training crop workers to recognize
and flag damaged infestation areas will result in
more effective pest control and less crop dam-
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
5. Pest and Disease Management
age. The presence of unusual symptoms or
pests should be reported immediately to a
trained entomologist.
Regular crop monitoring is necessary for detec-
tion of pests before economic damage can
occur. The effectiveness of biological controls
is greatly improved when implemented against
low number of pests.
Maintaining good monitoring records is funda-
mental for effective IPM. Record the location,
size and intensity of an infestation and changes
in pest populations from week to week. Also
record the release and establishment of
biocontrol agents and assess the progress of
biocontrol programs.
Note: There are several commercial IPM
monitoring services available to provide weekly
monitoring and control recommendations.
Monitoring procedures include visual inspec-
tion of the crop, and use of coloured sticky
traps and pheromone traps. The method of
monitoring is determined by the pest species.
For example, two-spotted spider mites and
aphids are monitored by visual inspection of
the plant canopy. This can be done in conjunc-
tion with crop pruning and tying operations.
Yellow sticky traps can be used to detect the
presence and number of thrips, greenhouse
whiteflies, aphids, and fungus gnats. They will
attract some bio-control agents, i.e. Aphidius
species. Blue sticky traps are very effective for
monitoring thrips and aphids, but do not attract
other pests. Thrips and whiteflies are usually found
in the traps before they are detected on the plants
and long before they can cause any damage.
75
 Choice of size and design of sticky traps is
influenced by their cost and ease of handling.
5. Pest and Disease Management
Position the traps just above the heads until the
plants reach the wire and then hang them from
the wire. Traps should be changed at least
every 2 to 4 weeks and more often in hot
weather as the glue dries more quickly. Use at
least one trap per 100 pepper plants to detect
thrips. They should be distributed evenly
throughout the greenhouse, with extra traps
located in areas that tend to harbour pests:
doorways, vents and the ends of rows. It is
critical that the traps are checked at least once
a week to detect increases in pest populations
promptly.
Pheromone traps release a synthetic sex attract-
ant luring male adult moths. Trap catches
indicate that the adults are active (flying), the
females are laying eggs, and it is time to start
control actions. Although traps can help detect
pests and hence the timing of control actions,
they do not reliably indicate the number of
pests and are not useful for determining treat-
ment thresholds. Check traps at least once a
week and record the number and species of
moths trapped.
Crop monitoring should begin during propaga-
tion. Indicate preference for the control meth-
ods (chemical or biological) to the propagator
and request a history of pests encountered
during propagation. If there is a need to apply
pesticides, make sure they are compatible with
your biocontrol programs and do not have long
residual times. Monitoring frequency should be
increased as the ADT increases.
Cultural Control
Cultural control is one of the main methods of
preventing outbreaks or spread of some green-
house pests. For example, well-managed drain
collection and good sanitation of the green-
house will keep the populations of fungus
gnats, shore flies and moth flies below the
economic threshold.
Once an area is infested with spider mites,
foxglove aphids or potato aphids, good cultural
76 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
practices can minimize the pests spreading
within the greenhouse. This can be done by
placing infested prunings in closed containers
and by scheduling work in an infested area at
the very end of the day, to minimize the spread
of pests that may land on workers’ clothing,
carts and equipment.
Good crop maintenance is another important
component of cultural control. The plants
must be regularly pruned and twined; all crop
debris should be promptly removed from the
greenhouse and its vicinity. Remove any weeds
that happen to gain a foothold through gaps in
the floor plastic and repair the floor. Personal
plants such as houseplants should not be al-
lowed in the greenhouse. Both weeds and
houseplants can be a source and refuge for
pests and diseases.
Weeds growing around the greenhouse can host
many insect pests. Maintain a well-managed
buffer zone around the greenhouse by regularly
mowing the grass and weeds.
Biological Control
Biological control is defined as the use of
biocontrol agents, primarily predators and
parasites, to control insect and mite pests. Its
objective is to maintain pest population levels
below the damage threshold. Biological control
often results in suppression but not eradication
of the pest populations; some surviving pests
are required to maintain the reproductive cycle
of many predators or parasitoids.
Biological control is most effective when intro-
duced at the first occurrence of pests because it
allows ample time for the establishment of
biocontrol agents and prevention of serious pest
outbreaks. Preventive control relies on the
introduction of biocontrol agents throughout the
infested area or the entire greenhouse. Subse-
quent releases should be made mainly in pest
outbreak locations. Introductions into heavy
infestations have little chance for successful
control. Specific pest control strategies are given
in the following sections.
The increased use of biological controls
throughout the greenhouse industry has led to a
significant reduction in pesticide applications.
The B.C. greenhouse vegetable industry has
become a world leader in environmentally
sustainable, intensive crop production.
Quality Control for
Commercially Available
Biologicals
Most biologicals should be kept at 10 to 15°C
during shipping and storage. Warmer or cooler
temperatures may have an adverse effect on
survival and performance. For example, preda-
tors shipped at higher than optimal temperature
could starve or have an extended non-reproduc-
tive period after release in the greenhouse. Check
the condition of the package on arrival and make
sure the temperature of the package contents is
within required range. Contact the supplier if the
package is excessively warm or cold.
Check the shipping and arrival dates for ship-
ping delays and keep the shipment records and
batch number. Record when and where they
were released in the greenhouse.
Encarsia formosa
On arrival, use a hand lens to inspect the cards
for the presence of emerged or dead parasitoids
or scales with emergence holes. A shipment of
E. formosa should have only an occasional dead
parasitoid or exit hole.
Select one or two cards from the shipment and
make a quick count of the black scales. Put
each card in a separate plastic bag or twist-on
Petri dish. Keep them in a warm but shady
place and inspect for emergence over a two-
week period. Count the number of emerged
adults and compare the result with label specifi-
cations from the supplier.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Aphidius spp. and
Aphelinus abdominalis
5. Pest and Disease Management
These aphid parasites are shipped either as
adults or as pupae in mummified aphids. When
shipped as adults, check the lid and walls of
the container for actively moving insects.
When shipped as pupae, select several mum-
mies and allow them to emerge. Follow a
similar procedure as for E. formosa.
Aphidoletes aphidimyza
This predator is shipped as pupae in an inert
medium such as damp vermiculite. Keep a
portion of the shipment in the shipping con-
tainer with the lid closed and let the insects
emerge. Release the rest in the greenhouse.
Keep in mind that you have to check the
container every day to release the emerged
adults, or you will have wasted them.
Phytoseiulus persimilis,
Amblyseius cucumeris and
Hypoaspis spp.
These predatory mites are shipped in an inert
media. You should be able to see the predators
on the lid and walls of the container when you
open the package. If there is no obvious
activity, mix the medium well by rotating the
container gently and pour some onto a sheet of
white paper. Predators should be visible and
moving about. P. persimilis shipped on leaves
should be active.
Orius insidiosus
This predatory bug is shipped as an adult. They
should be visible immediately through the lid
of the container. After releasing them, check
the bottom of the containers for dead bugs.
Check with distributors of biological control
agents for additional recommendations and
demonstrations of an assessment of quality of
shipped product. To sustain the good quality
of the natural enemies follow the label recom-
mendations included with the shipment regard-
ing storage, handling, and releasing. Never
77
 leave them in the sun or store them at less than
10°C. In general, predators and parasitoids
5. Pest and Disease Management
should be released during the coolest part of
the day so that they become active and emerge
as the day becomes warmer.
Recently, new standards have been developed
through the American Society for Testing and
Material International (ASTM) for the quantifi-
cation of P. persimilis and E. formosa, but it is a
time-consuming process to assess the quantities
accurately. New quick and user-friendly meth-
ods are being developed.
Chemical Control
Pesticides are an essential part of IPM pro-
grams. They are used when biological and
cultural controls are not available or have not
been effective. Chemical control can be used
along with biological control programs to
suppress localized pest outbreaks, e.g. spot
treatments of heavily infested areas.
Although effective in controlling target pests,
application of pesticides can have a variety of
side effects. Pesticides can cause a varying
degree of mortality of biological agents, which
can lead to outbreaks of secondary pests.
Contact with pesticides can irritate many
insects, leading to the dispersal of either pests
or beneficials throughout a greenhouse. The
persistence of a pesticide residue can affect the
establishment of biocontrol agents. Applica-
tions of some pesticides can cause plant stress
or phytotoxicity that reduces the productivity
of the pepper plant and increases its suscepti-
bility to other pests and diseases. Finally, the
misapplication of pesticides can create environ-
mental and food safety problems. The choice
of chemical control should always consider the
hazard to the plant and biocontrol programs.
See page 147 for a list of pesticides used in
pepper greenhouses in B.C. Information on
compatibility of pesticides with biocontrol
agents is available from your supplier and at the
following websites:
78 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
http://www.biobest.be/
(look under side effects)
http://www.koppert.nl/e005.shtml
(look under side effects)
Greenhouse Cleanup and
Other Factors Affecting
Insect & Mite Survival
As fall approaches lower light intensities, shorter
days and the corresponding change in temperature
and relative humidity result in the progressive
decline in the quality of the greenhouse crop.
Changing climate conditions, particularly day
length and temperature, and the quality of the
pepper plant are key factors influencing insect and
mite pest physiology and behaviour. Greenhouse
weeds, crop debris and cleanup disturbances can
also affect pest survival. See also Greenhouse
Cleanup, page 129.
Day Length
Shorter days signal approaching winter condi-
tions. Some pest species respond by entering
diapause, i.e. a quiescent period of greatly
slowed physiological processes. The two-
spotted spider mite starts diapausing in late
summer and early fall. Some aphid species
respond by dispersing to over-wintering hosts.
Others take short-range flights to fresh hosts
and preferred weed species outside of the
greenhouse. Some pests are unaffected by the
day length, e.g. cabbage looper.
Temperature
Insects are ‘cold-blooded’ and their movement
and physiological processes are slow at low
temperatures and fast at high temperatures,
which is why pest managers use the concept of
‘degree-days’ (DD) to measure insect develop-
ment. Insects will reach the same developmen-
tal stage when kept for 10 days at 20 °C or 20
days at 10°C. The low temperatures during
crop removal and cleanup slow the insects’
physiology allowing them to survive a relatively
long time, often until the introduction of the
new crop. Under cold conditions insect repro-
duction is delayed, flight is impossible and they
have a tendency to hide in over-wintering
quarters. Pesticides are less effective when
insect physiology is slowed. Pest control at
reduced temperatures is almost impossible.
This emphasizes the importance of effective
pest control in the late summer and early fall.
In the fall the glass surface can be very cold and
cabbage loopers, potato psyllids and green-
house whiteflies that land on the glass can
survive for long periods.
Host Quality
Declining plant quality can increase the pest’s
tendency to diapause or dispersal. In particular,
larger numbers of spider mites will diapause
early in the fall if plant quality is low.
Weeds
During cleanup, weeds are important alternate
hosts for aphids, whiteflies, thrips, spider mites,
psyllids and caterpillars. In the cold pests can
survive a surprisingly long time on even the
most inhospitable plants. Weeds inside and
outside the greenhouse, particularly cress and
Oxalis species, are potential over-wintering
sites and short-term refuges. Greenhouse
whiteflies can over-winter outside on many
evergreen plants. Lygus species also require
access to fresh plant material throughout the
winter as they periodically feed during hiberna-
tion. Aphids that over-winter as adults can
continue to reproduce on many weed species
inside and outside the greenhouse.
Debris
Plant debris can provide a short-term refuge for
insect pests. Greenhouse whiteflies and aphids
can complete development on leaf debris as it
dries on the floor. Debris can protect spider
mites, whiteflies, aphids and thrips from expo-
sure to fumigants and other cleanup chemicals.
The number of pests carried over from season’s
end determines how soon pest outbreaks will
occur in the new crop, i.e. the more pests that
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
are carried over the sooner they will break out.
Careful attention to cleanup is of utmost
5. Pest and Disease Management
importance. Economic constraints such as gas
prices or pepper prices can affect how cleanup
is conducted. If gas prices are high the green-
house temperature might be kept very low
during the inter-crop period, increasing poten-
tial carryover of many insects. If product prices
are high the inter-crop period might be elimi-
nated to maximize the production time.
Stages in Cleanup
End-of-season
The crop has completed flowering, the last
fruits are ripening and the plant is beginning to
senesce. Daylight decreases from 12 to 8 hours
and light intensity decreases. The major con-
cern at this time is to protect the plants from
serious pest outbreaks, to minimize pests
entering diapause and to reduce populations of
pests to be dealt with at crop removal.
High populations of spider mites during August
to early September will trigger many of them to
diapause and hide in the greenhouse structure
where they cannot be reached by cleanup opera-
tions. They may emerge in late winter or spring,
causing outbreaks and severe plant damage.
Emphasize biological control in September to
reduce pest numbers, with continued monitor-
ing in October to help plan pest control re-
quirements during cleanup. Switch to chemical
control before removing the plants. Remove
weeds inside and outside the greenhouse to
reduce pest refuges.
End-of-crop
Before physical removal of the crop, the irriga-
tion system is turned off to dry down the media
and reduce the plant weight. During this time,
physical disturbances are frequent and tempera-
ture is often reduced to reduce heating costs.
Fumigate the greenhouse as soon as the plants
are removed from the greenhouse. Presence of
the new crop in the greenhouse during crop
removal poses an extreme risk of pest transfer
and infestation.
79
 Inter-crop
The greenhouse is empty and temperature is
5. Pest and Disease Management
low. The greenhouse structure and mechanical
systems are power washed and sterilized,
rooting media are replaced and the plastic may
be replaced.
The new crop should not be brought into the
greenhouse until the old crop has been com-
pletely removed and the cleanup process is
complete. Although usually not economically
feasible, high greenhouse temperatures increase
the insects’ need for water and food causing
many to die.
Remove plant debris and weeds from the
greenhouse and the surrounding property.
Greenhouse whiteflies can fly during the winter
and on a warm winter day could fly from a
debris pile, through a vent and back into the
greenhouse. Inspect the walls for trapped pests,
and the fixtures, posts and curtains for
diapausing spider mites and pupating loopers.
Pressure wash the structure, apply dormant oil
to the concrete and around posts, and remove
plastics and other disposable materials before
bringing in the new plants.
New Crop
Introduction of the new crop is a short and
often-overlooked period when you will either
benefit from a thorough cleanup or pay the
price for a poorly executed job. Consider moni-
toring and applying biological controls during
propagation. The knowledge acquired will help
in planning the new crop pest management
programs. Some biological controls are affected
by day length and are not suitable for use from
December to March. Avoid systemic insecti-
cides as they can have long residual times and
affect the establishment of natural enemies.
The new growth is soft and susceptible to
damage. Begin monitoring as soon as the crop
is planted by trapping and by visual inspection
for initial pest invasions. Spot spray with
products that are compatible with bio-control
agents when necessary to reduce the size and
spread of infestations.
80 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
A careful and thorough cleanup is arguably the
most important step in reducing pest problems
in the new growing season. Day length, tem-
perature, crop quality, alternate hosts and
heating costs affect the cleanup process. Effec-
tive pest management at cleanup will pay
dividends in reduced IPM costs, reduced losses
and ultimately high yields in the new growing
season.
The Major Insect and
Mite Pests
Aphids
Taxonomy and Appearance
The four species of aphids commonly found on
greenhouse peppers in BC are:
• green peach aphid, Myzus persicae;
• cotton/melon aphid, Aphis gossypii;
• potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae;
• foxglove aphid, Aulacorthum solani.
Other aphid species as well as off-type clones
may be found occasionally on greenhouse
peppers. An example is the violet aphid, Myzus
ornatus. This species is mostly solitary, and has
not yet caused problems. See Figure 5-1 for
physical descriptions of the four main species.
Generalized Aphid Life Cycle
Aphids have a complex life cycle, but on green-
house peppers they develop mainly as
unfertilized, wingless females. Winged forms
develop occasionally in response to (1) seasonal
changes in climate, (2) overcrowding, or (3)
poor condition of the host plants. The winged
forms tend to disperse and start new colonies
throughout the greenhouse.
Aphids have a very high reproductive capacity.
At 20 oC each wingless adult can produce 40 to
100 female offspring that in turn mature and
start to reproduce in less than 10 days. Their
high reproductive capacity allows aphids to
increase to damaging levels in a very short time.
 Figure 5-1. Identification of the four aphid species found commonly on greenhouse peppers
green peach melon aphid potato aphid foxglove aphid

5. Pest and Disease Management

aphid
adults

small to medium small to medium medium to large medium to large

size and colour of

(1.2 - 2.2 mm) (0.9 – 1.8 mm) (1.7 –3.6 mm) with a (1.8 – 3.0 mm)
wingless adults

light green mottled with pear-like or spindle body transparent light green to
pale green; sometimes dark green; sometimes shape green. The tips of the
can be pink or red. can be brown and yellow. a shade of light green, antennae, cornicles, legs
See colour photo 11. See colour photo 13. sometimes can be yellow and the leg joints are
or pink. Eyes are dark.
distinctly reddish. Head has a faint rust-
See colour photo 12. brown color.
See colour photo 14.
head

tubercles are large and tubercles are absent and tubercles are large and tubercles are large and
lean towards each forehead is relatively flat angle away from each parallel
other other
abdomen

cornicles are green and cornicles are black, short cornicles are long and cornicles have a dark
slightly swollen toward and stout about 1/6th of the distal green spot at the base,
the tips end is black. and no swelling on the
distal half
Figure 5-1. Identification of the four aphid species found commonly on greenhouse peppers
Feeding Damage Honeydew secretions: All aphid species
Aphids have piercing and sucking mouth-parts secrete honeydew. Large deposits of honeydew
with which they feed on the plant sap. During promote development of sooty mould on the
feeding they inject saliva into the plant tissue. foliage and fruit. The sooty mould can reduce
Aphid feeding negatively affects pepper yield in the yield by reducing photosynthesis. Honey-
several ways. dew and sooty mould reduce the marketability
of fruit. See colour photo 15.
Stunted growth and deformation: Feeding by
high numbers of aphids may cause distorted Viruses: Aphids can transmit over 100 viruses,
leaves and stems and stunted plant growth. The many of them are of concern to pepper grow-
saliva of some species may cause the leaf ers. Examples include: tobacco mottle virus,
tissue to discolour or deform. This can be pepper mottle virus, tobacco ringspot virus,
evident even at low infestation levels. and tobacco wilt virus.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 81

 Preventive Strategies
Preventive strategies for aphid control rely on
5. Pest and Disease Management
repeated releases of parasitic wasps or predatory
midges or the employment of a ‘banker plant’
system to provide alternate hosts to serve as a
reservoir of the natural enemies.
Banker plant system
Banker plants are potted grasses, usually wheat,
oats or barley, which have been inoculated with
grass-feeding aphids and subsequently with a
parasitic wasp. The banker plants provide a
steady supply of parasitoids. This ensures that
aphids are attacked by parasitoids before their
numbers can increase to damaging levels.
Preventive control of green peach and melon
aphids relies on introduction of banker plants
inoculated with Aphidius matricariae or A. colemani,
whereas control of foxglove and potato aphids
uses banker plants inoculated with Aphelinus
abdominalis.
The first banker plants should be introduced as
soon as the new crop is planted. Fresh banker
plants should be added every 8-12 weeks. The
pots are suspended above the crop canopy at a
minimum density of 10 pots/hectare. They are
often positioned along the walkway. Grower
experience, however, suggests that control of
aphids is improved when the density of banker
plants is higher than 10 pots/ha and when the
pots are distributed among the plants rather than
along the pathways. See colour photo 16.
Effectiveness of the parasitoids and banker plant
system decreases in the presence of
hyperparasitoids. These are naturally-occuring
wasps that parasitize developing A. colemani,
Aphidius ervi or A. abdominalis inside an aphid
mummy. Emerging from the mummy the
hyperparasitoid produces an exit hole with a jagged
edge. The exit hole of the beneficial wasp is round
with an even edge (see Figure 5-2).
Hyperparasitoid populations increase in the sum-
mer although they are occasionally observed in the
spring. Start monitoring for the presence of
hyperparasitoids in the spring and monitor both
crop and banker plants. As soon as they are de-
tected, change the preventive control of aphids to
repeated releases of the predatory fly, Aphidoletes.
82 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Differences in Biology and Behaviour
of the Four Aphid Species and Impli-
cations for Control
The extent of damage caused by the four aphid
species depends on a number of circumstances.
All these factors need to be considered when
developing control strategies to prevent or
minimize damage:
• plant age;
• infestation levels – low, medium or high;
• location of feeding – top, middle or lower
canopy;
• type of feeding damage – growth distortion
and/or honeydew secretion;
• dispersal behaviour and colony structures.
Plant Age
Young pepper plants are more susceptible to
feeding damage than mature plants. The damage
inflicted during the first and second fruit set has
more economic impact than damage inflicted later
in the season. Pepper fruit has the highest retail
value during the early spring and the loss of the
first and/or second fruit set can reduce or eliminate
the profit margin. Plants stunted by aphid feeding
at early growth stage often remain shorter and less
vigorous for the rest of the season. As a result
tolerance for aphid damage in January and February
is very low. This is why timely establishment of
preventive controls and well-executed curative
treatment of early aphid infestations are of critical
importance (see Tables 5-1 and 5-2). For a sum-
mary of the commercially available biocontrol
agents used in aphid control, see Table 5-3.
A B
Figure 5-2.
(A) A round, even-edged exit hole is created by a
parasitoid and (B) jagged-edged exit hole
is created by a hyperparasitoid.
 Table 5-1. Summary of IPM strategies for the green peach aphid.
Season Monitoring
Monitor middle and top of the canopy for the
presence of aphids or cast skins.
Watch for deformed heads, downward cupped
leaves and honeydew secretions.
Winter
February)
(December -
Monitor as during the winter. Assess the
establishment and abundance of Aphidius
spp. and Aphidoletes and adjust your releases
accordingly. Look for signs of
hyperparasitism: jagged-edged emergence
holes in the aphid mummies. Monitor the
Spring
pepper flowers for the presence of winged
(March – April)
aphids. Influx of winged aphids signals an
increase of aphid populations.
Monitor the lower canopy for wingless aphids
and pepper flowers for winged aphids. Influx
of winged aphids signals increase of aphid
populations. Assess parasitism levels, and
look for hyperparasitism. Timely detection of
hyperparasitism and winged adults and the
corresponding adjustment of control strategies
Summer
are critical to successful biological control
during late summer and fall.
(May – August)
Monitor middle to top of canopy for presence
of aphids and bio-control agents. Continue
Fall
Nov.)
monitoring until middle of October.
(Sept. –
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
83
Control Strategies
Preventive control of the green peach aphid relies on introduction of banker plants with A.
matricariae or A. colemani or repeated releases of these parasitoids.
To control an aphid outbreak, use repeated applications of Aphidius spp. Release
Aphidoletes and ladybeetles if the aphid problem is widespread. The two predators will
reduce the population to a manageable level, but Aphidoletes offspring will not reproduce at
this time of the year unless supplementary light is used. If aphid numbers become
unmanageable consider application of nicotine fumigant.
Maintenance of low infestations depends on continuous supply of Aphidius spp. through
repeated releases or steady maintenance of the banker plant system. Increase the release
rates if winged aphids are observed in the flowers.
Introduce parasitic wasps and predators to control green peach outbreaks. Curative
applications of Aphidoletes and ladybeetles are the first line of control. They will reduce the
aphid population in a short period of time to a manageable level. Release Aphidius spp. at
the same time and continue releases for 2-3 weeks. The impact on the aphid population will
not be apparent until 3 or more weeks after the initial release. Once established, they will
provide effective and long-lasting control.
At low infestation, feeding of green peach aphids has no economic impact on pepper
production because they feed mostly below the harvested fruit and do not deposit honeydew
on the fruit. This should not be interpreted as an indication to ease off preventive control.
Maintenance of preventive control is very important at this time to avoid aphid outbreaks;
continue weekly releases of Aphidius spp. In the presence of hyperparasitoids, inoculate
banker plants with Aphidoletes or repeat releases of this predator. Exact release rates
depend on the population levels of the aphid, A. colemani, Aphidoletes, and ladybeetles as
well as naturally occurring syrphid flies and lacewings. If winged aphids are seen in the
flowers, ensure continued preventive releases.
At high infestations, the heads and leaves become distorted and there is an accumulation of
honeydew on the maturing fruit. Control outbreaks with the same strategy as during spring.
In the presence of hyperparasitism, use curative releases of Aphidoletes and ladybeetles.
Starting fall with a low population of green peach aphids and a well-established population of
predators and parasitoids will prevent aphid outbreaks. Use curative releases of ladybeetles,
Aphidoletes and Aphidius spp. for control of late outbreaks.
5. Pest and Disease Management

84
Table 5-2. Summary of IPM strategies for the foxglove, potato and melon/cotton aphid.
Season Species Monitoring
Monitor plant heads for
stunted growth, deformed
leaves and cast skins.
Throughout the year, watch
for bright yellow blotching on
the lower leaves, a sign of
early infestation of the
foxglove aphid. Assess A.
abdominalis and Aphidoletes
populations and adjust
Foxglove aphid
releases accordingly.
Winter
Monitor plant heads for
deformed growth, cast skins,
upward cupped leaves and
(December - February)
excessive honeydew
secretions.
Potato aphid
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Monitor the middle and top of
canopy and watch for
deformed growth, and
excessive honeydew
aphid
secretions.
Maintain the same monitoring
program as in winter.
Monitor for winged adults in
the flowers. They signal an
influx of aphids from outside.
aphid
Assess populations of
beneficials in the greenhouse
Spring
and adjust releases if
Foxglove and potato Melon/cotton
necessary.
(March – April)
Monitoring is the same as in
the winter.
aphid
cotton
Melon/
5. Pest and Disease Management
Control Strategies
Infestations of the foxglove aphid occur only sporadically on greenhouse peppers and preventive
control is rarely used. Control of small hot spots consisting of a few plants is most successful
when the infested plants are first treated with an insecticidal soap followed by introductions of
A. abdominalis, A. ervi and Aphidoletes in and around the infested area. The application of
insecticidal soap will cause some phytotoxicity on the pepper foliage. It takes a minimum of 3
weeks for A. abdominalis and A. ervi to become effective; killed aphids turn into black mummies
and the parasitoids emerge after 21 days. Once established they will provide effective ongoing
control. Early detection and immediate applications of control measures increase the chances for
success.
If the foxglove aphid infestation goes undetected and expands, introduce curative rates of A.
abdominalis, A. ervi and Aphidoletes in and around the infested area and monitor closely both
aphid and parasitoid populations. Chemical control of the hot spots should be considered when
black mummies or Aphidoletes larvae are few or cannot be found 2-3 weeks after release.
Chemical control of the entire house is the last line of defense and should be applied when
biological control is not working and the size and number of hot spots continues to increase.
The potato aphid is a sporadic pest and preventive control is not routinely used. Control a small
hot spot using a similar strategy as for the foxglove aphid, using repeated releases of Aphidius
ervi. It takes a minimum of 3 weeks for A. ervi to become effective: 14 days to turn into
mummies and an additional 7 days to emerge.
Use the same control strategy as above if hotspots go undetected and expand. The absence of
A. ervi mummies and Aphidoletes larvae 2-3 weeks after introduction can justify chemical control
of the hot spot.
For preventive control, introduce banker plants with A. colemani or repeated release of this
parasitoid. For curative control, try repeated applications of parasitoids and predators.
Ladybeetles are the first line of control. They should reduce the aphid population to a
manageable level in a short time. Aphidoletes can also be effective in controlling this pest. It will
take a minimum of 3 weeks for A. colemani to become effective. Once established they will
provide good control for the next few weeks.
Biological control strategies for small and large hot-spot infestations are the same as in the
winter. Aphidoletes are a good choice at this time of the year. They are more effective in the
spring and will reproduce; Aphidoletes attack the aphid with the least disturbance, reducing the
chance of dispersal and escape from predation. The use of chemicals is not recommended at
this time, as it will reduce or eliminate established beneficials, specifically Orius. Increase release
rates when winged aphids are detected in the flowers.
Preventive and curative control is the same as during winter and relies on repeated releases of
ladybeetles, A. colemani and Aphidoletes.
 Table 5-2. (Cont’d) Summary of IPM strategies for the foxglove, potato and melon/cotton aphid.

Monitor the lower-middle Use repeated applications of Aphidoletes, and A. abdominalis for control of foxglove aphids.
canopy and watch for yellow During summer the tolerance for foxglove damage is much higher than during winter or spring,
blotched, senesced and mostly because damage caused by low infestations has no economic impact. Maintain
dropping leaves. Look for preventive releases of Aphidoletes, and A. abdominalis when infestations are low; apply curative

aphid
Foxglove
signs of hyperparasitism. release rates if infestations increase.

Monitor the lower- middle Biological control depends on repetitive releases of A. ervi and Aphidoletes. In the presence of
canopy and watch for hyperparasitoids, use repeated releases of Aphidoletes and ladybeetles. Maintain continuous
yellowing and senescing preventive releases in the presence of low infestations; this will ensure effective control of the
leaves with large amounts of potato aphid during summer and prevent outbreaks in the fall.

Summer
honeydew. Monitor the
pepper flowers for the

(May – August)
Potato aphid
presence of winged aphids
and look for hyperparasitism.
Monitor middle to top of Preventive and curative control is the same as during winter or spring and relies on repeated
canopy. Look for releases of ladybeetles, A. colemani and Aphidoletes. In the presence of hyperparsitoids rely on
hyperparasitism and winged Aphidoletes and ladybeetles for both preventive and curative control. Effective control of the

aphid
cotton
adults in the pepper flowers. melon/cotton aphid in the summer will help prevent outbreaks in the fall.
Monitor middle to low canopy. Although present in the crop, foxglove aphid rarely increases to outbreak levels in the fall.

aphid
Foxglove Melon/
Monitor low to middle canopy. Use curative releases of A. ervi, Aphidoletes and ladybeetles to control occasional outbreaks.
Look for yellowing and
senescing leaves and

aphid

Fall
Potato
honeydew deposits.
Monitor middle to top of Use the same control strategy as in the summer.
canopy.

(September –Nov.)
aphid
cotton
Melon/

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

5. Pest and Disease Management

85
 5. Pest and Disease Management

86
Table 5-3. Commercially available biological control agents for aphid control

Name Appearance and life cycle Applications

Adults have 5-7mm long slender, black body. Females lay one egg in an Target host of A. colemani is the melon aphid, but it will also parasitize the
aphid, causing it to swell and change colour to a yellowish-brown. The green peach aphid. Both parasitoids have excellent searching ability and
parasitized aphid is called a “mummy”. The adult wasp exits the mummy can be used preventively at low pest infestation levels. Hyper-parasites
through a small, round hole. can reduce efficacy of this parasitoid.
Release rate (per m2)*:
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Egg to adult 13 days 0.1-0.25 1.0 1-5

Parasitic wasp
Fecundity 300 eggs/female

Aphidius colemani
Minimum of 2-3 introductions, 7-14 days apart.

Aphidius matricariae
Longevity of adult 6 days
Sex ratio 50-60% females
Adults are 4-5 mm long and black in colour. Mummies are similar to Target host is the potato and foxglove aphid, but it will also parasitize the
those of A. colemani. green peach aphid. Like A. colemani, has excellent searching ability and
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) can be used preventively at low pest infestations. Effectiveness can be
Egg to mummy 13.5 days reduced by hyper-parasitism.
Release rates (per m2):
Egg to adult 20 days
Fecundity Not available Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

Aphidius ervi
Parasitic wasp
Longevity of adult Not available 0.2-0.5 0.5-1.0 1.0-5.0
Minimum of 2-3 introductions, 7-14 days apart.
Adults are 2.5-3 mm long, have a black thorax and a yellow abdomen. Favoured hosts are potato and foxglove aphids. It can also parasitize the
Parasitized aphids turn into black mummies. green peach aphid. These wasps are not very mobile, so release should

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) be made on and around the infested plants. Effectiveness can be reduced
by hyperparasitism .
Egg to mummy 7 days
Release rates (per m2):
Egg to adult 21 days
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

17 & 18.
Fecundity 270 eggs/female
Longevity of adult 19 days not advised 1-5 5-10

Parasitic wasp
See colour photos
Two weekly introductions in infested areas only.

Aphelinus abdominalis
 Table 5-3. (Cont’d) Commercially available biological control agents for aphid control

Adult midge (fly) is 2.5 mm long and has a fragile body with long legs This predator will prey on many aphid species. It has good searching
and long antennae. Fully-grown larvae are 2.5 mm long and yellow- ability and is very effective at high populations of aphids. Aphidoletes has
orange in colour. Eggs are very small, oval-shaped and shiny orange- a diapause stage, and can be used effectively from mid-March to mid-
red in color. They are laid in clusters among colonies of aphids. September. It can be released earlier; the first generation will control
Life cycle at 21 OC (70oF) aphids but will not reproduce. They require a layer of dirt for pupation and
Egg to adult 3.5 weeks can’t complete the life cycle in greenhouses with plastic floor covering
unless a fine layer of sawdust or sand is added to the floor. The predatory
Fecundity 100-150 eggs/female
mite, Ambysesis degenerans feeds on Aphidoletes eggs, reducing
Longevity of adult 10 days
efficacy.
Developmental stages Egg, larva, pupa, adult Release rates (per m2):

Predatory midge
Predacious stages Larval stage
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

Aphidoletes aphidimyza
0.25- 0.5 pupa 1.0-5.0 pupae 10 pupae
Minimum of 3 introductions, 7 days apart.
Adults are 5 mm long, orange-brown with black spots. Larvae are black Lady beetles will prey on many aphid species. They are used mainly as a
with yellowish-orange spots. Eggs are oval, yellow, and laid in clusters corrective measure, to quickly reduce high aphid infestations. Quality of
among aphid colonies. this predator is inconsistent and they can be infested with parsitoids.
Life cycle at 22 OC (72oF) Releasing too many ladybirds can jeopardize the population buildup of
Egg to adult 25-31 days beneficial parasitic wasps.
Release rates (per m2):
Fecundity 10-50 eggs/female/day

convergens
Hippodemia
Lady beetle
Longevity of adult Not available Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Developmental stages Egg, larva, pupa, adult not advised 25 50

See colour photo 22.

Predacious stages Adult and larval stages One introduction in infested areas only.
Adults are 5-8 mm in length and have a characteristic “M” shaped white Although this predator feeds on many aphid species its role in biological
pattern on the shoulders. Colour can vary from black to red. control is not yet clear. Currently it is too expensive to be considered for
Life cycle at 25 OC (77oF) full-scale commercial releases and is released in isolated aphid hot spots
Egg to adult 16 days Release rates:
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Fecundity 20 eggs/female/day
Longevity of adult 2 months not advised 1 larva/100 aphids 1 larva/ 50 aphids

Lady beetle
Developmental stages Egg, larva, pupa, adult

Harmonia axyridis
Predacious stages Larval stages and adults One introduction in infested areas only.
Adults are about 12 mm long. Both adults and larvae have big pincer-like These predators feed on many aphid species and soft bodied insects and
mouths. mites. Diapause limits use of this species to spring and summer. Pollen is
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) required for lacewings to mature and reproduce.
Release rates (per m2):
Egg to adult 25-35 days
Fecundity 200-400 eggs/female Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Longevity of adult 50-80 days

Lacewings
not advised 10 larvae 20 larvae

Chrysopa spp.
Chrysoperla and
Developmental stages Egg, larva, pupa, adult
Predacious stages Larval stage Introduce weekly in infested areas until control is achieved.
*- Releases rates presented in the table are for general guidance only. They should be adjusted according to the level of pest infestation and existing
populations of parasitoids and predators. For further information refer to the technical manuals provided by the bio-control producers.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

5. Pest and Disease Management

87
 Effects of Infestation Levels and
Seasonal Changes in Temperature
5. Pest and Disease Management
Distribution of aphids within the pepper canopy
depends primarily on the infestation level but is
also affected by seasonal changes in temperature.
At high infestation levels aphids are found
throughout the pepper canopy, irrespective of
growing season. This is true for all four species
found on peppers.
At low infestation levels distribution of the
foxglove, potato and green peach aphid within
the pepper canopy changes in response to tem-
perature. During winter they are found at the
top of the canopy; during summer, they are
found typically in the lower canopy. The melon
aphid is not affected by changes in temperature
and at low infestation levels, it is found in the
mid- to upper canopy.
Effects of Aphid Feeding on Different
Canopy Levels
Top canopy (in the head)
Feeding on the top of the canopy stunts the
growth of the pepper plant, prevents fruit set
and reduces the marketability of the maturing
fruit due to honeydew deposition. Growth of
sooty mould can also reduce photosynthesis.
Mid-canopy
Feeding on the middle of the pepper canopy
deposits honeydew secretions on the maturing
fruit and leaves. This reduces the marketability
of the mature fruit. Although labour-intensive
and thus costly, the honeydew residue can be
removed by washing.
Low canopy
During summer the green peach, foxglove, and
potato aphids feed in the low canopy below the
maturing fruit. At low infestations feeding has
no direct economic impact on pepper produc-
tion. This should not be interpreted as an indi-
cation to ease off the preventive control. Left
uncontrolled, low infestations of aphids pose a
high risk for a population outbreak, especially in
the presence of hyperparasites. Maintenance of
preventive controls during this time of the year
88 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
is critical to the successful biological control of
aphids during late summer and fall.
Impact of the Nature and Location of
Feeding Damage on the Pepper Plant
Each aphid species inflicts different types and
degrees of damage depending on plant age and
feeding location within the canopy.
Foxglove aphid: Saliva injected during feeding
causes a hyper-toxic reaction. Feeding in the
heads causes discolouration, wrinkling or folding
of leaves and distortion of new growth. Feeding
on the pepper head by even a small numbers of
foxglove aphids can cause growth stunting and
fruit abortion. Feeding on lower leaves can
cause bright yellow blotching, senescing and
defoliation. See colour photo 23.
Potato aphid: Saliva injected during feeding
causes a hyper-toxic reaction resulting in dis-
torted leaves and stems, stunted plants and
necrotic spots on leaves. This aphid also se-
cretes a large amount of honeydew. Although
less damaging than the foxglove aphid, feeding
on the head by relatively low numbers of potato
aphids slows its growth. See colour photo 24.
Green peach aphid: Feeding by large numbers
can cause leaf curling, distortion and
discolouration, and in excessive numbers can
ultimately cause death of the head. Feeding in
the mid-canopy can reduce the marketability of
the fruit due to honeydew secretion. See colour
photo 25.
Melon/cotton aphid: Feeding by large numbers
of aphids can cause growth deformations and
leaf distortion and curling. Even at low
populations, melon/cotton aphids can secrete
large amounts of honeydew on the leaves and
maturing fruit.
Dispersal and Colony Structure
The four aphids have different dispersal behav-
iour and colony structures. Dispersal behaviour
influences the choice of bio-control agents and
cultural practices. Different colony structures
affect the amount of secreted honeydew.
Dispersal
When disturbed, foxglove and potato aphids
disperse by fast walking and by dropping from
the leaves. This behaviour helps them avoid
predators. As a result, they tend to spread
throughout the greenhouse when disturbed by
greenhouse staff or by inappropriate choice of
a bio-control agent. Minimize their dispersal by:
Specific crop maintenance in foxglove aphid
infested area: Collect prunings into closed
containers and remove from the greenhouse to
prevent further dispersal. Remove all senescent
leaves and debris from the greenhouse floor.
Aphids concealed under leaves and debris will
not be affected by fumigants or natural enemies.
Choice of bio-control agents: Use Aphidoletes
to control foxglove and potato aphids. They
cause fewer disturbances than other predators
and parasitoids. Aphelinus abdominalis and
Aphidius ervi can also be used without causing
excessive foxglove or potato aphid dispersal.
Use of ladybugs alone should be avoided.
Colony Structure
The more aphids per colony the more honey-
dew they will produce per unit of leaf area.
At low to medium infestation levels, foxglove and
potato aphids form small, spread-out colonies on
both upper and lower leaf surfaces. At high
infestation levels, both aphids tend to cluster.
Irrespective of infestation levels, green peach
and melon aphids tend to cluster on the under-
side of pepper leaves and produce a large
amount of honeydew.
Chemical Control of Aphids
Before using pesticides for control of aphids or
other pests, read the cautions on page 78 and
on the label. For more information on any of
the chemicals, see page 147.
Diazinon 500E
Use 230 mL/250L of water for 4,000 m2
(575mL/625L of water / ha). For peppers
diazinon may affect flower bud development so
it is only recommended for use before flowering
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
or after last set. This product will disrupt bio-
controls except some strains of Phytoseiulus
5. Pest and Disease Management
persimilis. Avoid contact with heating pipes, as
vaporized diazinon will kill bio-control agents.
Do not apply within 5 days of harvest.
Intercept 60 WP (imidacloprid)
Impower is a chloronicotinyl that combines
systemic activity with long residual control of
aphids and whiteflies. It has no effect on spider
mites. It is not used as a foliar spray but as a
soil drench to actively growing plants with
established root systems. It is translocated
upwards in the plant. Use calibrated drip, hand-
held or motorized irrigation equipment to apply
the soil drench. For best results, do not leach
media for 10-14 days after application. It is
harmful to Aphidius and Aphidoletes. Effect on
other beneficials is unknown. It has moderate
acute mammalian toxicity. It is highly toxic to
aquatic invertebrates. Do not apply within 2
days of harvest.
Nicotine Smoke
Use 1 can/300m3, spacing the fumigators
throughout the greenhouse. Only one applica-
tion is allowable per planting. The greenhouse
should be tightly closed and temperature main-
tained at 22 – 25ºC. If a circulating fan is
present in the greenhouse, it should be turned
on for about 15 minutes to ensure uniform
distribution. Warning: Nicotine smoke is
extremely hazardous. Use a full facemask
with approved canister and protective clothing
when entering a greenhouse that is still being
ventilated. Supplied air must be used if there is
a risk of exposure to the smoke. Ventilate the
greenhouse thoroughly the day after fumigation.
Do not apply within 5 days of harvest.
Safer’s Insecticidal Soap
Use 20 mL/L of water. Insecticidal Soap acts
only by direct contact so thorough coverage is
essential. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label
rate is exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight.
Use high pressure and very fine droplet size. Do
not apply more than twice per crop cycle. Do
not apply within 3 days of harvest.
89
 Thiodan 4E (endosulfan) Fungus Gnats
5. Pest and Disease Management

Use 1.25 - 1.5 mL/L of water. Thorough Taxonomy

coverage of undersides of leaves is essential. Fungus gnats, Bradysia spp., shore flies, moth
Do not apply more than twice per season. This flies, crane flies and mosquitoes are closely
product is highly toxic to the majority of bio- related flies, world-wide in occurrence. One
logical control agents and makes growers species of fungus gnat, common in New Zea-
dependent on chemicals for the control of land, has luminous stages that glow in the dark
subsequent pest outbreaks. It also has high and are known as glowworms. Fungus gnats,
mammalian toxicity. Do not apply within 2 shore flies and moth flies are very common in
days of harvest. pepper greenhouses. Similar in appearance they
Trounce (insecticidal soap and pyrethrin) all thrive under moist conditions in the pres-
ence of abundant organic debris and algae.
Use 50mL/L of water. Insecticidal soap acts Shore and moth flies are considered harmless or
only by direct contact so thorough coverage is nuisance pests. However, they have been
essential. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label known to transmit Fusarium and should not be
rate is exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight. tolerated at high numbers. Fungus gnats are
Do not apply within 5 days of harvest. harmful to roots of pepper plants and it is
important to distinguish them from shore and
Cleanup using Dibrom (naled)
moth flies (see Figure 5-3).
Dibrom can only be used during end-of-season
cleanup, in an empty greenhouse. Use 10mL/
100m2 of greenhouse space when applying
Dibrom to the heating pipes. Apply undiluted
liquid to evenly spaced cold
pipes. Do not allow
Dibrom to drip from the Fungus gnat Shore fly Moth fly
pipes onto the floor as it
won’t completely volatilize
on the floor. Immediately
heat the pipes to at least
41°C and keep vents closed
Adult

for at least 3 hours after the

pipes are hot. Keep the
greenhouse closed over-
night following application
and ventilate thoroughly
before entering.
Adults are 2-3 mm long,
delicate and mosquito like
with long legs and
antennae. The wings are
white-gray to clear with a
characteristic Y-shaped
vein.
Larva
Adults are 2-4 cm long, Adults are about 3 mm long
robust and dark with bristle- and densely covered with
like antennae that are dark or gray hairs.
shorter than the head. Each
grayish wing has five pale
spots.

Larvae are 4 mm long,
whitish to clear, with a shiny
black head capsule.
Larvae have no distinct
head capsule. They can be
opaque yellowish, whitish or
brown, with a forked air tube
at their rear end.
Larvae can be whitish, gray,
or brownish with a distinct
but a small and flattened
head.

Figure 5-3. Adult and larva of the fungus gnat, shore fly and moth fly.
Source: University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Publication 7448. Revised August 2001. 6 pp.

90 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Appearance and Life Cycle of
Fungus Gnats
Adults are weak flyers and are often seen
resting on the media or leaf surfaces. Fungus
gnats lay clusters of eggs in moist media.
Larvae pass through four stages and feed
mostly on fungal mycelium, algae, root hairs
and decaying matter.
Life cycle at 24 ºC (75 ºF)
Egg to adult 21 days
Fecundity 75 - 200 eggs/
female
Longevity of adult 3 - 5 days
Developmental stages Egg, 4 larval
stages, pupa and
adult
Damage
Fungus gnat larvae feed on pepper root tissue
and cause damaged root tissue to swell. Severe
larval damage can reduce plant growth. Feeding
wounds provide entry sites for root pathogens
such as Pythium, Fusarium and Phytophthora.
Adults can also transfer these diseases but they
are relatively week vectors.
Monitoring
Adult flies are attracted to yellow sticky traps
making them useful for monitoring and mass
trapping of adults. Position the traps horizon-
tally, approximately 30 cm above the slab to
mass-trap adults. Position a minimum one card
per 1000 m2 above the canopy to monitor
adults. If a trap catches more than 50 adults per
week, consider the application of treatments.
Potato disks and emergence traps can be used
to monitor larval and adult stages.
Place a 2.5 cm-thick disk of potato half
imbedded into media. Use at least 10 disks per
1000 m2. Examine the disks and the media
underneath weekly for the presence of larvae.
Change the potato disks about every 2 weeks.
Place inverted plastic cups over the media.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Count and examine the emerged adults. The
presence of fungus gnat larvae or adults indi-
5. Pest and Disease Management
cates that the media is infested and may justify
treatment.
Cultural Control
Keep the greenhouse floor dry and clean by
avoiding over-watering, eliminating water
puddles and minimizing plant debris on the
greenhouse floor. Well-managed drain collec-
tion and good sanitation will keep the
populations of fungus gnats below the eco-
nomic threshold.
Biological Control
Start releases of the predatory mite, Hypoaspis
spp., during propagation and repeat soon after
planting. Young plants are most susceptible to
damage. Use nematode applications for curative
control of fungus gnat larvae (see Table 5-4).
Microbial Control
Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis
(VectoBac 600L)
Bti is a microbial larvicide based on toxins
produced by the bacterium, B. thuringiensis var.
israeliensis. The product is formulated as an
aqueous suspension and must be eaten by the
fungus gnat larvae to cause toxic effects; there is
no contact activity. Thorough coverage is essen-
tial. Apply VectoBac 600L as a soil drench with
adequate water to sufficiently wet the surface
where larvae are found. Apply weekly as a
drench when pest monitoring indicates the need.
VectoBac can be used up to harvest.
Application rates:
Light to moderate infestation, use 2 to 4 L/
1000 L water applied as a drench. Heavy
infestation, use 4 to 8 L/1000 L water. Suc-
cessful control is indicated by less than 50
adults caught per sticky trap per week.
Chemical Control
There are currently no registered chemical
control options for fungus gnats on greenhouse
sweet pepper.
91
 Table 5-4. Commercially available biological control agents for fungus gnats
5. Pest and Disease Management

Name Appearance and life cycle

Predatory mites These mites are 1 mm long and light brown. During larval and first nymphal stages,
Hypoaspis miles, they are white. They feed on fungus gnat eggs and larvae. They do not enter
H. aculifeir diapause, and can be used throughout the year. They also survive as scavengers,
feeding on algae and plant debris. Hypoaspis are most effective when released
preventively.
Release rate*: preventive 50 -100/m2; released twice, one week apart.

This beetle is 3.7 mm long, shiny, dark brown-black and covered with hair. It preys on
Predatory rove

Atheta coriaria

all developmental stages of soil insects, including fungus gnats, shore flies, moth flies
and thrips. At 25oC, it takes approximately 3 weeks to develop from egg to adult. Adult
beetle

females lay about 8 eggs a day and live for 3 weeks. The beetles pass through an egg,
3 larval and a pupal stages before becoming adults. All larval and adult stages are
predacious. It does not enter diapause and can be released throughout the year.
Release rate*: 2 beetles/m2.

This species is the most effective nematode against fungus gnats. Adult and larval
nematodes are small (1-1.5 mm long), elongated and unsegmented worms. They can
Steinernema feltiae

be applied through the irrigation system. Nematodes will actively search for the larvae
Nematodes

of soil insects. They reproduce inside the invaded host and once established can
provide control throughout the season. Fungus gnat larvae turn from clear white to
milky white when they have been infected by nematodes.
High humidity content of the soil and soil temperature of 13-25 OC are required for the
nematodes to be effective.
Release rates*: curative 500,000/m2. Apply once at low infestation levels; repeat 14
days later at high infestation levels.

* - Release rates presented in this table are general guidelines only.

Loopers
Taxonomy oped larvae are about 3 cm long. The mature
Looper larvae are caterpillars with legs in front caterpillar spins a gauzy cocoon on the plant and
and back which gives them a looping or ‘meas- pupates inside.
uring worm’ appearance while walking. They Life cycle at 21 OC (70oF)
belong to the order Lepidoptera which includes
true moths and butterflies. Of concern to the Egg to adult 42 days
greenhouse industry is the cabbage looper, Fecundity >1000 eggs/
Trichoplusia ni, a migratory pest from southern female
USA. Winter temperatures in B.C. appear too
cold for the loopers to over-winter outdoors but Longevity of adult 2 to 3 weeks
populations of loopers often survive green- Developmental stages Egg, 5 larval
house cleanup. stages, pupa and
adult
Appearance and Life Cycle
The eggs hatch after 2-5 days depending on the
The adult moth is brownish-grey with a charac-
temperature and the tiny larvae begin to feed.
teristic silvery-white spot resembling the number
The larvae develop for 2 to 3 weeks, consum-
“8” near the center of the forewing. The eggs are
ing progressively more plant tissue as they grow.
small, round greenish-white and laid singly on
Pupation occurs and the adults emerge in 10 to
the lower leaf surface. The larvae are pale green
14 days. The moths live approximately 2 weeks
with white stripes on each side and along the
and the females oviposit from a few to several
back. See colour photo 26. When fully devel-
hundred eggs.

92 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Feeding Symptoms and Egg Laying effectiveness of biological and chemical control
Pattern can be determined by monitoring foliage in the

5. Pest and Disease Management

The larva is the damaging stage of this insect.
The newly hatched larvae feed on the under-
side of the leaf, often by removing a thin layer
of tissue. This produces “windows” in the
affected leaves. Older caterpillars feed on the
entire foliar tissue and can cause severe defolia-
tion. Occasionally they will feed on the fruit
calyx resulting in an unmarketable product. See
colour photo 27.
On peppers, loopers lay eggs singly, mostly at
the top of the canopy. Egg parasitoids for
looper control should be chosen based on their
ability to search and parasitize eggs at the top
of the canopy.
Monitoring
Pheromone traps (2/ha) can be used to detect
the presence of moths. Infestation levels and the
upper canopy. Lack of new damage on upper
leaves indicates effective control.
Biological Control with Insects
See Table 5-5 for description of the two main
biocontrol insects available against loopers.
Start releasing Trichogramma once flying moths
have been observed. Control of looper out-
breaks also depends on repeated releases of
‘podi-bugs’ and repeated applications of micro-
bial agents (Bt). Orius insidiosus and Dicyphus
hesperus have also been seen to feed occasion-
ally on eggs and the smallest larval stage.
Although they can contribute to the control of
loopers they can’t control outbreaks on their
own.

Table 5-5. Commercially available biological control agents for cabbage looper

Name Appearance, life cycle and release strategies

Parasitic wasps Trichogramma are small (<1mm) parasitic wasps. Female wasps lay their eggs in
Trichogramma pretiosum, the eggs of the cabbage looper and other moth species invading the greenhouse.
T. brassicae A parasitized egg turns black in 7-10 days and an adult wasp emerges after
another week. The wasps can parasitize from 50 to 80% of the looper eggs, but
that alone cannot control the looper population. Trichogramma is a poor flier and
disperses a maximum of 10 meters from the release point. An effective release
pattern should include a minimum of 155 release points per ha. Under warm,
summer conditions, both the wasp and the egg are very short lived; the wasp
lives 2 to 4 days and the cabbage looper eggs hatch within 2-3 days. Control of
cabbage loopers with Trichogramma requires frequent releases (twice a week) or
use of extended-hatch cards.
Release rates (females/m2)*:
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
5 10 20-40

Spined soldier bug or Adult bugs are large (>1cm), robust insects, with yellow-brown body colouration
‘Podi-bug’ and characteristic spined shoulders. Adults and immature ‘podi-bugs’ feed on all
Podisus maculoventris caterpillar stages. Successful establishment requires the presence of caterpillars
and takes a relatively long period (10-12 weeks). Once established, this predatory
bug is very effective in controlling cabbage loopers and other caterpillars for the
rest of the season. Current release recommendations suggest 1 insect per plant
in low infestation areas and 5-10 insects per plant in high infestation areas.

Parasitic wasp Cotesia is a parasitic wasp that lays eggs inside first and second larval stages.
Cotesia marginiventris This insect has been shown experimentally to cause substantial mortality of
cabbage loopers in vegetable greenhouses but is not currently commercially
available.

Orius insidiosus and Dicyphus hesperus have been seen to feed occasionally on eggs and the
smallest larval stage. Although they can contribute to the control of loopers they can’t control
looper outbreaks on their own.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 93

 Biological Control with Microbials
Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki
5. Pest and Disease Management
(Dipel 2X, Foray 48BA)
Btk targets the larval stage of loopers and is
available in two formulations, Dipel 2X (dry
flowable) and Foray (low volume aqueous
concentrate). Note that the 2X formulation of
Dipel cannot be applied as a dust. Both can be
used up to harvest. Dipel or Foray should be
applied at the first appearance of larvae, as it is
more effective on the young larval stages. This
product is sensitive to UV light and its efficacy
decreases with storage time. Best results are
accomplished when fresh product is applied at
the end of the day. Effective control of cabbage
looper larvae depends on repeated applications
and good coverage of the upper and lower leaf
surface. The caterpillars must eat the treated
foliage to be controlled. Application rates:
• Apply Dipel 2X at 75 to 150 g in 250 L
water/4000 m2;
• Apply Foray 48BA at 60 to 180 mL/1000
m2,
(0.8 – 1.8 L/ha).
Control with Light Traps
Light traps can be used to attract and kill
moths. Position a container with a soap solu-
tion underneath each trap to collect and drown
adults that survived impact with the light trap.
Position traps where adults are observed (high
light areas, e.g. sidewalls). Use of light traps is
not recommended during the looper flight
season as they may attract insects from outside
the greenhouse.
Chemical Control
Confirm (tebufenozide)
Use 500mL in 4,000L water/ha. Good spray
coverage is essential for control as the caterpil-
94 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
lars must eat the treated foliage. Do not exceed
4 applications per year. Note: There is some
evidence that tebufenozide may impact devel-
opment of certain biological control agents
such as Orius and ladybug larvae. It is recom-
mended that growers monitor Orius populations
carefully and if populations are high, consider
an alternative product such as Btk, since Orius
is known to feed on caterpillar eggs. Do not
apply within 3 days of harvest. Re-entry
period is 12 hrs.
Trounce (Safer’s insecticidal soap plus
pyrethrin)
Use 50m/L of water. Insecticidal Soap acts
only by direct contact so thorough coverage is
essential. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label
rate is exceeded. Do not apply within 5 days
of harvest.
Cleanup using Dibrom (naled)
Fall cleanup should target, among other pests,
adult moths and looper pupae to prevent carry-
over into the new crop. Dibrom provides an
effective control of cabbage looper populations
although occasionally the pupal stage may
survive a Dibrom application. A thorough power
washing can remove most of the looper pupae
found on screens, pipes, posts and hooks.
Dibrom can only be used during end-of-season
cleanup, in an empty greenhouse. Use 10mL/
100m2 of greenhouse space when applying
Dibrom to the heating pipes. Apply undiluted
liquid to evenly spaced cold pipes. Do not
allow Dibrom to drip from the pipes onto the
floor as it won’t completely volatilize on the
floor. Immediately heat the pipes to at least
41°C and keep vents closed for at least 3 hours
after the pipes are hot. Keep the greenhouse
closed over-night following application and
ventilate well before entering.
Lygus Bugs
Taxonomy
Lygus bugs are members of the plant bug
family, Miridae. It is a large and important
family containing many crop-damaging species
including the tarnished plant bug, L. pratensis
and also several predacious species. Three lygus
species, L. shulli, L. elisus, and L. hesperus cause
economic loss to greenhouse peppers in the
Lower Fraser Valley of B.C.
Stink bugs, in the genus Euschistus, have occa-
sionally been found on greenhouse peppers in
B.C. Symptoms of feeding damage include
distinctly round and lighter than skin colour
patches on the fruit. Although damaged fruit is
unmarketable infestations have not been great
enough to cause economic damage. Care
should be taken to distinguish the bug from the
similar spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris,
(see colour photo 29) used for biocontrol and
to distinguish the damage from that caused by
the lygus bug.
Appearance and Life Cycle of
Lygus Bug
The adult bug is 6 to 6.5 mm long, and greenish
or brownish with a characteristic yellow “V”
marking on its triangular wing bases. See colour
photo 28. The eggs are imbedded into soft
plant tissue such as petioles or the midribs of
leaves. The eggs hatch to nymphs in 7 to10
days depending on temperature. Nymphs go
through 5 stages (instars). The nymphs resem-
ble aphids, but have more robust legs, move
faster and are never found in groups.
The flight season of lygus bugs starts in March,
when over-wintering adults begin to disperse,
and lasts through to October. They can enter
greenhouses anytime during the flight season.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF)
5. Pest and Disease Management
Egg to adult 30-35 days
Fecundity 50-150 eggs/
female
Longevity of adult 10-12 weeks
Developmental stages Egg, five nym-
phal stages and
adult
Feeding Description
Lygus bugs feed by repeatedly piercing and
sucking the plant tissue. They excrete saliva
containing a blend of enzymes into the tissue.
The enzymes break down cell walls and aid in
the removal of nutrients from the plant tissue.
The growth deformations and stunting caused by
lygus feeding is caused in part by the enzymes
interfering with the wound healing process.
Damage on Peppers
On greenhouse peppers, lygus bugs feed prefer-
entially on flower parts, fruit and terminal and
lateral tips. Work to date in B.C. indicates that
symptoms of lygus damage vary within the
growing season. In spring and early summer,
lygus feeding results in growth and fruit defor-
mations. In late summer and fall, most of the
damage consists of marking and puncturing of
mature fruit. The following feeding damage was
observed:
Terminal and lateral tips – varying degrees of
stunting and growth deformations such as loss
of side shoots, swelling of internodes, exces-
sive foliar growth and formation of multiple
weak leaders.
Flower buds – feeding on or near the pepper
flower bud can cause loss of a flower bud,
excessive stunting of the flower stem, and
abnormal growth of flower buds or fruit.
Fruit – feeding on small developing fruit can
cause deformation of the blossom end while
feeding on fruit walls causes punctures and
discolouration of the fruit surface. See colour
photo 30.
95
 Economic Importance
Damage caused by lygus feeding on the termi-
5. Pest and Disease Management
nal and lateral tips becomes evident only weeks
after the feeding injury. At that point the
growth and production of the injured plant is
typically compromised, regardless of corrective
pruning. Yield losses from lygus feeding can
range from the loss of one to several fruit sets
per plant, depending on severity of the feeding
damage. During late summer, high populations
(>1 bug /20 plants) feeding on pepper fruit can
significantly reduce total and marketable yield.
Monitoring
Lygus bugs are very alert and hide or disperse
when disturbed. Such behavior hinders accu-
rate estimations of lygus densities. Their
presence may be detected by positioning yellow
or white sticky traps approximately 15 cm
above the pepper canopy. Also, learn to recog-
nize feeding symptoms on plants. The eco-
nomic impact of lygus infestations can be
determined by comparing feeding damage in
infested and lygus-free areas. During spring and
early summer, estimate fruit set per plant while
during fall, estimate percentage of culled fruit
with lygus damage.
Cultural Control
Weeds around the greenhouse encourage the
buildup of lygus populations. Frequent mowing
or weed control throughout the season can
reduce the size of lygus populations. Mowing or
weed-killing weedy patches only once or twice
during the season disturbs lygus populations
and could result in greenhouse invasions.
Pruning strategy: In the presence of lygus,
reduce pruning cycle to create more feeding
sites and provide alternate shoots that may be
needed to replace damaged heads.
Biological Control
There are currently no effective methods available
for biocontrol of lygus bugs on indoor crops.
96 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Chemical Control
Action threshold:
Accept low percentage of damage when lygus
populations are stable (adults only). Apply
control measures when low percentage of
damage coincides with presence of both lygus
nymphs and adults.
Thiodan 4E (endosulfan)
Use 1.25 - 1.5 mL / L water. Thorough cover-
age of undersides of leaves is essential. Do not
apply more than twice per season. Thiodan
effectively controls both adult and nymphal
stages. However, it affects negatively the
majority of established biologicals and makes
growers dependent on chemicals for the control
of subsequent pest outbreaks. Thiodan also
has high mammalian toxicity. Economic losses
due to lygus feeding damage should be weighed
carefully against the cost of loss of established
biocontrol agents, chemical dependence for the
control of subsequent pest outbreaks, and the
potential losses from those outbreaks. Do not
apply within 2 days of harvest. Re-entry
period for unprotected workers is 48 hours.
Cleanup using Dibrom (naled)
Dibrom can only be used during end-of-season
cleanup, in an empty greenhouse. Use 10mL/
100m2 of greenhouse space when applying
Dibrom to the heating pipes. Apply undiluted
liquid to evenly spaced cold pipes. Do not
allow Dibrom to drip from the pipes onto the
floor as it won’t completely volatilize on the
floor. Immediately heat the pipes to at least
41°C and keep vents closed for at least 3 hours
after the pipes are hot. Keep the greenhouse
closed over-night following application and
ventilate well before entering.
Psyllids
Taxonomy
Psyllids are small insects resembling aphids in
size and feeding habits. The pear psylla is a
serious pest of pear. In some countries, psyllids
are more numerous than aphids. In B.C. green-
houses, the potato (tomato) psyllid damages
both peppers and tomatoes. The potato psyllid,
Bactericera cockerelli (synonym: Paratrioza cockerelli),
is a migratory pest from southern USA. Each
year, adults migrate north driven by spells of hot
weather. The potato psyllid is a pest of solana-
ceous plants, which include tomatoes, potatoes
and sweet peppers. Whether psyllids can over-
winter in B.C. is still under debate. They can
survive long periods of moderately cold tem-
peratures and short periods of below freezing
temperatures (-2 to -5oC).
Appearance and Life Cycle
Adult psyllids are about 2.5 mm long and have
clear wings that rest roof-like over the body. On
emergence, adults are light yellow to pale green
and turn grey-black within five days. They have
a characteristic white stripe on the first and the
last abdominal segment. The eggs are small, 0.3
mm long, and are supported by a short stalk
attached to the leaf. On peppers, eggs are laid on
the young leaves. Psyllids pass through five
nymphal stages. Nymphs resemble whitefly
scales, but are larger in the last two stages. All
nymphal stages have a fringe of short spines
around the edge of scales. Unlike whiteflies, they
move slowly when disturbed.
Life cycle at 20 ºC (68 ºF)
Egg to adult 21 days
Fecundity 300 eggs/female
Longevity of adult 40 days
Developmental stages Egg, 5 nymphal
stages and adult
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Damage on Greenhouse Peppers
In the past few years, psyllids have been found
5. Pest and Disease Management
early in the season on pepper crops. They have
established and reproduced successfully through-
out the growing season and in some greenhouses
have increased to outbreak levels. Infestations
of psyllids early in the growing season should be
controlled. Establishment and reproduction of
psyllids on mature peppers is typically poor with
nymphs often failing to complete their life cycle.
Late infestations of psyllids are of no economic
concern.
Discolouration of leaves due to nymphal feed-
ing, ‘psyllid yellows’, has not been observed on
pepper crops. Both nymphs and adults produce
large quantities of honeydew, which is coated
with a white wax and closely resembles grains of
sugar or salt. Feeding by large numbers of
nymphs can result in excessive accumulation of
honeydew on the foliage and around the fruit
calyx. Granulated honeydew can promote
growth of sooty mould, which can affect market-
ability of the fruit.
Monitoring
The presence of sugary honeydew on pepper
foliage is usually the first sign of psyllid infestation.
The presence of eggs on young pepper leaves is
also a good indicator. See colour photo 31.
Neon-green, neon-orange and standard yellow
sticky traps are very attractive to both male and
female psyllids. Sticky traps hung near the top of
the plant canopy will capture the greatest
number of adults. Trapping can be used to
reduce, but not eliminate, the population of
adults in the greenhouse.
Cultural Control
Early detection and removal of infested leaves
or plants from the greenhouse may restrict or
delay population increase.
Biological Control
The parasitic wasp, Tamarixia triozae, has been
found to parasitize nymphs of the potato psyllid.
It has proven to be very effective in controlling
psyllid outbreaks on greenhouse peppers and
97
 tomatoes. The wasp parasitizes the fourth and
fifth nymphal stages. Parasitized nymphs change
5. Pest and Disease Management
colour from green to brown. The parasitic wasp
chews a hole in the pupal case and emerges
through it. Development from egg to adult takes
from 16 to 20 days, depending on temperature.
Chemical Control
Safer’s Insecticidal Soap
Use 20 mL/L water. Insecticidal Soap acts only
by direct contact so thorough coverage is essen-
tial. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label rate is
exceeded or applied in direct sunlight. Do not
apply more than twice per crop cycle or
within 3 days of harvest.
Trounce (Safer’s insecticidal soap plus
pyrethrin)
Use 50mL/L water. Insecticidal Soap acts only
by direct contact so thorough coverage is essen-
tial. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label rate is
exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight. Do not
apply within 5 days of harvest.
Cleanup using Dibrom (naled)
One application of Dibrom provides an effec-
tive control of all stages of psyllids.
Dibrom can only be used during end-of-season
cleanup, in an empty greenhouse. Use 10mL/
100m2 of greenhouse space when applying
Dibrom to the heating pipes. Apply undiluted
liquid to evenly spaced cold pipes. Do not allow
Dibrom to drip from the pipes onto the floor as
it won’t completely volatilize on the floor.
Immediately heat the pipes to at least 41°C and
keep vents closed for at least 3 hours after the
pipes are hot. Keep the greenhouse closed over-
night following application and ventilate well
before entering.
Thrips
Taxonomy
The western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis
and the onion thrips, Thrips tabaci are commonly
found on greenhouse peppers. Both species can
cause economic damage to the crop. Echinothrips
98 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
americana and Thrips fuscipennis, are occasional
pests. E. americana adults are about the same size
as the western flower thrips, but their wings have
characteristic white basal markings. This gives
adults the appearance of having a white band
across the thorax (shoulders) when the wings are
folded. They feed, develop and pupate on the
plant. Unlike the other two thrips, they feed and
lay eggs in the leaf tissue rather than in and near
the flowers. At high densities they will also
damage the fruit. During summer they are found
in high numbers in the lower leaf canopy. Feed-
ing and egg-laying causes damage to the leaves
and fruit. Predators effective against western
flower and onion thrips have not been successful
against E.americana.
Appearance and Life Cycle of the
Western Flower and Onion Thrips
The adult western flower thrips is 1.3 mm long,
elongated and yellowish with a brownish-black
abdomen (see Figure 5-4). The larva is translu-
cent white to yellowish. The eggs are inserted
into the leaf tissue. At high infestations, eggs are
also inserted into developing fruit.
Thrips spend most of their life on the plant but
they pupate in the organic matter on the green-
house floor. They are weak fliers but wind
currents can carry them a long distance. They
invade greenhouses through open vents and
doors. Cutting grass around or near a greenhouse
will cause thrips to disperse. Reduce venting
Figure 5-4. Adult Western Flower Thrips.
Source: Anonymous 1952.
temporarily during grass cutting to prevent thrips
from entering the greenhouse.
Damage symptoms
Thrips can damage a plant directly by feeding or
laying eggs and indirectly by transmitting tomato
spotted wilt virus (TSWV). Thrips feed on the
lower leaf surface, growing terminals, on buds
and on flowers. On mature pepper fruit, nymphs
feed under the calyx. Like spider mites they
puncture and kill individual cells. Feeding dam-
age results in “silver” discoloured or necrotic
spots. The damage is often accompanied by the
presence of black frass. Eggs inserted in the
plant tissue cause local discolouration and
deformity. When eggs are laid in young fruit the
damage expands and elongates slightly as the
fruit grows. Fruit with feeding or egg-laying
damage is unmarketable.
Monitoring
Monitoring includes weekly inspection of sticky
traps and the plant canopy. Thrips are very
attracted to blue sticky traps but the yellow traps
are used more often as they can be used to
monitor other insect pests. Use a minimum of 25
traps/ha, positioned 30 cm above the canopy. A
higher number of traps per hectare can nega-
tively impact Aphidius populations.
Inspect plants for foliar damage and presence of
thrips and their natural enemies. Tap flowers
and count the number of thrips that disperse.
Biological Control with Predatory
Insects and Mites
Thrips have high fecundity and relatively short
developmental times, allowing populations to
build very rapidly. Outbreaks of thrips can cause
substantial economic damage in a short period
of time and can be difficult to control biologi-
cally, particularly during winter and early spring.
Preventive control is therefore the main strategy
when dealing with this pest. Effective season-
end cleanup and frequent crop monitoring is
essential for successful preventive control.
During winter and early spring, start releasing
Amblyseius cucumeris and Hypoaspis. Predation by
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
A. cucumeris and Hypoaspis is restricted to the first
instar and pupal stages only. For successful
5. Pest and Disease Management
biological control of thrips during winter, large
introduction rates of these predatory mites are
required to offset their selective predation
pattern. Predatory mites will provide adequate
control only when introduced before thrips reach
damaging levels. Starting mid-March, release
Orius insidiosus. Orius has a diapause stage and
cannot be introduced earlier. This predatory bug
is very effective in controlling thrips and will
also feed on other small soft-bodied insects and
mites. Use curative rates of Orius to control
outbreaks of thrips. See Table 5-6.
Chemical control
Nicotine Smoke
Use one can / 300m3, spacing the fumigators
throughout the greenhouse. Only one applica-
tion is allowable per planting. The greenhouse
should be tightly closed and temperature main-
tained at 22 – 25ºC. If a circulating fan is
present in the greenhouse, it should be turned on
for about 15 minutes to ensure uniform distribu-
tion. Ventilate the greenhouse thoroughly the
next day after fumigation. Warning: Nicotine
smoke is extremely hazardous. Use a full
facemask with approved canister and protective
clothing when entering a greenhouse that is still
being ventilated. Supplied air must be used if
there is a risk of exposure to the smoke. Do not
use within 5 days of harvest.
Cleanup Using Dibrom (naled)
Application of Dibrom for greenhouse peppers
can only be made during end-of-season cleanup
in an empty greenhouse. Use 10mL / 100m2 of
greenhouse space when applying Dibrom to the
heating pipes. Apply undiluted liquid to evenly
spaced cold pipes. Do not allow Dibrom to drip
from the pipes onto the floor as it won’t com-
pletely volatilize on the floor. Immediately heat
the pipes to at least 41°C and keep vents closed
for at least 3 hours after the pipes are hot. Keep
the greenhouse closed over-night following
application and ventilate well before entering.
99
 5. Pest and Disease Management

100
Table 5-6. Commercially available biological control agents for thrips

Name Appearance and life cycle Comments

Adults, about 0.8 mm long, have a pear-shaped, beige-pink body and These predators feed on the first larval stage of thrips. They can also feed
are very mobile. Nymphs are smaller and resemble adults in shape on the eggs of many mite species. A. cucumeris has a relatively low
and mobility. Eggs are transparent white and are often found attached tolerance for low humidity. Commercially available strains have reduced
to leaf hairs on the underside of leaves. tendency to diapause and can be used throughout the year. They are
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) available in a bran carrier or in slow-release bags.
Release rates*:
Egg to adult 11 days
In bran carrier: preventive releases bi-weekly of up to 50 predators/m2;
Fecundity 35 eggs/female curative releases require up to 100 predators/m2

Predatory mite
Developmental stages Egg, larva, 2 nymphal stages, adult Slow-release bags: 1 bag/6-8 plants, every 6-8 weeks (By the end of the

Amblyseius cucumeris
Predacious stages Nymphs and adult crop, every plant should have a bag.)

Adults are dark-brown, larger and more aggressive than A. cucumeris. These mites feed on first and second stage thrips. They don’t have
Eggs are initially transparent and turn partly brown with time. They are diapause and can be used throughout the year. They tolerate low humidity.
laid in groups on hairs on the underside of leaves. Pollen is necessary for establishment.
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) Preventive release rate*: release once, at 1/m2 after pollen becomes
Egg to adult Not available available.
Fecundity Not available This predator feeds on eggs of the predatory midge Aphidoletes, which

Amblyseius
degenerans
Developmental stages Egg, larva, 2 nymphal stages, adult reduces substantially effectiveness of aphids control by Aphidoletes.

Predatory mite
Predacious stages Nymphs and adult
Adults are dark brown with a gray-white section on the wings. Females
are slightly larger than males. Newly emerged nymphs are shiny and
colourless. They change gradually from yellow to brown. Eggs are
very small and embedded in the leaf tissue.
Therefore, use of the A. degenerans on peppers is currently not
recommended.
This predatory bug feeds on the western flower and onion thrips, as well as
on the eggs of moths, spider mites and whiteflies. All stages can disperse
well throughout the pepper canopy. In the absence of prey they can survive
on pollen. Orius has a diapause stage and can only be used from March to
September.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Life cycle at 21 OC (70oF)
Egg to adult 34 days Release rates*:
Fecundity 130 eggs/female Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

Predatory bug
Longevity 3-4 weeks 0.5-1.0/m2; 1-5/m2; 10/m2;

Orius insidiosus
Developmental stages Egg, 5 nymph stages, adult 1-2 introductions, 2 introductions, 1 introduction in hot spot
Predacious stages Nymphs and adult 2 weeks apart 2 weeks apart
Adults are 1 mm long and light brown. Larvae and first nymphal stage These predators feed on thrips pupae in the soil. They do not have a
are white. diapause stage and can be used throughout the year. Both species can
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) survive by feeding on other soil arthropods or algae. They provide only
Egg to adult About 11 days partial control and should be used in conjunction with other biocontrol
agents. They like moist soil and temperatures > 15 OC.
Fecundity Not available
Release rates (one introduction only)*:
Longevity Not available
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

and H. aculifeir
Hypoaspis miles,
Developmental stages Egg, larva, 2 nymphal stages, adult

Predatory mites
2 2
Predacious stages Nymphal stages and adult 100/m 200/m 500/m2

*- Release rates presented in the table are for general guidance only. They should be adjusted according to the level of pest infestation and existing
populations of predators. For further information refer to the technical manuals provided by the bio-control producers.
Two-spotted Spider Mite
Taxonomy
The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae
and closely related carmine mite, Tetranychus
cinnabarinus can be found on greenhouse pep-
pers. For both mites, feeding damage on pepper
and control strategies are the same, therefore
only spider mites may be referred to in this
document. Spider mites feed on more than 900
plant species including some of the common
greenhouse weeds like chickweed, cress, and
oxalis. Mites and their close relatives, the
spiders, are not classified as insects. They differ
in several ways, including lack of antennae and
adults usually with eight legs instead of six.
Due to their small size however, magnification
would be required to observe these differences.
Appearance and Life Cycle
Adults are about 0.5 mm in length. Spring and
summer generations of the two-spotted spider
mite are typically light green in colour with two
dark spots on the back. The adult female of the
carmine mite is dark plum-coloured. Eggs are
round, small (~0.1mm) and pearly white in
color. They can be found on the underside of
the leaf and can be viewed with a hand lens
magnifying 10 times. Spider mites pass through
the one larval and two nymphal stages before
becoming adult. All stages feed on plant tissue.
See colour photos 32 & 33.
Life cycle at 20°C (68°)
Egg to adult 11 days
Fecundity 80 eggs per
female
Longevity of adult 20 days
Population distribution 65% eggs*; 35%
adults and
nymphs
(*Eggs can survive applications of most
miticides, therefore effective chemical control
requires two applications, 5 to 7 days apart.)
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Diapause
5. Pest and Disease Management
Spider mites diapause as mated females.
Diapause is a non-feeding state without repro-
duction induced by short day-length,
unfavorable food supply, and low temperature.
In B.C., diapause occurs from September to
March. Both species are deep orange-red in
diapause. They over-winter in soil, insulation
and small cracks in the greenhouse.
Dispersal of Spider Mites
Spider mites disperse from the pepper plant in
response to the increase in their own numbers;
the higher the density the more mites will
disperse. Methods of dispersal include: hori-
zontal, plant-to-plant dispersal; vertical, up the
canopy and via supporting trellises; and aerial,
ballooning and ‘passive flight’.
Typical summer conditions with high tempera-
tures, low RH and extensive ventilation, allows
mites that moved to the top of the canopy and
horizontal wires to drift on air currents. This
form of dispersal contributes to (1) the expan-
sion of existing hot spots and (2) formation of
new ones, especially at the top of the canopy.
Summer monitoring strategies should consider
the extent of aerial dispersal and mite distribu-
tion within the canopy. Early application of
control measures, removal of heavily infested
leafs or plants, or spot spraying with water or a
miticide will reduce spider mite populations
and consequently their dispersal.
Monitoring
Assessment of spider mite infestations relies on
the examination of the undersides of leaves for
their presence, and searching for the signs of
their feeding damage. In the absence of spider
mite infestations inspect leaves randomly
throughout the canopy. In the presence of
minor damage, inspect leaves at and above the
damaged area. In the presence of severe dam-
age, focus on leaves at the top of the canopy in
hotspots and surrounding areas.
Although spider mites disperse by other meth-
ods, during late spring and summer they can
drift on air currents, causing new infestations to
appear at the top of the pepper canopy. During
101

5. Pest and Disease Management
102
this period the monitoring schedule should
include examination of the upper canopy.
Damage Symptoms and Economic
Importance
Spider mites feed on the underside of leaves,
piercing and sucking the content of leaf cells.
The leaves develop a chlorotic and flecked
appearance. Mite feeding causes closure of
plant stomata, resulting in decreased CO2
uptake, transpiration and photosynthesis. This
ultimately leads to a reduction in yield.
Control Strategies
Biological Control with Phytoseiulus
persimilis
The biology and behavior of the two-spotted
spider mite and its predator P. persimilis are
affected by changes in temperature. Seasonal
temperature fluctuations affect all aspects of
monitoring, choice of predator and release rates.
In south coastal B.C., greenhouse peppers are
grown in a relatively narrow range of ADT, from
19.0oC in the winter or early spring to 23.5oC in
the summer. In the Southern Interior, average
summer temperatures can reach up to 25oC.
The two extremes,19oC and 25oC, are used here
to illustrate the effect of temperature on spider
mite development and the effectiveness of it’s
biological control with P. persimilis. Population
trends were derived with the use of predictive
models. At 25oC, spider mites develop
faster, form more generations and
have a greater population increase
(immatures and adults)
than at 19oC (see Figure 5-5).
Spider mites
During summer, populations of
spider mites started with the same
number of females, will reach higher
levels and cause more damage to
greenhouse peppers than during the
winter or spring. Spider mite
populations should be monitored
frequently during summer to detect
early infestations and prevent rapid
pest outbreaks. Early detection and
Figure 5-5. Differences in spider mite population growth at 19oC
early releases of predators will im-
and 25oC.The two populations started with one female mite.
prove the success rate and signifi-
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
cantly reduce costs of biological control.
Populations of P. persimilis increase faster than
spider mite populations within the 18 to 27oC
temperature range. Within this range, biological
control of spider mites with P. persimilis is very
effective. Outside of this temperature range,
population growth of the predatory mite is
slower than spider mites. This makes biological
control less effective. Climate conditions in BC
generally favour optimal performance of this
predator.
Effect of Temperature and Release
Rates on Biological Control
At both release rates, populations of spider
mites would reach higher levels at 25oC than
19oC, before being controlled by P. persimilis (see
Figure 5-6 A and B). Reaching high infestation
levels just before P. persimilis controls spider
mites often happens in the summer and should
not be considered as an indication of ineffective
biological control. At both temperatures,
populations of spider mites would increase less
at the higher release rate of P. persimilis, i.e. at
the ratio 1:20 rather than 1:28.
The intensity of spider mite outbreaks and the
effectiveness of their control depend on green-
house temperatures and release rates of P.
persimilis. Greenhouse temperatures cannot be
changed for the benefit of biological control
but release rates can be adjusted to offset
45000
40000
Development at C
Devlopment at 19 19o C
35000
30000 Development
Development atat2525
Co C
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Weeks
 A o B o

5. Pest and Disease Management

Bio-control at 19 C Bio-control at 19 C
1500 1500
o o

(immatures and adults)

(immatures and adults) Bio-control at 25 C Bio-control at 25 C
1200 1200
P.persimilis P.persimilis

Spider mites
Spider mites

900 Predator/prey 900 Predator/prey

ratio ratio
600
1:20 600 1:28

300 300

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Weeks Weeks

Figure 5-6. Effectiveness of biological control of spider mites with P. persimilis released at two
predator to prey ratios (a) 1:20 and (b) 1:28 and two temperatures; 19oC and 25oC.
Each population started with two females.

increasing temperatures. At high temperatures release strategy prevents spider mite populations
more predators should be released and they from reaching high levels. Releases should be
should be released as soon as possible. discontinued when predators become well estab-
lished and have produced numerous offspring.
Although it is very useful to have release rates
of P. persimilis based on area (see Table 5-7), Outside the hot spot area, where spider mites
they should be treated as a guide only. Release are at low levels, releases should continue
rates of P. persimilis should be adjusted accord- weekly at a low release rate, until control is
ing to pest density, i.e. the higher the pest achieved.
density the more predators should be released.
Spider mite populations are controlled very The Pest-in-First Method
rapidly when predator-to-prey ratios are 1:10 This strategy is used typically during early
and 1:20. Release rates should ensure this ratio spring and attempts to establish the pest either
is reached within a reasonable time (2-3 in patches or evenly throughout the green-
weeks). When release rates are too low, it will house. Predators are then added to cycle and
take longer for biological control to take effect maintain low spider mite populations over time.
and in the mean-time mites may reach damag- Inoculating plants with P. persimilis on spider
ing levels. mite infested leaves is a similar strategy.

Alternatively release rates can be adjusted by Measuring Effectiveness of Biological

reducing populations of spider mites before Control of Spider Mites.
introduction of P. persimilis. De-leafing or Biological control is effective when:
removal of heavily-infested plants and spot
• Many predators of spider mites are found in
spraying a selected number of plants with water
the infestation area.
or a miticide are just a few methods for improv-
ing the predator to prey ratio. • Spider mite levels are decreasing and leaves
above the infestation do not have feeding
Frequency of Releases
damage.
Frequency of P. persimilis releases depends on the
level and distribution of spider mites within the
infested area. In a hot spot, less frequent but
larger introductions are recommended. This

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 103


5. Pest and Disease Management
104
Table 5-7. Summary of seasonal monitoring and biological control strategies for the
two-spotted spider mite.
Season Monitoring
Monitor biweekly in the absence of
(December-
January)
spider mites, and otherwise weekly.
Winter
Pay specific attention to areas that
are known to over-winter spider
mites. Look for mites and feeding
damage throughout the canopy.
Monitoring spider mites as in winter.
(February –April)
In addition, assess the
effectiveness of ongoing biological
Spring
control and start monitoring
Stethorus and Feltiella.
Monitor weekly and pay close
attention to the areas that had
spider mite infestations in the last
(May-August)
few weeks. They tend to reappear.
Summer
Include monitoring of the upper
canopy to address aerial dispersal
of spider mites. Monitor for
Stethorus and Feltiella and assess
effectiveness of biological or
chemical control.
Monitor biweekly when predators of
(September –
November)
spider mites are numerous or
weekly in the presence of spider
Fall
mite infestations.
Release rates and release frequency of P. persimilis
Apply P. persimilis in and around hot-spots at different rates and release frequencies.
In the hot-spot area, release high rates (>20 predators/plant) in a few, concentrated releases.
Increase release rates with increasing spider mite levels. In the area surrounding the hot-spot,
release low rates weekly.
Commercially Available Bio-Control
Agents
Several predators can feed on spider mites and
contribute to their control. In addition to the
three main predators (see Table 5-8) they
include Amblyseius cucumeris, Amblyseius
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Control Strategies
During this period biological control of spider mites relies entirely on
Phytoseiulus persimilis. Apply P. persimilis before appearance of
spider mites in areas that typically host over-wintering mites.
Release predators at the first sign of spider mite infestations. Use
high rates, and few concentrated releases in hot-spots, and low
rates with weekly releases around hot-spots.
Rely on P. persimilis for control of spider mites, but start inoculating
the crop with Stethorus and N. fallacis in February, and with Feltiella
in mid-March. Release these predators in areas with spider mites.
Once established, they will disperse throughout the greenhouse and
greatly contribute to the control of spider mites throughout the
summer.
Release P. persimilis in and around spider mite hot-spots, and
adjust introduction rates and frequency of releases to the level of
spider mite infestations.
During summer increase reliance on Feltiella and Stethorus for the
control of new spider mites infestations. Use P. persimilis along with
Feltiella to control expanding hot-spot areas.
When starting biological control of a hot spot with medium pest
infestation, consider reducing spider mite populations before
predator releases. Remove heavily infested plants, deleaf, or spray
selected plants with water or miticide. This will reduce the time
required for biological control to become effective and minimize mite
damage to the crop. Introduction of predators into heavy
infestations will stand no chance of successful control. Timely
application of chemical control will reduce crop damage and
dispersal of spider mites throughout the greenhouse.
As in the winter and early spring biological control of spider mites in
the fall relies entirely on P. persimilis. Release P. persimilis in and
around spider mite hot-spots and adjust introduction rates and
frequency of releases to the level of spider mite infestations.
Presence of spider mite infestations during fall can warrant
application of a miticide throughout the greenhouse to prevent the
mites from over-wintering.
degenerans, Orius spp, lacewing species, Dicyphus
hesperus, and others. They cannot, however,
control spider mite populations on their own.
 Table 5-8. Commercially available biological control agents for the two-spotted spider mite.

Appearance and life cycle Applications

Name
Adults are pear-shaped, slightly larger in size than spider mites and light P. persimilis is a very effective predator that increases reproductive
red in colour. Nymphs are transparent off-white in colour. They move capacity in response to the prey supply. It doesn't diapause and its use
faster than spider mites. The egg is oval and almost twice as big as the depends on continued warm conditions. This predator disperses or starves
egg of the spider mite. See colour photo 34. to death after reducing a mite population to below detectable levels. This
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) can cause recurrent spider mite outbreaks and limits preventive use of this
Egg to adult 7.5 days predator. Preventive applications can, however, be used in the winter or
early spring before appearance of spider mites in areas that typically have
Fecundity 4 eggs/female/day over-wintering mites or around the hot-spots areas throughout the season.

Predatory mite
Longevity 14 – 40 days Release rates (predators/m2)*:
Developmental stages Egg, larva, nymphs and adult

Phytoseiulus persimilis
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Predacious stages Nymphs and adults.
1- 3 10 20-50
Adults are about 2 mm long and pink–brown in colour. The larvae are An effective predator with good dispersal and host-finding ability; once
creamy-yellow with some brown colouration. The pupae are found inside established can control and prevent outbreaks of spider mite populations.
the white cocoons that are deposited along the veins of the leaves. Presence of cocoons along veins on lower-leaf surfaces is indication of the
See colour photos 35 & 36. predator establishment. There is no evidence for photoperiod-induced
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) diapause in the BC strain, but feeding on diapausing T. urticae seems to
induce diapause, which limits use of this predator during winter, early
Egg to adult 10-15 days spring and fall. This predator requires the presence of adequate prey for
Sex ratio 60 –70 % females successful establishment.
Fecundity 12 –20 eggs/female Release rates (pupae/ha)*:

Predatory midge
Feltiella acarisuga
Longevity 4-6 days
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Developmental stages Egg, 4 larval stages, pupa, adult
not recommended 600 to 1200 up to 2500
Predacious stages Only larval stages
Adult beetles are round, 2 mm long and shiny black. The larvae are dark A very effective control agent with good dispersal and host-finding ability.
brown and densely covered with hair. Pupae are found on the lower leaf Establishment on pepper can be determined by predator presence or by
surface and along the veins of the leaves. See colour photos 37 & 38. the presence of pupal cases found on the lower leaf surface. This beetle
Life cycle at 21 OC (70oF) has a reproductive diapause, but can be introduced on the pepper crop as
Egg to adult 23 days early as February. It can establish at low mite populations.
Release rates*:
Fecundity 750-1000 eggs/female
Longevity 400-700 days Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Developmental stages Egg, 3 larval stages, pupa, adult not advised 100 - 200 per hot spot 100-200 per hot-spot**

Mite Destroyer
Predacious stages Larval stages and adult

Stethorus punctillum
**The high cost of this predator calls for predominantly inoculative
releases.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

5. Pest and Disease Management

105
 5. Pest and Disease Management

106
Table 5-8. (Continued) Commercially available biological control agents for the two-spotted spider mite.

Adults are slightly larger than adult spider mites and pear shaped. Both This predator is more tolerant of high temperatures and low relative
adults and nymphs are transparent, cream-white in colour. They move humidity than P. persimilis. It has good dispersal and host-finding ability
faster than spider mites. Eggs are oval and cream-white in colour. and can survive without prey if pollen is present. At low spider mite
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) infestations, N. californicus can adversely affect the population growth of
Egg to adult 9 days P.persimilis. When food is scarce, N. californicus can prey on P.persimilis
immatures.
Fecundity 23-30 eggs/female
Release rates (mites/m2)*:

californicus
Longevity 25 days
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

Predatory mite
Developmental stages Egg, larva, two nymphs, adult
Predacious stages Nymphs and adults 0.5-1 3- 5 up to 5

Neoseiulus (Amblyseius)
Adults are slightly larger than adult spider mites and pear shaped. Both Good dispersal and host-finding ability; can survive at low mite
adults and nymphs are transparent, cream-white in colour. They move infestations.
faster than spider mites. The egg is oval and cream-white in colour. See This predator is less effective than P. persimilis at high mite populations. It
colour photo 39. has reproductive diapause, so it can be introduced from March to August.
Live cycle at 20 OC (68oF) Release rates (mites/m2)*:
Egg to adult 9 days Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

fallacis
Fecundity 26-60 eggs/female 0.5 0.5 0.5 plus P. persimilis

Predatory mite
Longevity 14-62 days
Developmental stages Egg, larva, 2 nymphs and adult

Neoseiulus (Amblyseius)
Predacious stages Nymphs and adult
* Releases rates presented in the table are for general guidance only. They should be adjusted according to the level of pest infestation and existing populations of
predators. For further information refer to the technical manuals provided by the bio-control producers.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Chemical Control
Before using pesticides for control of mites or
other pests, read the cautions on page 78 and on
the label. For more information on any of the
chemicals, see page 147.
Avid 1.9 E (abamectin)
Use 30mL/100L of water (600 – 1,200 mL Avid
1.9 in 2,000 – 4,000 L water/ha). Make no more
than 5 applications per crop. Application is
limited to between February and October and/or
when daily light intensity in the greenhouse is
higher than 700 joules/cm2 /day. This product is
best used for hot-spot treatments as it can disrupt
biocontrols. Do not apply within 3 days of
harvest.
Dyno-mite / Sanmite (pyridaben)
Use 284g/1,000L water/ha. For resistance man-
agement, it is not recommended to use Dyno-mite
in successive applications in the same greenhouse.
Rotate with at least one other product (e.g. Avid)
before another application of Dyno-mite is used.
Do not apply more than 2 applications per crop
cycle. Do not apply within 3 days of harvest.
Safer’s Insecticidal Soap
Use 20 mL/L of water. Insecticidal Soap acts
only by direct contact so thorough coverage is
essential. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label rate
is exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight. Use
high pressure and very fine droplet size. Do not
apply more than twice per crop cycle or
within 3 days of harvest.
Trounce (Safer’s insecticidal soap plus
pyrethrin)
Use 50mL/L of water). Insecticidal Soap acts
only by direct contact so thorough coverage is
essential. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label rate
is exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight. Do not
apply within 5 days of harvest.
Cleanup Management in the Fall
Good control of spider mites by late August will
reduce the number of spider mites diapausing in
the greenhouse. Poor spider mite control by late
August justifies end-of-season cleanup.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Power-wash the greenhouse inside walls. Apply
dormant oil on the concrete foundation and
5. Pest and Disease Management
construction bases and on exposed soil. This will
suffocate diapausing mites and significantly
reduce over-wintering mite populations in the
greenhouse.
Dibrom (naled)
Dibrom can only be used during end-of-season
cleanup, in an empty greenhouse. Use 10mL/
100m2 of greenhouse space when applying Dibrom
to the heating pipes. Apply undiluted liquid to
evenly spaced cold pipes. Do not allow Dibrom to
drip from the pipes onto the floor as it won’t
completely volatilize on the floor. Immediately heat
the pipes to at least 41°C and keep vents closed for
at least 3 hours after the pipes are hot. Keep the
greenhouse closed over-night following application
and ventilate well before entering.
Whitefly
Taxonomy
Whiteflies are members of the insect order Hemi-
ptera which also includes the aphids, psyllids and
lygus bugs. The greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes
vaporariorum, and the sweet potato whitefly,
Bemisia tabaci, are occasional pests in pepper crops.
Appearance and Life Cycle
Adult whiteflies have a 2mm long yellowish body
with a mealy white wax covering on the wings.
See colour photo 40. The eggs are white to
yellow when laid and darken before hatching. The
nymphs are semi-transparent, oval, flattened
scales. Both adults and scales are found on the
undersides of leaves.
Life cycle at 22 ºC (72 ºF)
Egg to adult 28 days
Fecundity 150 eggs/female
Longevity of adult 30 days
Developmental stages Egg, 4 nymphs,
pupa and adult
107

5. Pest and Disease Management
108
Damage Symptoms
All whitefly stages have piercing-sucking mouth
parts that feed on the phloem tissue. In high
numbers, feeding may cause stunted plant
growth. Whiteflies, like aphids, secrete honey-
dew. Large deposits of honeydew promote the
development of sooty mould on the foliage and
fruit. The sooty mould reduces yield and market-
ability of the fruit.
Monitoring
Yellow sticky traps are the most efficient method
for monitoring whiteflies. Use a minimum 10
traps per ha positioned 30 cm above the canopy.
Inspect the heads for the presence of adult
whiteflies.
Biological Control
Whitefly infestations occur only occasionally in
greenhouse peppers and preventive control is not
required. Curative releases of Encarsia formosa
and Eretmocerus spp. can effectively control small
outbreaks. Delphastus pusillus can be used in
conjunction with the parasitic wasps to control
larger outbreaks (see Table 5-9).
Chemical Control
Safer’s Insecticidal Soap
Use 20 mL/L water. Insecticidal Soap acts only
by direct contact so thorough coverage is essen-
tial. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label rate is
exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight. Do not
apply more than twice per crop cycle or
within 3 days of harvest.
Trounce (Safer’s insecticidal soap plus
pyrethrin)
Use 50mLl/L water. Insecticidal Soap acts only
by direct contact so thorough coverage is essen-
tial. Phytotoxicity can occur if the label rate is
exceeded or if applied in direct sunlight. Do not
apply within 5 days of harvest.
Cleanup using Dibrom (naled)
Dibrom can only be used for control of whitefly
during end-of-season cleanup, in an empty
greenhouse. Use 10mL/100m2 of greenhouse
space when applying Dibrom to the heating
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
pipes. Apply undiluted liquid to evenly spaced
cold pipes. Do not allow Dibrom to drip from
the pipes onto the floor as it won’t completely
volatilize on the floor. Immediately heat the
pipes to at least 41°C and keep vents closed for
at least 3 hours after the pipes are hot. Keep the
greenhouse closed over-night following applica-
tion and ventilate well before entering.
Miscellaneous Pests
Pepper Weevil, Anthonomus eugenii, is a serious
pest of sweet peppers in Mexico and the south-
ern U.S. As the weevils feed inside fruit, they
are frequently introduced to Canada in im-
ported sweet peppers. A Fraser Valley green-
house pepper crop became infested in 1992.
Eradication efforts were successful and there
have been no further reports of greenhouse
infestations in B.C.
Female weevils lay eggs on flower buds and
fruit. After hatching, the grubs burrow into the
fruit and feed on the fruit wall and seed cluster.
After 8 or 9 days of feeding and 3 days pupa-
tion, the adult emerges and chews a 2mm exit
hole in the fruit wall, usually near the top or
near the bottom of the fruit. The adults fly a
short distance, mate and start feeding on an-
other plant. After a few days, the female lays
eggs and the cycle starts again. The life cycle
can be repeated every 2-3 weeks.
Pepper growers should be on the lookout for
symptoms as follows: 1) egg laying ‘dimple’ on
the fruit skin; 2) infested fruit may turn light
green with brown shoulders; 3) excessive fruit
drop; 4) 2mm exit holes; 5) adults feeding on
leaves cause 3-5mm holes; 6) inside of infested
fruit has brown walls and black seeds. See
colour photos 59 & 60.
Several other insects and mites can be poten-
tial pests on greenhouse peppers. For more
information see Dr. D. Gillespie’s paper titled
“Potential arthropod pests of greenhouse vegeta-
ble crops in B.C.” on the website of Agriculture
& Agri-Food Canada: http://res2.agr.ca/parc-
crapac/english/3electronic_publications/
e_pubs.htm
 Table 5-9. Commercially available biological control agents for whitefly

Name Appearance and life cycle Comments

Adults are about 0.6 mm with a black head and thorax, and a These wasps lay eggs in the third and fourth larval stages of the greenhouse
yellow abdomen. Whitefly scales turn black approximately 7 days whitefly scale. As a result the pest is killed and the parasitic wasp will emerge
after parasitism. from the scale. Effectiveness of this parasitoid decreases at temperatures below
Life cycle at 20 OC (68oF) 18oC and during periods of dull weather.
Egg to adult 28 days Release rates*:
Fecundity About 300 eggs/female Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Longevity of adult 28-47 days N/A 3-5/m2 5-10/m2

Parasitoid wasp
Encarsia formosa
Sex ratio 98-99% females
Minimum of 5 weekly introductions as curative.
Adult females are lemon-yellow and males are brownish-yellow Like E. formosa this wasp parasitizes third and fourth larval stages of the
with thick antennae. Whitefly scales turn golden approximately 7 greenhouse whitefly and will also kill scales by feeding on them. It appears less
days after parasitism. susceptible to pesticides than E. formosa. The temperature must be above 20oC
Life cycle at 25 OC (77oF) for it to be effective.
Egg to adult 20 days Release rates*:
Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations

eremicus
Fecundity 50-100 eggs/female

Eretmocerus
Longevity of adult 28 days N/A 1-3/m2 5-10/m2

Parasitoid wasp
Sex ratio 50% females
Adults are small, 1.3 – 1.4 mm long, shiny black beetles. Larvae This predator is very effective in controlling whitefly but requires high number of
are cream coloured , with legs, and are distinctly hairy. See colour whiteflies for its own egg production.
photo 41. Release rates*:
Life cycle at 25 OC (77oF) Preventive Low to medium infestations Medium to high infestations
Egg to adult 21 days
N/A N/A up to 200 beetles per hot-spot
Fecundity 150-250 female
Longevity of adult 65 days
Developmental stages Egg, larvae, pupa and adult

Predatory beetle
Delphastus pusillus
Predacious stages Larvae and adults

* Release rates presented in the table are for general guidance only. They should be adjusted according to the level of pest infestation and existing
populations of predators. For further information refer to the technical manuals provided by the bio-control producers.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

5. Pest and Disease Management

109

5. Pest and Disease Management
110
Rodents
Field Mice (Voles)
Field mice, also known as voles, are small
rodents (about 13 to 23 cm long) with small,
furry ears and relatively short tails. They fre-
quently gnaw the bark of trees and shrubs, and
can damage underground plant parts by their
tunneling and chewing. Voles can tunnel under
and chew through plastic ground liners causing
drainage problems and contamination of the re-
circulation system.
Cultural Control
Field mice avoid areas that do not provide
adequate cover from predators. Removal of
grass and weeds adjacent to the greenhouse
with herbicides or frequent mowing will reduce
the number of mice in the area. Sawdust and
used media on soil or on plastic liners, provide
protected habitat for field mice and should not
be piled near the greenhouse.
Poison Baits
Poison baits must be placed in covered bait
stations to protect them from the weather and to
prevent accidental poisoning of other animals.
Bait stations can be easily built from metal or
plastic pipes, tin cans, and pieces of wood, or
may be purchased commercially. However,
outdoor bait stations must be secured against
local dogs as they will learn how to upset the
stations to get at the bait and by the time you
realize what has happened, it will be too late.
Bait stations should be placed at 3 to 4 m
intervals in areas where there are signs of mouse
activity. The disappearance of the contents will
indicate that mice have fed on the baits.
Use one of the following according to label
directions:
• diphacinone (Ramik Brown) (multiple-dose;
highly toxic to dogs); or
• chlorophacinone (Rozol) (multiple-dose);or
• zinc phosphide (Mouse Bait 2, ZP, Z-phos)
(single-dose).
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
House Mice and Norway Rats
The house mouse, found nearly throughout
B.C., is a small rodent (16 to 18 cm long),
differing from the field mouse by having a
longer, naked tail, larger ears, and a more
pointed snout. The Norway rat or brown rat,
found in coastal areas only, is a much larger
rodent (36 to 40 cm), which also has a long,
hairless tail. Both house mice and rats may
invade indoor facilities. Although they some-
times damage growing plants and fruits, they
are mainly pests of stored food products, and
are also undesirable because they can carry a
number of diseases, which can be transmitted
to humans. They may damage plastic ground
liners causing drainage problems and contami-
nation of the re-circulation system.
Rats and mice are rarely seen unless very numer-
ous, but can be detected by the following signs:
• droppings (cylindrical and about 5 to 20 mm
long with rounded ends in rats, versus about
3 mm long with pointed ends with mice);
• sounds (gnawing, squeaking, scampering);
• tracks on dusty surfaces or in snow;
• evidence of burrows or holes;
• runways and greasy rub marks along walls
and pipes;
• damage to young plants or fruits.
Cultural Control
Rodent-proofing buildings and eliminating
sources of food, water, and shelter are the best
means of control. Trapping and poisoning
provide only temporary relief. Buildings can be
made rodent-proof by installing tight-fitting
doors and windows, and wire screens over
basement windows and vents. Metal doors or
sheet metal kick-plates on wooden doors will
stop rodents from gnawing through. Elimina-
tion of nesting areas through good housekeep-
ing prevents rodents from getting established
and reproducing. Never leave piles of paper,
burlap, styrofoam, etc., especially against walls
where you can’t clean regularly. All food, feed
and seed, including slug bait should be kept in
rodent-proof metal containers. Old chest-type Anticoagulant rodenticides may require several
freezers are good for this purpose. Garbage feedings to ingest a lethal dose, but eventually

5. Pest and Disease Management

containers in or near the greenhouse must be cause death from internal or external bleeding.
rodent-proof and have tight-fitting lids. The most potent anticoagulants are
bromadiolone, brodifacoum, chlorophacinone,
Poison Baits and diphacinone; however, less toxic anticoagu-
Numerous rodenticides are available for con- lants such as warfarin (alone or with other
trolling house mice and Norway rats. Because chemicals) may also give adequate control, and
of the wide variety of trade names for are less hazardous to domestic animals. Re-
rodenticides, only the common names are given peated use of the same class of product with-
below. All of the poisons listed, except for red out achieving control indicates that the local
squill, are registered for control of both house population of rodents is resistant. Switching to
mice and Norway rats. a product with a different chemical structure
Use one of the following according to label may be necessary.
directions. Single Dose:
Multiple Dose : zinc phosphide;
or red squill (rats only).
brodifacoum;
or bromadiolone; Acute rodenticides such as zinc phosphide and
or chlorophacinone; red squill are more toxic, and can cause death
or diphacinone (highly toxic to dogs); after a single feeding. Covered bait stations,
or warfarin (may also include ergocalciferol recommended for all rodenticides, are essential
or sulfaquinoxaline). with single-dose rodenticides if there is any
possibility of other mammals or birds having
access to the treated area.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 111


5. Pest and Disease Management
112
Disease Management
Plants become diseased when attacked by
certain pathogens: fungi, bacteria, viruses or
nematodes. The first step in any disease man-
agement program is proper diagnosis to deter-
mine the cause of the problem followed by an
understanding of the disease cycle. Always
identify and confirm the cause of the plant
problem by sending a sample to a local plant
diagnostic lab. Do not assume a disease-causing
agent is responsible for the problem that could
be due to environmental factors.
It is important to know which conditions influ-
ence disease development when managing the
health of plants. The three major conditions that
contribute to the development of a plant disease
include a susceptible host plant, a pathogen
and an environment that is favourable for the
pathogen and/or unfavourable for the host. If
these three factors are all present in a green-
house, a plant disease is likely to result. Under-
standing these three factors will help in consider-
ing appropriate control measures.
Good disease management involves using all
available tools to prevent and reduce disease
development. This means utilizing crop moni-
toring; and cultural, physical, biological and
chemical control strategies. Disease prevention
is the best management strategy to follow.
Keep plants healthy by following good cultural
practices such as strict sanitation and suitable
environmental control.
Crop Monitoring – Examine transplants for
disease symptoms before they are brought into
the greenhouse. It is easier to prevent new
infections than to control established ones.
Prevention is the best disease management
strategy. During the growing season, monitoring
should be done weekly as a minimum. Workers
are in close contact with the crop so they can
spot problems early. Train them to be on the
lookout for symptoms of disease and abnormal
growth, as well as pest outbreaks.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Cultural Control – means promoting growing
conditions that favour good crop growth and,
where possible, manipulating conditions to the
detriment of the pathogen. Fungi and bacteria
tend to prefer warm, humid conditions. Discour-
age moisture condensation on the crop by gradu-
ally raising temperatures prior to sunrise. Main-
tain adequate temperatures in the root zone. For
example, keep root zone temperatures above
20ºC to reduce Pythium root rot. Provide ad-
equate spacing of plants and ventilation to
reduce relative humidity. Provide optimum
nutrition. Use resistant varieties or rootstocks
where practical. Allow sufficient time between
crops to do an adequate cleanup. Practice good
sanitation (see Sanitation, page 129).
Physical Control – uses agents such as high
temperatures to affect the pathogen. Heat-
treating rockwool slabs is one example. Use
screens and sticky traps to control insects that
can vector viruses and spread certain fungi.
Biological Control – uses nonpathogenic
fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes to
control plant pathogens. Unfortunately, there
are few biological control agents registered for
diseases in Canada. Current registrations on
greenhouse vegetables include Mycostop (Strep-
tomyces griseoviridis), Rootshield (Trichoderma
harzianum) and Sporodex (Pseudozyma flocculosa
strain PF-A22).
Chemical Control – means using fungicides
only when necessary as determined by crop
monitoring. Select those fungicides that are not
toxic to biological control agents. Check with
your supplier before using a new product.
Rotate fungicide groups to reduce the possibil-
ity of the development of disease resistance.
Use the recommended rate. Too low a fungi-
cide concentration could select for resistant
fungi populations.
Fungicide Resistance
Fungi have genetic variability and in every
population there will be some individuals that
are less affected by a fungicide. Fungi that
produce large numbers of spores, e.g. Botrytis,
are more likely to develop resistant populations
because there is a greater chance for genetic
diversity with larger numbers. Most fungicide
resistance develops by selection pressure on
this very small group of the fungus population.
Susceptible fungi are killed when a fungicide is
applied at the correct rate. This leaves less
competition for food for the resistant fungi,
which will then flourish. If the same fungicide
is applied again to control this population, there
will be little or no control.
Fungicides work by affecting one biochemical
process (site-specific) or several biochemical
processes (multi-site) of the fungus. It takes
longer for resistance to develop with the latter
group. It is recommended not to use one
product, especially of the specific type, con-
tinually or resistant populations may build up.
Use fungicides from different chemical groups
as each group has a different mode of action.
Use the recommended label rate. Lower rates
could cause resistance to develop by allowing
populations of less sensitive strains to survive
and increase. Using higher rates could cause
crop damage or excessive residues.
Fungal Diseases of
Sweet Pepper
Damping-Off (Pythium spp.,
Rhizoctonia solani)
Biology and Disease Cycle
Damping-off, caused by Pythium and Rhizoctonia,
is a common disease affecting seeds, seedlings
and roots of many greenhouse crops. Peppers
are especially susceptible to damping-off
because of their slow germination and emer-
gence. Seeds rot and seedlings are killed before
or just after emergence (pre- or post-emergence
damping-off). Growth and yield in older plants
can be severely reduced due to crown and root
rot. Pythium species, close relatives of fungi, are
classified as protists or water moulds that grow
in water and soil by producing microscopic,
thread-like strands and swimming spores that
infect plant roots. The soil fungus, Rhizoctonia
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
solani, does not commonly have a spore stage.
Rhizoctonia also grows in the soil by producing
5. Pest and Disease Management
microscopic thread-like strands that directly
infect plant roots. Both microorganisms survive
by producing resistant structures. Rhizoctonia
forms tiny, black, pepper-like survival struc-
tures called sclerotia while Pythium forms
resistant, thick-walled, resting spores called
oospores and chlamydospores. Both organisms
can survive in crop debris. Pythium can also
survive and spread in water.
Sanitation, good cultural practices and suitable
environmental controls are the most effective
disease management strategies for damping-off.
The disease is triggered by conditions that
favour soft vegetative growth including adverse
root and irrigation temperatures (too low or too
high), low light levels, warm growing condi-
tions (above 28°C) and low O2 levels in the
growing media (saturated growing media).
Disease Symptoms
Poor seed germination is often a result of seed
rot caused by Pythium. Seedlings are also fre-
quently infected resulting in wilting and prema-
ture collapse of the seedling before or after
cotyledons open. Typical Pythium infections are
characterized by brown discolouration and
constriction at the soil line at the base of
seedling stems. Infected roots often appear
water-soaked, discoloured and rotted, particu-
larly at the root tips.
Management Strategies
Sanitation
• Follow a strict, year-end sanitation program
by disinfecting greenhouse structures, equip-
ment, tools and other materials that may
contact plants.
• Use healthy, disease-free transplants.
• Provide good drainage and avoid excess
moisture in the growing medium.
• Use pathogen-free water.
• Rogue out infected plants when they are first
113

5. Pest and Disease Management
114
detected. Place them directly in a plastic bag
on the spot and remove them from the
greenhouse.
Cultural Control
• Maintain optimal growing conditions, espe-
cially for seedlings and younger plants.
• Provide sufficient space for plants. Do not
overcrowd seedlings.
• Water seedlings in the morning so they can
dry off during the day.
• Ensure that day storage tanks are cleaned
and water from dugouts or rain collection is
properly disinfested and treated for disease-
causing microorganisms.
• Exercise care when transplanting (‘flipping’)
seedlings. Let seedlings wilt slightly so that
stems bend easily and are not wounded when
transplanting.
• Promote good germination and avoid ad-
verse temperatures that slow germination
and seedling growth (i.e. avoid media tem-
peratures below 20-23°C and irrigation
temperatures <18°C).
• Control fungus gnats and shore flies that
spread the pathogens.
• Minimize plant stresses.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Biological Control
Seedling treatment –
Use Mycostop, (Streptomyces griseoviridis) at the
seedling stage at 1 gram/10 L of water to
make a 0.01% suspension and apply it at 0.2
to 1.0 L/m2 of seedlings. Do not use
Mycostop as a seed treatment.
Transplanting treatment –
At the transplanting stage use Mycostop at
1 gram/2 L of water to make a 0.05% sus-
pension. Apply it at 20-100 mL per plant and
repeat every 3 to 6 weeks.
Chemical Control (at propagation only)
Seed treatment –
Use seed treated with a fungicide or treat
with Thiram 75 W at 0.004 grams per gram
of seed. Caution: Do not consume alco-
hol immediately before or within 24 hours
after working with Thiram. Captan dust
can also be used to treat seed. Customized
seed treatment with specialized seed equip-
ment is required when applying these small
amounts of fungicides.
Treatment of rockwool blocks –
If damping-off occurs, soak blocks with a
solution of:
Captan 50 WP at 25 g/10 L water, or
Captan 80 WP at 15 g/10 L water, or
Maestro 75 DF at label rates.
Transplants –
For late damping-off or seedling root rot,
drench plants with
Maestro 75 DF (captan)at 15 g/10 L of
water or
No Damp (oxine benzoate) at 100 mL/10 L
of water.
Fusarium Stem and Fruit Rot,
(Fusarium solani,
perfect state = Nectria haematococca )
Biology and Disease Cycle
Fusarium solani is a common soil-borne fungus
existing in many different races. The one causing
stem and fruit rot of greenhouse peppers can
result in serious plant and fruit losses, especially
in the spring and early fall. Spores are suspected
of being carried on the seed surface and are also
spread by soil, media and drain water. Airborne
spores called ascospores (produced by the
perfect state), spread the disease within a pepper
crop. Fusarium commonly enters the plant
through wounds created by basal stem growth,
root pressure, pruning and stem clips. The moist
surface of rockwool cubes is ideal for germina-
tion and growth of the fungus. Nutrient feed and
plant root exudates are energy sources for the
fungus. Fruiting bodies are formed on the sur-
face of rockwool blocks. Water is taken up by
the fruiting bodies and spores are forcibly shot
into the air. The location of the fruiting bodies
on the moist blocks means that spore dispersal is
largely temperature dependent and independent
of the greenhouse relative humidity. Spores are
released under conditions of RH < 83% which
is usually after midnight. Although fungal fruit-
ing bodies are visible only on the surface of the
cubes, the vegetative part of the fungus, (hyphae
and mycelium), grow throughout the cubes.
There is potential danger that the fungus will
infect adjacent young roots, grow up the main
root and invade the crown. Fallen or aborted
fruit can also become infected and act as source
of inoculum. Warmer temperatures, approxi-
mately 28ºC, favour the disease. Development
and spread can take place very rapidly in the
summer. Inoculum (spores) builds up in the
spring and fall when VPDs are lower. Stressed
plants with high fruit loads are more susceptible
to attack by low sugar pathogens like Fusarium.
Plants that are grown vegetatively tend to be
more prone to infection. Irrigation management
that favours root pressure can increase the risk
of infection from wounding.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Disease Symptoms
The first inoculum evidence of the fungus is
5. Pest and Disease Management
often the red fruiting bodies found on the rock
wool block. On the plant; soft, dark-green to
black lesions form at stem or fruit nodes or leaf
pruning wounds. Lesions first occur at the
bottom of the stem close to the fork where the
two stems split. The callous tissue in this area
is easily wounded when the support strings are
moved, creating a hairline crack where spores
enter. Lesions enlarge and eventually girdle the
stem. Pepper fruit also becomes infected around
the calyx especially if it is damaged or over-ripe.
Fruit can rot in storage. Rotted tissue is sunken,
dark-brown to black, with tiny red or orange-
pink fruiting bodies. Plants with infected stems
exhibit symptoms of nutritional disorders and
produce end-of-season fruit with uneven ripen-
ing. See colour photos 42 & 43.
Management Strategies
Sanitation
• Follow strict year-end sanitation. Refer to the
section on Grey Mould, page 117.
• Ensure clean irrigation lines and dripper
stakes at the start of the season. Sampling of
irrigation lines has shown survival of
Fusarium spores when traditional cleanup
practices are used. It is important to pres-
sure flush organic matter prior to charging
the lines with cleaning agents such as buff-
ered bleach or Virkon.
• Prevent entry of disease into the greenhouse
by using foot-baths and seal the floor plastic
completely so that soil is not exposed.
• Do not re-use bamboo stakes if stem and
fruit rot was severe. The fungus has survived
on stakes dipped for 24 hours in a 300 ppm
solution of sodium hypochlorite.
• Cover trash and cull piles of rotting vegeta-
tion with a tarp or soil and locate them at a
distance downwind from the greenhouse.
115

5. Pest and Disease Management
116
• Avoid wounding the plug transplant by
limiting the ‘flipping’ process to a 45 to 90o
angle when transplanting into the block.
• Regularly clean tools, especially pruning
knives with a disinfectant. Follow proper
pruning methods by making a clean cut that
heals quickly without leaving ragged edges or
stubs.
• Promptly remove infected plant and fruit by
directly placing in a poly bag and removing
them from the greenhouse. Infected fruit
lying in the drain gutter can spread spores via
the return nutrient solution.
Environmental Control
• Avoid over-use of screens at the start of the
crop. Ensure adequate VPD > 3 and avoid
screen use when the outside night tempera-
tures are > 10°C. This prevents the develop-
ment of large vegetative cells. These thin-
walled cells are especially prone to fungal
infection.
• Avoid over-use of roof sprinklers that cause
dripping on the plants especially under high
temperature conditions > 28°C.
• Select temporary screens with more hole
spacing, 10 x 10 cm, and manual opening
controls or cut larger ventilation holes as a
means of controlling condensation.
• Use EC of 3 to 3.5 with Ca drain levels of 7
- 8 millimoles/L in establishing the plant and
developing stronger stem cells resistant to
the disease.
• Avoid root pressure conditions caused by
irrigation too early in the day.
• Attempt to grow plants at a uniform rate.
Crops that are grown rapidly tend to be soft
and are more prone to Fusarium. However,
long periods of stress or a growth slowdown
should also be avoided.
• It is important to maintain good air circula-
tion within the canopy and at the base of the
canopy with a minimum rail pipe of 40°C.
The pipe can be removed at light thresholds
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
over 300 w/m2. This is especially important
for rows running east-west in spring and fall
when the sun does not reach the pathways,
creating microclimates that favour disease
infection.
• V-System of training and stem densities > 7
has the disadvantage of creating high humid-
ity within the vertical canopy leading to a
greater risk of stem infection.
• Disease outbreaks are controlled by strict
sanitation and aggressive climate control
using 24 hour minimum pipe and keeping
temperature <28°C and VPD >3.
• Stem lesions can be scraped away in the early
stages of infection. Apply a drying agent like
hydrated lime to prevent stem girdling.
• Before plant death occurs, replacement side
shoots from adjoining healthy plant can be
initiated to maintain plant density.
Biological Control
Mycostop (Streptomyces griseoviridis)
Use seedling stage drench or irrigation
method.
Mycostop is a biological antagonist contain-
ing a beneficial soil bacterium, The beneficial
bacteria colonize plant roots depriving the
disease of living space and nourishment and
secreting inhibitory enzymes and metabolites.
Mycostop must be established in the seedling
stage, prior to the onset of disease as a
preventive treatment. Ensure there is a
carbon source like bran to allow establish-
ment in the inert rock wool plug. Add a mix
of ‘used’ sawdust and peat moss to the top
of the block before hand drenching
Mycostop or applying through the irrigation.
Follow label directions and rates (see also
writeup under Damping-off, page 113).
Chemical Control
No chemical fungicides are available for
Fusarium stem and fruit rot of pepper.
Grey Mould (Botrytis cinerea)
Biology and Disease Cycle
Grey mould, caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea,
infects weak, injured or dying parts of green-
house crops and most outdoor herbaceous
plants. Above-ground plant parts such as spent
flowers, injured leaves and stems, especially
pruning wound stubs, are ideal for grey mould
development. Stem infections can kill plants and
rotted fruit is unmarketable. Disease develop-
ment requires moderate temperatures, high
relative humidity and/or the presence of water.
Over-winter survival of the fungus is by tiny
sclerotia; hard, black, pepper-like resting bodies
often found in crop debris. Microscopic, air-
borne spores are the primary means of disease
spread. Spores are seed-like propagules that
survive 20 – 30 days in the greenhouse. Air-
borne spores enter through greenhouse vents or
on infected plants and debris. Disease spreads
within the crop by airborne spores, worker
activity, CO2 tubes, water splashing and drip-
ping condensation. Insects can also help spread
the disease. Cultural practices such as pruning
and harvesting disturb the crop, creating
wounds and spore showers.
Grey mould development is closely associated
with environmental conditions. Warm tempera-
tures, high humidity or the presence of water is
necessary for rapid spore germination and
infection (see Table 5-10). Grey mould spore
production is best under ultraviolet light (wave-
length 355 nm).
Table 5-10. Environmental factors favourable to disease development by Botrytis
Disease cycle stage Temperature °C
Infection 15 - 18
Development range 0 - 30
Rapid colonization 25 - 30
Conidia development 15
Spore release > 15
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Botrytis on stems may show no symptoms for
several days or weeks until there is a physi-
5. Pest and Disease Management
ological change in the plant tissue. Such latent
infections can first appear in spring at picking
when symptoms are manifested. Shifts in
carbohydrate levels can cause an increased risk
of infection. Fruit load changes in late spring
and early fall can result in carbohydrate shifts
from the fruit to the stems and leaves encour-
aging grey mould infection in those areas.
Disease Symptoms
Spring
Infection starts as a water-soaked spot or decay
of petals, leaves, stems and fruit. The classic
grey mould lesion is brown with a fuzzy grey
growth of spore masses often arranged in
concentric bands. Grey mould stem infections
are the same as those found on tomatoes and
cucumbers. (See colour photo 44.) In early
spring, injured leaves or stems can become
infected with grey mould. Old flowers initiate
new grey mould infections when they fall off
and come into contact with healthy plant
tissue. The dry flower tissue is an excellent
hygroscopic growing media and will absorb
water vapour from the air even at RH < 80%.
Fall
Grey mould is prevalent again in the fall on
young leaves within the head of the plant or on
stems wounded by carts and leaf pruning scars.
Under humid conditions, diseased tissue be-
comes covered in grey masses of spores. Fruit
infection is similar to Erwinia soft rot but
without the associated odor or bacterial decay.
Relative Humidity % Vapour Pressure Deficit
> 80 <3
> 80 3-8
> 80 <3
60 -100 1-5
117

5. Pest and Disease Management
118
Management Strategies
Sanitation
• Reduce grey mould by preventing the build
up of Botrytis spores on greenhouse plants
and debris and on outdoor trash piles and
rotting vegetation.
• Follow a strict, year-end sanitation program
by disinfecting greenhouse structures, equip-
ment, tools and other materials that may
contact plants. Be sure to eliminate all plant
debris that might carry disease over to the
next crop. Power wash the interior green-
house surfaces including the glass and all
inside structures including screens, pipes,
and troughs. Use a cleaning solution on carts
and tools. Following power washing, apply a
surface disinfectant wash of 1% Virkon or
Chemprocide 8ml/L. Eliminating 90% of
the disease inoculum can reduce the inci-
dence of disease from 60% to 10%.
• Use healthy, disease-free transplants.
• Select cultivars that are less sensitive to
Botrytis infection.
• Make every effort to remove prunings, dead
or dying plant material and rotting fruit
promptly from the greenhouse before spores
have a chance to form. Remove infected
plant parts when first detected by placing
them, on the spot, in a plastic bag for dis-
posal away from the greenhouse.
• Follow proper pruning methods by making a
clean cut that heals quickly. Do not leave a
ragged edge or stub.
• Keep trash and cull piles of rotting vegeta-
tion covered with a tarp or soil and at a
distance downwind from the greenhouse.
• Regularly clean tools, especially pruning
knives with a disinfectant.
• Provide foot-baths to prevent carrying dis-
eases into the greenhouse.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Cultural Control
A healthy crop with minimal stress has reduced
risk of disease infection. In spring and fall
minimize crop stresses resulting from irrigation,
climate, fruit loads, and pests. Higher humidity,
reduced fruit loads and shorter days in spring
and fall can trigger grey mould. Do not allow
condensation to form or drip onto plants.
Dew point management to prevent the forma-
tion of free water prevents development of
grey mould conditions.
• Reduce the RH variability by ensuring calibra-
tion and uniform distribution of psychrometer
sensors maintaining RH < 80%
• Avoid cold air dropping onto heads when
venting if outside temperatures are below
12°C and greenhouse gutters are less than
4.5 meter. The cold air dropping on the
heads can cause condensation on the leaf
and head tissue promoting Botrytis infection.
Energy losses from night radiation from
heads and tissue can also increase wetness
on the leaves and promote infections.
• Maintain good air circulation within the
vertical crop canopy to reduce humidity. Use
a minimum pipe of 40°C and a grow pipe
located 50 to 60 cm below the head. Remove
once light levels > 300w/m2.
• Under RH > 90 % conditions, avoid the dew
point being reached because of rapid tem-
perature ramping. Ensure the leaves are dry
by heating up three hours prior to sunset to
evaporate any free water.
• Under RH > 90%, avoid excessive conden-
sation dripping from the glass by using a
minimum vent. The calyx end of the fruit
can collect moisture which is an ideal infec-
tion site. Fruit later rots and drops off.
• Ensure adequate EC > 2.5 and target opti-
mum calcium levels (6-7 millimoles) and low
range nitrate (15-18 millimoles) levels espe-
cially in the spring and fall.
• Avoid or reduce plant handling on dull days
with high RH. These conditions favour
 infection, especially when high spore num-
bers (inoculum loads) result in spore showers
on plants.
• The most effective control strategy for an
outbreak of grey mould is to create a
climate with RH < 80% and VPD > 3.
Chemical Control
Captan (Seedling treatment only)
Captan is a broad-spectrum fungicide that
has protective and eradicative properties but
is not systemic. On peppers, captan is only
registered for use in the seedling stage.
Weekly sprays help prevent infections under
high disease pressure (spring/fall) but will
not control established or latent infections.
Formulations vary; read the label to deter-
mine rate of application.
Powdery Mildew
(Leveillula taurica)
Biology and Disease Cycle
Powdery mildew on greenhouse peppers caused
by the fungus, Leveillula taurica, was first re-
ported in Ontario in 1999 and in B.C. in 2003.
It is a different species from the one that infects
cucumbers. Like other powdery mildews, it is
an obligate parasite and will grow only on living
tissue. However, this mildew is unique in that
the mycelium grows inside leaves and the
typical white powdery growth on top of leaves
is not present. The disease can be cyclic in
severity showing up one year and then disap-
pearing for several years. This species also
infects tomatoes, onions, sunflowers, several
field crops and some weeds. There may be
some strain specificity limiting spread from one
host species to another.
Wind currents disperse spores and high humid-
ity favours spore germination. Pepper powdery
mildew infection can occur over wide tempera-
ture ranges (19 – 33°C) under high and low
humidity ranges. Pepper powdery mildew is
reported to infect peppers under humid condi-
tions; whereas in tomato, infection occurs
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
under dry conditions. Secondary infection
occurs every seven to ten days so it is impor-
5. Pest and Disease Management
tant to regulate the timing of spring programs
to prevent rapid spread.
It is very important that mildew infections
never get out of hand because higher infection
levels cause greater yield loss. Research in the
Netherlands has shown that for every 1%
increase in infection during the growing season,
there is a 1% decrease in yield. In Europe,
early heavy infections of powdery mildew have
caused losses of 30%, compared to later and
lighter infection. Since mildew clearly has
negative effects on production, even from late
infection, the object is to limit the infection as
much as possible.
Disease Symptoms
White to light grey spots first occur on the
underside of older leaves located inside the
plant canopy. Leaf infections become yellow
or appear as raised pimply areas at correspond-
ing locations on the upper leaf surface. These
early yellow symptoms sometimes resemble
spider mite damage. Severe infections cause
yellow/brown discolouration with mildew
patches moving to the upper leaf surface.
Infected leaves will eventually curl and drop
resulting in the exposure of fruit to sunscald.
The severity of leaf drop varies not only with
the intensity of mildew infection but also with
variety. The resulting reduced plant vigor can
be severe. Fruits and stems are not normally
infected.
Management Strategies
Sanitation
• Take added precautions to avoid introducing
powdery mildew into your greenhouse espe-
cially if you have recently been visiting
greenhouses outside B.C. Diseases can be
carried on clothing, shoes, soil, and espe-
cially infected plants.
• Follow a strict, year-end sanitation program
by disinfecting greenhouse structures, equip-
ment, tools and other surfaces that contact
119

5. Pest and Disease Management
120
plants (refer back to the writeup on Grey
Mould, page 117).
• Use healthy, disease-free transplants that are
grown locally.
• Control weeds around the greenhouse.
• There are no resistant varieties of peppers.
Chemical Control
Early, preventive measures are essential to
protect young plants before infection. Powdery
mildew is difficult to control once leaves be-
come heavily infected. Treat with alternating
sprays of the following fungicides as soon as
powdery mildew is detected. Note: Caution
needs to be taken when using the following
fungicides as plant damage may result, espe-
cially under high temperatures.
Sulphur
Use Bartlett Microscopic Sulphur 92% as a
protectant fungicide applied prior to powdery
mildew infection.
Apply 540 to 760 grams of the 92% product/ha
as a high volume foliar (1,500 – 3000 L water/
ha), spray when powdery mildew is first de-
tected. Ensure thorough coverage of the
foliage, especially the lower leaf surface. Con-
sider applications in late evening when it is
cooler to reduce possible leaf injury. Use no
more than ten applications per crop cycle. Apply
on a minimum interval of 14 days. Do not
enter or allow unprotected workers to enter
into treated areas until 24 hours after appli-
cation.
Nova (myclobutanil)
Nova 40W is used as a systemic protectant
and curative fungicide.
Use 340 grams per hectare in 1,500 – 3,000
L of water/hectare when powdery mildew is
first detected. It is important to apply high
spray volume to ensure good coverage in-
cluding the lower surface of the leaf. Alter-
nate the Nova spray with a sulphur spray to
avoid possible resistance. Use a maximum of
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
three Nova applications per crop cycle.
Follow all label directions as possible hormo-
nal side effects can occur that can set back
plant development and production. Do not
apply within 3 days of harvest. Do not re-
enter treated areas within 12 hours of
application.
White Mould
(Sclerotinia sclerotiorum)
White mould, common in field vegetables, can
also occur in greenhouses if soil becomes
infested with the fungus (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum).
The white mould fungus can persist in the soil
for years causing infection in subsequent crops.
Cucumbers and tomatoes are also susceptible.
Biology and Disease Cycle
White mould can cause pre or post-emergence
damping off of young seedlings but more
commonly attacks the crown, stem and fruit of
plants. Large (5 - 8 mm), brown to black,
resting structures called sclerotia form within
rotted stems. Sclerotia are long-lived and sur-
vive in soil and diseased plant tissue. Sclerotia
germinate within the soil surface and form
vegetative strands (hyphae or mycelium) that
infect nearby plant tissue. They also produce
fruiting bodies that release tiny ascospores that
are carried long distances on the wind.
Disease Symptoms
A black lesion covered with a dense fluffy
white fungal growth usually characterizes white
mould infections. The lesion eventually girdles
the stem and kills the plant above that point.
Sclerotia eventually develop in the rotted pith
cavity of infected stems (see colour photos 45
& 46).
Management Strategies
Sanitation
• Remove infected plants and plant parts from
the greenhouse promptly before the sclerotia
form. Sclerotia continue to develop after the
infected parts have been removed and will
add to the inoculum level in future years.
• Remove cull and trash piles from the vicinity
of the greenhouse and cover or bury deeply.
• Provide foot-baths to prevent bringing
infested soil into the greenhouse.
• In greenhouses with a history of white
mould, thorough end-of-season cleanup and
laying of new plastic ground liner is advised
prior to the next cropping cycle.
Cultural Control
• In the south coastal area of B.C., avoid
growing sunflowers, cucurbits or beans close
to the greenhouse as they are all very suscep-
tible to white mould in humid areas and
could raise the inoculum level in the vicinity.
Ascospores move easily on wind currents.
• Well-managed greenhouse crops that are kept
free of condensation and/or dripping water
are rarely infected by white mould.
Storage Rots
Biology and Disease Cycle
Pencillium, Rhizopus, Fusarium and other fungi
infect stored pepper fruit under less than ideal
conditions. Infections occur when fruit is wet
from dump grading or condensation and there is
inadequate box ventilation. Storage rots can be
a problem early in the spring when fruit cell
walls are not as strong as fruit produced in the
summer. Poorly developed flowers that are
grown under low light and low temperatures
have a tendency to create fruit imperfections
that can be infected by Fusarium and other
fungi. Internal fruit rot that develops is difficult
to detect at grading.
Integrated Disease Management
Cultural Control
• Keep plants healthy by following good
cultural practices such as strict sanitation
and proper environment control.
• Maintain active growing climates at all times
especially during early crop development.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• Avoid over-using screens in the spring which
can lead to weak flowers prone to fruit
5. Pest and Disease Management
storage rots.
• Maintain active pipe climates (40 - 55oC)
especially in early/late fall when the plant
has a full canopy.
• Water dump tanks must be kept clean to
prevent the spread of fungal and bacterial
inoculum. Chlorination of the tank water at
100 ppm followed by a spray rinse of potable
water is recommended.
Bacterial Diseases of
Sweet Pepper
Bacterial Soft Rot
(Erwinia carotovora)
Biology and Disease Cycle
The bacterium, Erwinia carotovora, causes soft rot
of stems while infection of pepper fruit is prima-
rily a post-harvest disease. The disease is not a
major problem but can show up in early spring or
late fall when low VPD favours its development.
Soft rot is often spread when pepper fruits are
washed before packing. Post-harvest infections
are particularly damaging on fresh market peppers
as infected fruits rot and spread the decay to the
rest of the fruit in the container.
In field-grown peppers, infections occur during
rainy weather when soil splashes onto suscepti-
ble fruit. High moisture content predisposes
fruit to soft rot infection. The bacterium can
only enter the plant through wounds, particu-
larly those created by insects. Harvested fruits
are infected through the stem end, where
crevices catch and hold moisture.
Disease Symptoms
Bacterial soft rot symptoms closely resemble
Fusarium stem and fruit rot (see page 115).
Stem infections show internal dark
discolouration of the pith and sometimes the
vascular tissue. The fruit infection often starts
at the stem or areas around fruit wounds that
121

5. Pest and Disease Management
122
become sunken, and the internal tissue softens
quickly to the point of complete collapse. The
tissue fluid collects in the lower portion of the
fruit, which expands and eventually ruptures.
This watery rot is accompanied by a foul smell.
Fruit infected in the field tends to collapse and
hang on the plant like a water-filled bag. When
the contents leak out, the outer skin of the
fruit dries and remains attached to the plant.
Management Strategies
Sanitation
• Keep plants healthy by following good
cultural practices such as strict sanitation
and proper environment control.
• Follow a strict, year-end sanitation program by
disinfecting greenhouse structures, equipment,
tools and other surfaces that will contact plants
(see Grey Mould, Sanitation, page 118).
• Remove infected fruit from the plant or floor
and place in a plastic bag for disposal.
• Avoid using harvest knives to remove in-
fected fruit unless they are sterilized after
each use. Work infected area last as the
disease can rapidly spread on workers’
clothes, tools and hands. Picking fruit when
it is dry, avoiding injury during handling, and
cool storage reduces post-harvest decay. If
fruit is dumped in a water bath after harvest,
the tank should be flushed, disinfected and
re-filled daily. The tank water should be
chlorinated to 100 ppm. The fruit should be
spray rinsed with potable water and dried
promptly after exiting the water bath.
• Some producers have found that vacuum
cooling after harvest slows bacterial soft rot
stem-end decay in transit.
Virus Diseases of
Sweet Pepper
Viruses are extremely small particles that are
made up of nucleic acids surrounded by a
protein coat. They can be seen only with an
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
electron microscope but can be detected by
several different laboratory techniques includ-
ing: indexing to sensitive indicator plants;
antibody-antigen reactions (serology); and
DNA comparison with known viruses. Virus-
infected plants exhibit a range of symptoms
from none (latent) through leaf mottling, leaf
mosaic patterns, etiolation, deformities, stunt-
ing and sudden death (shock). Some viruses
can be transmitted on seed (usually on the seed
coat); some require physical contact with
infected plant sap on tools, hands, etc.; some
require vectors, such as aphids that move virus
particles from infected to healthy plants while
feeding. Control strategies involve regular crop
monitoring, prompt removal of infected plants,
careful crop handling practices, use of resistant
varieties and vector control. Correct identifica-
tion of the virus is important in order to deter-
mine the appropriate control measures, e.g.
whether vectors need to be controlled.
Pepper Mild Mottle Virus
(PMMV)
Biology and Disease Cycle
PMMV is related to tobacco mosaic virus and
may be introduced on infected seed, trans-
plants, plant sap and plant debris. There are no
known insect vectors of this virus. PMMV
spreads easily from plant to plant during the
course of transplanting and tending the crop at
all growing stages.
Disease Symptoms
Symptoms of PMMV are not readily visible
until fruit production. Symptoms to watch for
include mild stunting, slight leaf yellowing and
dark and light green mosaic patterns on the
leaves. Foliar symptoms on new growth can be
mistaken for other disorders such as temporary
magnesium or manganese deficiency. Fruit
symptoms include distinct bumps, pointed tips
and sunken brown areas primarily at the calyx
end and flower ends. The brown areas seem to
start in a crease at the calyx and move down
the fruit. Colour streaking may also occur. See
colour photos 47, 48 & 49.
Management Strategies
• Use virus tolerant cultivars (TM2, TM3
resistance).
• Use only healthy transplants and discard any
weak plants. Rogue suspicious plants early
before routine maintenance begins. Do not
mix new plants or plants from different
sources with older plants.
• When handling seedlings, spray them with a
10% solution of skim milk powder contain-
ing at least 35% protein. Use 100 grams of
low fat milk powder per litre of water. Hands
must be dipped in the skim milk solution
before handling the plants and when working
with the plants. Hands should be dipped
between each plant.
• Always work the plants in the same direction
to prevent spread.
• Practice good sanitation by cleaning shoes,
boots, tools, rubber gloves and clothes.
• Use foot-baths of quaternary ammonia or
other viricide products at the entrance of the
greenhouse.
• Restrict visitor access to the header walk-
ways only and do not allow the crop to be
handled.
• Remove all crop debris at the end of the
cropping season. Haul it away or bury it. The
virus can survive in dry plants for as long as
25 years.
• Pressure wash the entire greenhouse interior.
• Pressure wash all carts, totes, and tractors,
especially tires.
Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)
and Tomato Mosaic Virus
(ToMV)
Biology and Disease Cycle
These viruses are closely related and display
similar symptoms. There may be some differ-
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
ences in the usefulness of resistant cultivars,
depending on which strain is present. The
5. Pest and Disease Management
following description and control strategy,
while written for TMV, applies to both. These
diseases can cause stunting, reduced yields and
reduced fruit quality.
TMV is spread easily by handling during trans-
planting, tying and pruning. It is soil-borne,
seed-borne and survives in infected plant
residue. It can survive in root debris for over
22 months. Spread can also occur from con-
taminated clothing. The virus may remain
infective for years on unwashed clothing kept
in the dark. TMV has also been shown to
spread through gutation fluid at the tips of
leaves. Climate controls that promote root
pressure could aggravate spread by this mecha-
nism. TMV infects a very wide range of plant
genera.
Disease Symptoms
Symptoms vary depending on the strain of the
virus, host cultivar, environmental conditions,
and the presence or absence of other viruses in
the same plant. TMV first appears as necrosis
along the main veins with wilting and leaf drop.
Later growth may be distorted with a mosaic
pattern. Fruit is mottled and may have necrotic
spots.
Management Strategies
• Use virus resistant cultivars (TMV, TM2,
TM3 resistance).
• Be especially cautious of older cultivars like
Eagle that do not have TMV resistance.
• When growing susceptible cultivars, use one-
year-old seed. One to 2 days before sowing,
soak the seed for 15 minutes in a 10% solu-
tion of trisodium phosphate (100 g / L),
rinse thoroughly and spread out to dry. Seed
can also be heat-treated at 70°C for 4 days.
• Handle plants as little as possible and re-
move any plants with mosaic symptoms
showing up early in the season. Later in the
season, there is no benefit to removing
123

5. Pest and Disease Management
124
infected plants as the virus will have spread
and there will be latent infections
(symptomless plants) throughout the crop.
• Dip hands in milk before handling the crop if
an infection is suspected. Wash hands
thoroughly with soap and water to inactivate
the virus after working with infected plants.
Work in infected areas last.
• Spray seedlings with skim milk solution
containing at least 35% protein (add 100 g
powder to 1 L water) the evening before
transplanting or handling.
• Do not smoke near plants or in the green-
house as tobacco products can carry the
virus. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and
water after using tobacco products.
• Use only new seedling trays or wash and
disinfect used ones with trisodium phosphate
(3 kg /100 litres of water) or other proven
disinfectant.
• Tools should be frequently dipped in 150
ppm sodium hypochlorite (0.26% household
bleach) plus 0.01% soap; or 5 to 10%
trisodium phosphate to reduce the chance of
transmission between plants.
• Workers should use fresh, clean clothes each
day. Use new disposable coveralls or wash
clothing in hot water and dry in the sun or in
a hot dryer.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
(TSWV)
Biology and Disease Cycle
This virus has a very wide host range, including
many vegetables, flowers and weeds. It over-
winters in perennial flowers and weeds in or
near a greenhouse and can also be introduced
to a greenhouse with infected ornamental
cuttings for propagation. Thrips, especially
western flower thrips, are required for transmis-
sion and spread from plant to plant. Once
infected thrips remain infected for life.
Disease Symptoms
Most plants infected with TSWV are severely
damaged. Growth usually stops after infection
and no marketable crop is produced. Infected
pepper plants show a range of stem, leaf and
fruit symptoms. Stems may show lesions with
black margins followed by branch die-back.
Leaves often show tan, circular spots with
black margins. Fruits exhibit uneven ripening
and circular blotches of green, orange, yellow
and red. The blotches may show ring-spot
patterns. See colour photos 50 & 51.
Management Strategies
• Eliminate weeds, ornamentals and thrips
from the greenhouse before bringing in new
pepper plants (see Thrips, page 98).
• Maintain a weed-free zone at least 3 m wide
around the greenhouse.
• Do not grow ornamentals in the same green-
house with peppers or tomatoes. (An excep-
tion to this rule is that petunias in hanging
baskets may be used as indicator plants for
the presence of TSWV.)
• Monitor for thrips regularly and keep them
under control.
• Pepper plants exhibiting dwarfing or other
symptoms indicating TSWV should be
destroyed promptly by placing them in a
sealed garbage bag or other sealed container
and removing them from the greenhouse.
Physiological Disorders
of Sweet Pepper
Blossom-end Rot
This is a very common physiological disorder of
peppers. It is caused by an interaction of mois-
ture shortage within the plant and calcium move-
ment to the lower cells of a developing fruit.
Water soaked spots appear at the blossom end
which enlarge and take on a dark, leathery
appearance. Blossom-end rot may or may not
be associated with external symptoms. Dark
internal tissue and seed can occur with no
evidence of external damage. This condition is
difficult to detect on the grading lines. See
colour photo 52.
Moisture shortages can be caused by a number
of factors:
• under-watering during warm periods;
• high concentrations of fertilizer salt which
impede uptake of calcium;
• root problems;
• very low humidity levels causing high tran-
spiration rates;
• sudden changes in weather from cool to hot
periods can cause moisture stress, affecting
calcium mobility.
Other contributing factors:
• blossom-end rot (BER) occurs during periods
of rapid vegetative growth and rapid fruit
expansion;
• actual calcium deficiency is usually a second-
ary factor, since feed should supply adequate
amounts;
• some cultivars are sensitive to BER, e.g.
Mazurka;
• low pH < 5.5 in the slab especially during
high light, fast growing conditions.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Management Strategies
• Avoid any of the plant stresses mentioned
5. Pest and Disease Management
above.
• Important to have good balance between
vegetative/generative before March.
• Ensure Ca:K ratio 6:5.
• pH should not be allowed to drop below pH
5.5 in the slab.
• Maintain reasonably high humidity levels in
the afternoon on warm days by restricting
venting, providing it does not increase tem-
peratures.
• Ensure soluble salts in the slab are below 2.5
EC during conditions that may favour BER.
• Ensure an irrigation capacity of 1.5 to 2 L/
m2/hour.
• Fruits with BER should not be removed
unless a fruit balance can be maintained.
• Higher ADT tends to favour BER, especially
during sunny warm weather.
• Use minimum pipe to stimulate transpiration,
especially in early morning (VPD 4 to 7).
• Stimulate transpiration with a minimum pipe
especially in dark weather. High humidity
requires higher pipe temperatures. This
process will condition the plant when higher
light intensities return.
• For VPD 3.0, the pipe required is 50°C; at
4.0 VPD, 40°C is adequate
• Keep the temperature down as much as
possible during sunny warm conditions when
fruit set is high. By reducing the tempera-
ture, especially at night, high root pressures
are created. This aids calcium transport.
• Avoid use of ammonium during this period
(competing ion for calcium uptake).
• Avoid sodium levels more than 6 to 8 mmol/L.
125

5. Pest and Disease Management
126
• Phosphate enhances Ca uptake. Additional
phosphate is usually not required. However,
ensuring pH levels in the slab are below pH
6.5 (but not below 5.5) will enhance P uptake.
• Stimulate root pressure at night by maintain-
ing warmer root temperatures relative to air
temperatures and applying night irrigation.
• During periods of high light and rapid fruit
growth, keep ADT on the low side by reduc-
ing light.
• Weather changes from 200 watts (dark) to
1000 watts/m2 (bright), can place stress on
the plant, which is reflected in BER. Use
roof sprinklers, 7 to 10 VPD, and screens or
shades > 600 watts/m2 to help the plant
through these transition periods (1 to 3
days). Plants having a high percentage of
small fruit (less than 2 cm diameters) are
sensitive to BER and screens and white wash
can be considered.
Sunscald
Sunscald is another physiological disorder that
occurs commonly on sweet peppers when the
fruit is exposed to hot sun. The flesh becomes
soft, light-coloured and papery on areas that
had direct sunlight on them. Fruits on plants
adjacent to walkways are more susceptible. See
colour photo 53.
Management Strategies
• Avoid fruit temperatures > 35°C.
• Sensitive-skinned cultivars like orange and
yellow are more prone to sun scald.
• Maintain a good leaf canopy or use a sun-
screen.
• Apply shading or screening in bright hot
weather, > 600 watts/m2
• Prune to 2 – 3 leaves starting in March,
especially if fruit size is small.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Shrink Cracks
This condition appears as superficial fine cracks
that develop lengthwise over the fruit surface.
These cracks give a corky colour and texture to
the pepper surface (see colour photo 54).
Shrink cracks are associated with sudden
changes in the growth rate of the fruits. These
changes result in reduced elasticity of the fruit
skin that is unable to maintain a balance of
growth with fruit development below the skin
layers. Some factors associated with fruit
growth disruption include:
• periods of dark cold weather;
• imbalances created by the removal of a large
percentage of fruit at one time;
• fruit left on the plant too long has an in-
creased probability of having shrink cracks.
Management Strategies
• Reduce humidity levels early in the morning.
• Avoid large flushes of fruit; try to maintain
more balance.
• Gradually increase temperatures over several
days following a prolonged dark or cool
period to avoid sudden fruit development.
• Lower the temperature of the nutrient solu-
tions at night during the ripening phase to
help reduce root pressure. Increasing root
pressure may aggravate shrink cracking
• Maintain adequate EC in the slab during
fruit ripening.
• Provide adequate leaf cover for fruit in
summer.
• Avoid cultivars that appear more susceptible
to this condition.
Misshapen Fruit (knots)
Fruits affected with this disorder are often
small, shorter and contain fewer seeds than
normal fruit. This condition has been associ-
ated with low daytime temperatures and low
humidity during flower set. Plant stress can
result in fewer flowers that tend to be over-
sized. These flowers generally do not set easily,
resulting in knotted fruit. Differential cultivar
susceptibility to this condition has been ob-
served. See colour photo 55.
Management Strategies
• Maintain good balance, particularly in the
early stages of growth. Over-harvesting
green fruit can predispose the plant to mis-
shapen fruit.
• Avoid low daytime temperatures (< 20°C),
especially during early fruit set.
• Target RH levels as high as 80% during early
fruit set.
• Remove misshapen fruit in early stages of
development.
Internal Growths and Wings
Growths that sometime appear as a pepper
within a pepper can result in wide cracks that
form the length of the pepper. This problem of
abnormal tissue development of the honey
gland is associated with the first fruit set of
early crops. Wings are abnormal growths that
are attached to the shoulders of the fruit. See
colour photo 56.
Tails
The effect on marketability of this fruit disor-
der is not as severe as the previously described
disorders.Tails result when the style of the
flower does not die off in the sequence of fruit
development. A trailing appendage or “tail”
develops at the bottom of the fruit. These can
easily break off during handling and may result
in lower grades and shelf life. See colour photo
57.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Management Strategies
• Fruit disorders tend to be associated with
5. Pest and Disease Management
early fruit set that involves prolonged flower-
ing periods.
• Target for optimum flowering and fruit set
temperatures and humidity.
• Cultivar differences have been noted with
some of these fruit disorders.
• Growers have reported that physically break-
ing off the tail at an early stage will not ad-
versely affect the development of the pepper
and will improve marketability of the fruit.
Growth Cracks
Growth cracks result from excessive root
pressure, resulting in fruit splitting at an early
stage. This is mainly associated with yellow
and orange cultivars. Factors that affect high
root pressure directly affect growth cracks.
Management Strategies
• Omit night watering.
• Delay the first irrigation in the morning.
• Increase transpiration in the early morning
with vent temperature above the heating
temperature (1°C/hour).
• Target EC in slab close to 3.5.
• Avoid slow developing fruit conditions.
Cuticle Cracking
This disorder is similar to shrink cracking;
however, the damage is “finer” and appears to
be more of an upper surface blemish. Cuticle
cracks have been identified as a key production
problem impacting the quality of greenhouse
grown sweet bell peppers. Cuticle cracking
affects the quality of peppers in three ways:
general appearance of the fruit is reduced;
there is an increased rate of water loss and
wrinkling; and entry points for storage rot
organisms are provided.
127

5. Pest and Disease Management
128
Cuticle cracks are not caused by any single
factor but appear to be a result of a number of
factors combined (e.g. cultivar susceptibility,
high VPD at night, high EC, low daytime CO,
low yields). Cuticle cracks are associated with
sudden changes in the fruit expansion rate.
Older fruit, fruit that is on the plant more than
8 weeks, and fruit from the last set are more
likely to be affected.
Management Strategies
• Provide uniform environment and moisture.
• Lower humidity levels early in the morning.
• Avoid watering too early in the morning.
• Avoid dramatic EC changes, especially a
switch from high to low EC.
• High feed EC is associated with higher
cuticle cracking in pepper. A feed EC of 2.1
– 2.4 mS/cm can lessen cuticle cracking.
• Avoid slow fruit growth speed, maintaining a
minimum ADT of 20°C
• Peppers with higher levels of supplemented
CO2 display less severe cuticle cracking.
Supplementary CO2 is recommended with a
target range of 875 – 1100 ppm.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• Avoid low fruit loads.
• Higher average weekly yield is related to
lower levels of cuticle cracking. Practices
that maximize yield are recommended.
Target weekly yields in the range of 0.85 –
1.06 kg/m2.
• Different varieties display different cuticle
cracking susceptibility. As newer varieties are
introduced, the relative susceptibility of the
variety to cuticle cracking should be consid-
ered as part of the selection criteria.
Fruit Spots
This condition is associated with small white
dots below the surface of the pepper fruit.
These dots are often found on the “shoulders”
of the fruit. The condition is associated with
excess calcium levels in the fruit. This results
in small calcium oxalate crystals forming. Fruit
affected with this condition may have reduced
shelf life. See colour photo 58.
Management Strategies
• Avoid low fruit loads.
• Conditions that promote high root pressure
will aggravate fruit spotting, e.g. low VPD,
low night temperatures, weather changing
from sunny to dark.
Greenhouse Cleanup
Growers with clean greenhouses have fewer pest
problems. Greenhouse sanitation includes the
removal or exclusion of factors that allow pests to
gain access to greenhouses, survive from crop to
crop, and spread from plant to plant. Good crop
hygiene focuses on starting clean and preventing
the introduction of pathogens or insects to the
crop. If possible, growers should empty the
greenhouse entirely between crops and sanitize
the facility. Plants and materials originating off-
site should be examined for pests prior to place-
ment in the greenhouse. When possible, green-
house ventilators and entrances should be
screened against the entry of insect pests. In
addition, visitor access should be limited and
restricted. See also Greenhouse Cleanup and
Other Factors Affecting Insect and Mite Sur-
vival, page 78.
Sanitation
Good crop hygiene minimizes the introduction of
pathogens to the crop. Soil-less systems have an
advantage over soil in that the growing media
initially should not contain any pathogens. A
disadvantage to a soil-less system is that when a
pathogen invades the ‘sterile’ environment, there
are no antagonistic micro-organisms to suppress
its spread.
Restrict access to the greenhouse and where
necessary, encourage the use of disposable boots
and overalls as insects and disease organisms can
be carried on clothing. Wash clothing frequently
and especially after working on diseased crops.
Regular detergent should be enough to remove
most pathogens from clothing.
A foot-bath at the entrance to the greenhouse will
help prevent the introduction of pathogens on
footwear. Use a foam pad soaked with an appropri-
ate disinfectant such as Virkon. Change the solu-
tion regularly and ensure that the foot-bath is used.
Pathogens such as Pythium and tobacco mosaic
virus can be spread in water. Water sources such
as rivers and ponds can be contaminated with
Pythium but city and well water is usually clean.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Do not place cull piles near the source of water.
Water tanks must be kept covered to prevent
5. Pest and Disease Management
contamination from dust, crop debris, and birds;
and to prevent algae growth.
Cull piles are a major source of new infections
each year. They should be located downwind
from the greenhouse or removed off-site. They
should also be covered with a durable plastic tarp
or soil after each deposit to prevent the release of
spores and insects feeding on plant tissue. Work-
ers need to wash their hands and footwear if
working in the crop after making deliveries to the
cull pile. However, it is better if they do not work
the crop at all.
When tending the crop, workers should start in
the healthiest part of the crop before moving into
infected areas. Soak pruning knives in a 10%
solution of 5.25% household bleach or a 1.5%
solution of Lysol brand disinfectant or it’s equiva-
lent, as frequently as possible. A one-minute soak
is more effective than a quick dip. Containers
filled with disinfectant can be located at both
ends of each row for a knife to soak in while the
row is being worked. Three knives per worker are
required if the knives are changed at the end of
each row.
Weed Control
Weeds can be a source of mites, aphids, thrips
and whiteflies and should be controlled both in
and around the greenhouse. Cutting or killing
mature weeds around the greenhouse during the
growing season may cause pests to migrate into
the greenhouse. Plan a weed management strategy
that will avoid this. Try to maintain a weed-free
zone approximately 5 - 10m wide around the
greenhouse.
Inside the greenhouse, hand-pull weeds and
immediately remove from the greenhouse and
use durable plastic floor mulches to cover the
soil. Do not use herbicides in the greenhouse -
residual and breakdown products can be phyto-
toxic to plants long after application.
If necessary, use a systemic herbicide such as
Roundup (glyphosate) for perennial weeds
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5. Pest and Disease Management
130
around greenhouse. Annual weeds can be
controlled with a contact weed killer such as
Gramoxone (paraquat). Either of those herbi-
cides may be combined with a residual herbi-
cide such as simazine to prevent weed seed
germination for several months. Continued use
of such herbicides leads to shifts in weed
populations so that resistant weed species will
eventually predominate. Do not use hormone-
type herbicides such as 2,4-D, MCPA or Banvel
for weed control near greenhouses as they
produce vapours that may enter the green-
house. Always apply herbicides at low pres-
sure (less than 275 kPa) to avoid misting
and drift that may be drawn into the green-
house. Do not use herbicides in green-
houses. Do not use the same sprayer for
herbicides and other pesticides. Herbicide
use around the greenhouse during plant produc-
tion is not recommended.
Crop Cleanup
The cleanup period at the end of the cropping
cycle is an efficient, low cost way to have a fresh
start. Careful consideration of each step is
important during cleanup. A missed step be-
comes the weak link in the chain.
General cleanup principles include removing
plants promptly from the greenhouse at the end
of the crop. Thoroughly cleaning up plant
residues and dispose by burying, burning,
composting under cover or hauling away. Avoid
starting new plants in a greenhouse before the
old ones are removed. If pests are at a high level,
apply a pesticide to the plants in the greenhouse
before removing the old crop. This prevents
dispersal of pests during the removal process.
End of Season Preparation Before
Crop Removal
• Inventory diseases and insects within the
greenhouse.
• Ensure the RH in the crop canopy is below
85-90%. Adjust your computer settings as
needed.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• Reduce insect populations by late summer. Pay
special attention to spider mites, loopers,
aphids and echinothrips. Increase mite preda-
tors (Persimilis) from the end of summer to the
end of the crop. Consult with an entomologist
if you have psyllid, echinothrips or other exotic
pests present. Use an insecticide program as
early as possible to reduce insect levels.
• Begin cleanup to reduce pests and disease
inoculum in early fall. In general, eliminating
90% of disease inoculum reduces the inci-
dence of disease from 60% down to 10%.
• Continue to remove dead plants promptly.
• Dry down the growing media as you prepare
to remove the crop. Reduce the EC as
needed.
• Plan your crop removal strategy. Arrange for
disposal bins if the crop debris is removed
off-site, or excavate a hole that is large
enough to hold the crop debris and then
cover debris with soil. Do not pile crop
debris near the greenhouse. If crop remains
are to be composted for use as field fertilizer,
the pile should be as far away from the
greenhouse as possible. It must be covered
with a durable tarp to prevent escape of
insects, pathogens and environmental con-
taminants.
• After crop removal, Dibrom may be used in
the greenhouse. Ensure all vents are closed
and the temperature is turned up (20ºC+).
This is best done on a sunny day. Dibrom is
not registered for use on peppers and can
only be used after harvest is complete.
See page 87 for use guidelines.
• Keep lines charged at a low rate prior to
cleaning to prevent drying out. Once they
dry out, it is difficult to remove dried salts
and other debris. After the last harvest, clean
out irrigation lines.
1. Remove EC and pH electrodes.
2. Divert cleaning solutions away from slow
sand filters. Keep the slow sand filter
units charged with old solution.
3. Pressure flush the irrigation lines with air
or water before acid or bleach treatment.
4. Flush lines with nitric or phosphoric acid
at a pH of 1.6 to 1.7 for 24 hours. This is
prepared by adding 1 part 60 to 70% acid
concentrate to 50 parts water. Apply twice
if you have older lines or narrow orifice
capillary lines. Caution, some newer
lines, eg. Netafim, have neoprene
diaphragms. These can be damaged
with exposure to solutions with a pH
less than 3.0 or buffered bleach. Con-
sult your supplier for information on
compatible disinfectants.
5. Rinse well; when acid contacts bleach,
dangerous chlorine gas may form.
6. Flush lines and tanks with a disinfectant.
Buffered bleach has worked well in the
past. There is no data yet on the efficacy
of DDAC or hydrogen peroxide for this
application although they work well as
contact disinfectants. Hydrogen peroxide
could be used as a trial at 1000 – 3000
ppm. Use procedures recommended for
bleach but leave the solution in irrigation
lines overnight. The efficacy of hydrogen
peroxide decreases with the increase in
organic matter in irrigation lines. Hydrogen
peroxide is not recommended for use on
greenhouse surfaces or equipment. It is
more effective to flush the lines as a ‘pulse
charge’ four times with one hour intervals
than to flush with one pulse charge and
leave the solution in the line for four
hours. Do not drop the pH of the buffered
bleach solution below 5.0. Target your pH
for 6.5 to 7 and follow all safety recom-
mendations on the label. Use a non-
phytotoxic surfactant such as Superspred
at the rate of 1L/1000 L of water. Used
buffered bleach solution must be collected
and disposed of in accordance with
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
environmental guidelines. It can be used
for other disinfection purposes. It can also
5. Pest and Disease Management
be de-chlorinated.
7. Rinse with fresh water.
8. Disinfect regular sand filters with bleach.
Do not treat slow sand filtration (biologi-
cal) systems with bleach.
• When ordering seedlings - specify that the
propagator apply Hypoaspis to seedling blocks
for fungus gnat control. Inspect seedlings at
the propagator house to ensure good plant
hygiene and health. Insist on new container
material for shipment.
• Plan to use foot-baths for the next crop.
Order necessary equipment and materials. A
container with a foam mat is effective. Use
disinfectants such as Virkon. Change solu-
tions regularly.
Cleanup After Crop Removal
• Fumigate with Dibrom unless it was already
done prior to crop removal.
• Remove remnants of crop debris from the
greenhouse. Pay special attention to wires,
screens, uninsulated pipes and pipe stands.
• Consider steam sterilizing foam and
rockwool slabs if re-using.
• Soak dripper spikes in acid solution. Rinse
well. Disinfect by soaking in buffered bleach
(2000 ppm) for 24 hours.
• Wash tanks with bleach, 1% Virkon or
equivalent. Rinse well.
• Power-wash the structure and glass with
water to remove larger pieces of debris.
• Power-wash the structure with a cleaner. Use
registered products and follow label direc-
tions. If you have had a virus problem, use
Virkon or equivalent. Apply Virkon with
LVM or mist when plastic is down. If high
levels of organic debris are present on glass
or other surfaces being treated with products
131

5. Pest and Disease Management
132
that work through oxidation such as bleach,
DDAC, hydrogen peroxide and Virkon, their
efficacy is significantly reduced. Remove as
much debris as possible with detergents and
water before applying disinfectants. If using
ammonium bifluoride, remove it within 5
minutes or it will damage glass. Avoid
mixing bleach and ammonia compounds
- hazardous chlorine gas is produced.
• Disinfect totes.
· Disinfect carts/tools/tractor tires, etc. with
1% Virkon, DDAC or equivalent. Check the
label to be sure that the disinfectants will not
harm the equipment.
• Use a high pressure wash on the outside of
the greenhouse. Control weeds around the
greenhouse.
• Remove the old plastic.
• Put new plastic down. Seal the plastic to the
walkways, posts and walls with non-phyto-
toxic glue. Some growers are putting hy-
drated lime at approximately 15 bags/acre
using a drop fertilizer spreader on the entire
floor before laying plastic. Some are also
using dormant oil sprays on the soil and at
the base of perlins before laying plastic.
• If painting pipes, be aware that you need a
few days of 80-90°C pipe temperatures to
properly dry and volatilize paint, and to
prevent phytotoxic fumes from causing injury
to seedlings.
New Crop Establishment
• Cover any cull piles with soil or a plastic
tarp. Prepare an area to receive culls from the
next crop. Plan to keep plant debris covered
with soil or a tarp. Avoid traffic from the cull
pile to healthy plants in the greenhouse.
• Meet with staff to discuss pest management
in the new crop. Discuss the importance of
early pest and disease detection. Explain the
early symptoms caused by specific pests and
diseases.
• If your new plant material originated off-site,
check for evidence of pests and diseases
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
before plants arrive from the propagator.
Inspect upon arrival.
• Ensure that trays/carts with propagation
material have been bleached before coming
to your greenhouse.
• Install a foot-bath. Post signage on use and
ensure it is being used. Control visitor access
and require them to use disposable coveralls.
Insects and disease organisms are carried on
clothing.
• Ensure there are no personal ornamental house
plants, etc. in the greenhouse. They may be a
source of disease and insect inoculum.
NOTE: Mention of product names does not
imply endorsement, and omission does not
imply that a product is not effective. Products
mentioned are examples only.
Re-using Growing Media
Although it is always preferable to replace the
growing media every year, some growers have
re-used growing media including sawdust bags
and rockwool. This practice is more viable in
peppers as they are much less susceptible to
root pathogens than cucumbers and tomatoes.
This is done primarily for economics and time
saving but it increases the chance of diseases
and may affect how the second crop grows.
Steaming rockwool (see below) minimizes the
carry-over of diseases but it is also very labour
intensive and requires a very good steaming
system to be effective.
Experience from Europe suggests that roots
from the previous crop make rockwool wetter,
which increases the growth in the second crop
and can lead to larger fruit sizes. The irrigation
must be adjusted in the second year by starting
later and stopping earlier, and irrigating for
longer periods with longer pauses in between,
without changing the actual total volume.
Letting the slabs dry out very well at the end of
the first season can reduce disease carryover so
long as the new plants are strong. If the first
crop had high disease pressure particularly from
virus or Fusarium, growers should consider
steam sterilization or using new media bags for and leave about 2cm between slabs. Stack the
the second crop. second layer in the opposite direction of the first

5. Pest and Disease Management

and continue alternating the direction as you
Some growers advise to put the old plants on build each layer. This will give the stack greater
the old planting hole even though the firmer stability. Cover slabs with a sheet and steam.
area of the slab can make it harder for the plant
to root in. A new planting hole makes more If the crop had viruses such as tomato mosaic
room for weeds and the extra hole will bring or pepper mild mottle, heat the slabs to 100ºC.
more moisture into the greenhouse, which Otherwise heat slabs to 75ºC for 20 minutes.
increases the chances of Fusarium infections. Beneficial organisms start to be affected at
temperatures above 82ºC. Checking slab
There is not much known of the practice of re- temperatures with a thermocouple is required
using sawdust bags. Some B.C. growers who to confirm target temperatures. See Table 5-11.
have done it, have not noticed significant insect
or disease carry-over as a result but it is critical Steaming slabs in situ takes approximately 10
that the preceding crop is healthy at the end of times more energy than when slabs are stacked.
the season. It is not recommended to re-use Steaming in situ without re-wrapping slabs
sawdust media bags if disease or virus pressure requires 310 person hours per ha while stack-
was high at the end of the first crop. In this ing, re-wrapping and replacing slabs requires
case the risk is far greater than the saving. 560 person hours per ha. Steaming in situ may
maintain the structural characteristics of the
Steam Sterilization of slab better than stacking slabs. The problems
Rockwool Slabs* with steaming in situ are that it is harder for the
steam to penetrate the sleeves and that if there
Steaming rockwool slabs can make economic
are any wet slabs they will not be heated to the
sense and is environmentally friendly. How-
appropriate temperatures. These wet slabs
ever, it is important to steam well or yields
would be noticed while handling slabs for
could be reduced. Ensure slabs are as dry as
stacking and dried out before treatment.
possible. Drier slabs heat faster than wet slabs
so stop watering as soon as the last harvest has * This information is summarized from D. Runia’s
been taken. Avoid salt build-up in the slab by work at Naaldwijk (1986).
increasing the rate of over-drain two to
three weeks before crop removal. At Table 5-11. Time and temperature required to kill
the same time, reduce the EC as much various pests and pathogens
as possible without affecting crop
Pest or Pathogen Temperature (qC) Time (minutes)
quality.
Weeds (most) 70 to 80 15
Check the physical condition of the
Insects and mites 60 to 71 20
slabs and avoid re-using those that have
lost greater than 10% of their original Bacteria (most) 60 10
height. Good quality slabs can be re- Fusarium 57 30
used for three years. Slabs can be
Botrytis 55 5
steamed in situ, stacked on a pallet or
steamed in a container. If done in situ, Nematodes 55 15
remove the drip irrigation system if it is Rhizoctonia 52 30
not heat resistant and cover the green- Sclerotinia 50 5
house with polyethylene sheeting. If
Pythium 46 40
stacking on a pallet, remove the plastic
sleeve. Stack slabs no higher than 1.5m

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 133

5. Pest and Disease Management

134 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 7. CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
CROP PROTECTION
This information on safe pesticide use is
adapted for greenhouse production from the
B.C. Pesticide Applicator Course for Agricul-
tural Producers. The course manual is available
from Office Products Centre at 1-800-282-
7955. Courses and exams are held periodically
throughout the province. Contact the B.C.
Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection for
information on scheduled courses.
Canadian Legislation
Pest Control Products Act &
Regulations
Every pesticide used or sold in B.C. must be
registered by The Pest Management Regulatory
Agency (PMRA) of Health Canada. Each label
must have a Pest Control Products Act (PCP)
number on it. Using pesticides from other
countries without a Canadian PCP Act # is
against the law unless you have a “pesticide own
use import permit”. Besides the PCP #, each
label must also list the crops and pests the
pesticide can be used on. Pesticides that can be
used legally in greenhouses must specify “green-
house ”. For example, the pesticide label must
say greenhouse peppers. Using pesticides for
uses not on the label is against the law. How-
ever, there are a few minor pesticide uses that
may be approved but are not on the label. This
guide includes any of these minor uses that have
been approved for greenhouse peppers.
Pesticides are labeled as Domestic, Commercial
or Restricted. Domestic products are intended
for home garden use; commercial products are
for agricultural producers; and restricted prod-
ucts are more hazardous and are intended for
use only by certified pesticide applicators.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
The Food and Drugs Act
All foods must be free of harmful amounts of
foreign substances. Health Canada sets levels
of allowable pesticide residues on crops at
harvest. These levels are called maximum
residue limits or MRLs. Foods are tested peri-
odically for pesticide residues at the time of
sale. If residues are found to exceed the MRL
for any pesticide on that crop, the food may be
seized. If you follow the recommendations on
the label or in this production guide, make no
mistakes in calculations, and wait the required
days after application before harvest, residues
should not exceed the MRL.
The Fisheries Act and
Migratory Birds Regulations
You can be charged if you kill or harm fish or
migratory birds with pesticides. This applies to
creeks, rivers, and lakes on your own property
as well as on public land. It is illegal to intro-
duce pesticides into waters either directly or
indirectly through spray drift or run-off.
Transportation of Dangerous
Goods Act
Certain dangerous goods cannot be transported
unless you use shipping documents, special
labels, and vehicle signs. Ask your pesticide
dealer if the product you have bought needs
special transport procedures. Growers are
usually exempt from this when they are trans-
porting less than 500 kg of pesticide.
135

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
136
British Columbia
Legislation
Pesticide Control Act and
Regulations
The Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection has
rules about the sale and use of pesticides in B.C.
1. Pesticides labeled Restricted or Commercial
must be kept in vented and locked storage
which has a warning sign on the door.
2. Anyone buying or using pesticides labeled
Restricted must have a current pesticide
applicator certificate.
3. Businesses selling pesticides must be licensed
and their sales people must include at least
one certified pesticide dispenser on duty.
4. Anyone applying pesticides in exchange for a
fee must have an applicator certificate and a
Pest Control Service License. But, if you spray
your neighbor’s crops as a favour and no money
is exchanged, you do not need a license.
5. Everyone must dispose of containers and
left over pesticides safely.
Workers’ Compensation Board
Workers’ Compensation Board (WCB) Regula-
tions for Occupational Health and Safety in
Agriculture apply to farmers who are registered
or are required to be registered by WCB. If you
are unsure whether they apply to you, call WCB
at 1-800-661-2112.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
The WCB regulations cover conditions of
workplaces such as general safety procedures;
hazardous substances including pesticides;
confined spaces such as tanks and bins; protec-
tive clothing; and maintenance and operation
of equipment, tools, and machinery.
The WCB regulations on pesticides outline
requirements for pesticide applicator certifica-
tion, emergency medical care, washing facili-
ties, personal protective clothing and equip-
ment, application equipment, pesticide applica-
tion, posting warning signs, re-entry into treated
areas, and record keeping. Free copies of the
regulations are available from any WCB office.
One of the WCB pesticide regulations states
that workers must be over 16 years old and
must have a valid pesticide applicator certifi-
cate if they mix, load or apply moderately or
very toxic pesticides or if they clean or main-
tain application equipment for these pesticides.
The relative toxicity table in this guide indi-
cates which pesticides are classified as moder-
ately or very toxic (see Table 7-1).
The WCB worker re-entry requirements are
generally 48 hours for highly toxic chemicals
and 24 hours for moderately toxic chemicals.
Chemicals rated as slightly or non-toxic may
have shorter or no waiting periods prior to re-
entry. Refer to the WCB regulations for more
information.
Table 7-1 List of pesticide common names, trade names and

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection

relative toxicity to mammals.
Trade names are capitalized; common names are in lower case. Toxicity data are based primarily
on tests with rabbits and rats and are considered relevant to all mammals, including humans. The
original source of information for this table was “Farm Chemicals Handbook” 1993, Sine, C. ed.,
Meister Pub. Co. Data for more recent registrations is from the 1999 edition of the same
publication and other sources.

The following categories have been used to differentiate toxicity ( LD50 is defined as the quantity
of active ingredient in mg that must be fed per kg of test animal body weight to kill 50% of the
population of animals in the test) :
Toxicity Rating Oral LD50 Dermal LD50
slight 500 + 1000 +
moderate 51 – 500 201 – 1000
very 0 – 50 0 – 200

The chemical or mode-of-action class category is of value in determining rotations to avoid build-
up of pest resistance. It is also of value in planning precautions taken to limit worker exposure.
For example, all OP compounds are cholinesterase inhibitors and exposure is cumulative
regardless of the number of different OP products being used. Following is the key to chemical
class designations:

Code Chemical or Mode-of-Action Class Code Chemical or Mode-of -Action Class

BI biological I inorganic
BOT botanical MO miscellaneous organic
C carbamate OC organochlorine
CN chloronicotinyl OP organophosphate
D dithiocarbamate PP phosphonic acids
MAC moult accelerating compound SI sterol inhibitor

The requirement for applicator certification in commercial operations differs between BC Ministry
of Water, Land and Air Protection - Pesticide Control Act regulations and BC Workers’
Compensation Board regulations. In the following table, “yes”, means certification is required;
“no”, means it is not required.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 137

 Table 7-1 (Continued) List of pesticide common names, trade names and
relative toxicity to mammals.
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection

Common Trade Name(s) Class Oral Dermal WLAP WCB

Name Toxicity Toxicity Regs Regs
Fungicides
captan Captan, Maestro OC slight slight* no no
myclobutanil Nova SI slight slight no no
oxine No Damp MO slight slight no no
benzoate
Streptomyces Mycostop BI slight slight* no no
griseoviridis
sulphur Microscopic Sulphur I slight slight no no
thiram Thiram C slight slight** no no
Herbicides
glyphosate Roundup PP slight slight no no
paraquat Gramoxone MO moderatet moderate no yes
Insecticides
and Miticides
abamectin Avid, Agrimeck BI moderate slight no no
Bacillus Dipel, Foray, Vectobac BI slight slight no no
thuringiensis
diazinon Basudin, Diazinon OP moderate slight no yes
endosulfan Thiodan OC very moderate no yes
imidacloprid Merit, Intercept CN moderate slight no yes
mineral oil Dormant Oil MO slight slight no no
naled Dibrom OP moderate slight no yes
nicotine Plantfume Nicotine BOT veryt very yes yes
pyrethrin (with soap in) Trounce BOT slight slight no no
pyridaben Dyno-mite, Sanmite MO slight slight no no
soap Safer’s Insecticidal Soap MO slight slight no no
tebufenozide Confirm MAC slight slight no no
Molluscicides
ferric Sluggo Slug bait I slight slight no no
phosphate
metaldehyde Slug-em Slug Bait MO slight moderate no no
Rodenticides
zinc Phosbait, Rodent Pellets I very slight yes yes
phosphide
all others various MO very various no yes
* may cause allergic reactions; ** do not consume alcohol before or after use;
t
do not inhale spray or smoke particles.

138 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Toxicity
Some pesticides are more poisonous or toxic than
others. Pesticides listed in this guide are rated
according to their acute toxicity in Table 7-1.
Hazard Shapes and Symbols
Hazard shapes and symbols on pesticide labels
indicate how dangerous a pesticide may be. The
shape indicates how hazardous the product is.
The symbol inside the shape tells you the type
of hazard. If there are no shapes and symbols
on the label, the pesticide has very low hazard.
See Pesticide Warning Symbols, Figure 7.
Exposure
Pesticides can enter your body through the skin
(dermally), the mouth (orally), the nose (inhala-
tion), or the eyes. The skin is the most common
route of poisoning for pesticide applicators.
Skin contact may occur from a splash, spill or
drift. Your skin is most likely to get contami-
nated when mixing and loading pesticides.
Hazard
The hazard of using a pesticide depends on
both its toxicity and the amount of exposure.
Reduce hazards by selecting pesticides with low
toxicity when possible and by reducing expo-
sure. Wear protective clothing and follow safe
handling procedures.
Poisoning and First Aid
Symptoms of Pesticide
Poisoning
Know the poisoning symptoms of the pesti-
cides and other hazardous chemicals you are
using. Read pesticide labels for symptoms.
Effects from pesticide poisoning vary from
person to person and are often difficult to
recognize. Some poisoning symptoms are
headache, tiredness, nausea, dizziness, irritation
of the skin or nose or throat, blurred vision,
tiny pupils, trembling, perspiration, difficult
breathing, vomiting, and unconsciousness. Call
the Poison Control Centre immediately if you
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
suspect poisoning (Lower Mainland of B.C.:
604-682-5050, 604-682-2344; elsewhere in
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
B.C.: 1-800-567-8911). Have the common and
trade names and PCP # of the pesticide or
name of hazardous chemical at hand when you
call. Follow their instructions; if advised to call
for an ambulance, dial 911 in areas where
available.
Poison Control Centre
The Poison Control Centre has trained staff on
duty 24 hours a day. They give first aid infor-
mation and treatments for poisoning. You must
have the name of the suspected chemical or
pesticide available when you call.
The phone number for the Poison Control
Centre is near the front of your phone book
under Emergency Numbers. The phone num-
bers in July, 2004 were those shown at the top
of this page.
First Aid
Make sure that at least one person on duty
knows what to do in case of an emergency.
Large greenhouses should have a first aid room
with one or more staff members with first aid
training available on call.
If someone appears to be the victim of chemical
poisoning:
1. Protect yourself.
2. Move the victim from the area of contamination.
3. Check if the victim is breathing. If breathing
has stopped or is very weak, clear the airway
and begin artificial respiration. Continue
until the victim is breathing normally or until
medical help arrives. When doing mouth-to-
mouth resuscitation, use a plastic mask to
protect yourself from poison.
4. Call the Poison Control Centre, doctor or
ambulance. Be ready to give them the name
of the chemical or pesticide and it’s PCP #.
If you have a clean copy of the pesticide
label, offer it to the ambulance attendants
when they arrive.
139
 MOST POISONOUS
→ LESS POISONOUS
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection

DANGER POISON WARNING POISON CAUTION POISON

• very poisonous • moderately poisonous • slightly poisonous

• (oral LD50 less than 500) • (oral LD50 500 to 1000) • (oral LD50 1000 to 2500)
• wear a respirator • wear a respirator in • wear a respirator in confined spaces
• wear eye protection confined spaces • could be an eye irritant, eye protec-
• wear eye protection tion advisable

MOST FLAMMABLE
→ LESS FLAMMABLE

DANGER WARNING CAUTION

EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE FLAMMABLE
FLAMMABLE

MOST CORROSIVE → LESS CORROSIVE

DANGER WARNING CAUTION

EXTREMELY CORROSIVE CORROSIVE

Figure 7-1. Pesticide warning symbols and shapes on chemical labels

show the hazards of the product.
(NOTE: the LD50 scale is not the same as the one in Table 7-1.)

140 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

5. Unless the doctor or Poison Control Centre
tells you otherwise, follow the procedures
listed below:
If a pesticide contacts the eyes, put on water-
proof gloves and hold the eyelids open and
rinse with clean water for 15 minutes or more.
Do not use an eye-cup.
If pesticide contacts the skin, put on water-
proof gloves, remove the contaminated cloth-
ing, and wash the affected area of the skin with
lots of soap and water.
If pesticide was inhaled, take the victim to
fresh air as quickly as possible; loosen tight
clothing and watch for signs of unconscious-
ness or convulsions. Keep the airway open and
begin resuscitation if breathing has stopped or
is difficult. Use a plastic face-mask to protect
yourself.
If a pesticide is swallowed, check the label to
see if vomiting is recommended. Do not
induce vomiting if:
• the label says not to,
• the substance swallowed contains a petro-
leum product,
• the victim is unconscious or convulsing, or
• if the substance is corrosive, such as concen-
trated acid or alkali.
To induce vomiting, give the victim water and
tickle the back of the throat and tongue with
your finger. If the victim cannot sit, place the
person face down on their side. Keep the
airway free of vomitus.
If a corrosive substance was swallowed and the
victim is conscious and able to swallow, give a
half to full glass of milk or water. Do not give
large amounts to drink as it may induce vomit-
ing. Do not induce vomiting if a petroleum
product, strong acid or strong alkali has
been swallowed.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Protective Clothing and
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
Equipment
Wear protective clothing and equipment to
minimize exposure to pesticides. Wear safety
equipment during mixing, loading, application,
and cleanup. Always wear coveralls, waterproof
boots, waterproof gloves, and waterproof hat.
Sometimes you will need to wear eye or face
protection, respirator, waterproof apron, water-
proof pants and jacket. The equipment you need
depends on the toxicity of the pesticide and
method of application. Follow the safety recom-
mendations on the pesticide label.
Coveralls
Wear long sleeved coveralls over full-length
pants and long-sleeved shirts. Make sure the
coveralls are closed at the neckline and wrists.
Remove your coveralls as soon as you have
finished your pesticide activities. Remove them
immediately if they become wet through with
pesticide. Wear waterproof clothing if you
might get wet during pesticide application.
Some disposable coveralls are suitable for
pesticide use. Check with your supplier to see
which ones can be used for pesticide applica-
tion. When removing disposable coveralls, take
care not to contaminate the inside if you plan
to wear them again. Between wearing, hang
them in a well- ventilated area away from other
clothing. Do not launder disposable coveralls
but do wash clothing worn under disposable
coveralls as you would other clothing worn
during pesticide use. Replace with a new
coverall when severe pilling (balls on the sur-
face), rips or holes appear. To discard, place in
a plastic garbage bag and take to a landfill site.
Do not burn.
Gloves
Always wear gloves when handling pesticides.
Many glove materials are available. Use unlined
nitrile gloves unless the pesticide label recom-
mends a different material. Do not use gloves
made of leather, cloth, or natural rubber or
141

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
142
gloves with cloth linings. Make sure the gloves
do not have holes or leaks. Keep your coverall
sleeves over the gloves and fold down the tops
of the gloves to make cuffs. Wash your gloves
before removing them and after each use.
Boots
Wear waterproof, unlined knee-high boots of
rubber or neoprene when you load, mix or
apply pesticides. Wear your pant legs outside
of your boots. Do not wear boots made of
leather or fabric. Wash the outside of your
boots after each use.
Goggles and Face Shields
Wear goggles if there is a chance of getting
pesticide spray or dust in your eyes. Do not use
goggles with cloth or foam headbands. Do not
wear contact lenses when handling pesticides.
Face shields provide extra protection when
mixing and loading toxic pesticides. Wash
goggles and face shields after use.
Hats
Wear a waterproof hat when pesticides may be
splashed or when you could be exposed to drift.
Wear a wide brimmed rubber rain hat if you
may get wet with spray. Do not wear baseball
caps, fabric hats, or hats with leather or cloth
inner bands.
Aprons
Waterproof aprons provide convenient protec-
tion while mixing and pouring concentrated
pesticides.
Respirators
Wear a respirator when the label says to wear
one; or when the label says to avoid inhalation
of dust, vapour, or spray mist; or if there is a
danger poison symbol on the label; or if you are
applying pesticides in an enclosed space. Make
sure your respirator fits. Men with beards may
have difficulty with some types of respirator as
facial hair prevents a proper fit.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Full-face respirators or ‘space helmets’ give
more protection and may be more comfortable
than a half-face mask and goggles.
Do not use dust masks when applying sprays.
They do not protect you from the fumes.
Special respirators must be worn when using a
highly toxic fumigant such as methyl bromide
or nicotine smoke. Check the label for details.
Respirators must be approved by NIOSH or an
agency sanctioned by the Workers’ Compensa-
tion Board. The cartridges remove toxic fumes
from the air. Cartridges labeled for organic
vapors or pesticides are needed for most pesti-
cides. Filters remove dust and mist. Both
filters and cartridges must be replaced regularly
for the respirator to work.
When you use your respirator:
1. Check the intake and exhaust valves.
2. Make sure there are no air leaks around the
face-mask. Do an inhalation or exhalation test.
3. Change the dust filter after 4 hours of use or
more often if breathing becomes difficult.
4. Change the cartridges after 8 hours of use or
sooner if you can smell the pesticide. Re-
place cartridges at least once per year; more
often if you use them frequently.
Store your respirator in a clean sealed plastic
bag.
Protective Equipment for
Fumigants, Smoke Bombs and
Foggers
Use a full-face gas mask with correct canister
when applying very toxic pesticides indoors.
Keep a fresh canister on hand as they can lose
their effectiveness.
Wear a full-face mask when lighting smoke
bombs and when airing the house. Light the
bomb farthest from the door and work toward
the door. If smoke bombs are placed in more
than one path, they should be ignited simulta-
neously by a separate person in each path.
When using fogging machines, wear complete
protective clothing, including hat, jacket, pants
or coveralls, rubber gloves, and an air-tight,
full-face mask.
Cleaning Protective Clothing
and Equipment
After application wash your gloves, boots,
goggles, face-shield and apron. Wash your
respirator face piece with soap and warm water.
Then rinse it with clean water and dry it with a
clean cloth. Keep the cleaned respirator in a
plastic bag in a clean, dry place. Store the
respirator and protective clothing away from
pesticides and spray equipment.
Discard disposable coveralls or any clothing
that has become soaked with a pesticide.
Launder all your clothing after each day of
applying pesticides. Wash protective clothing
separately from the rest of the laundry. Use a
high water level and the hottest water setting
on your machine. Run through an extra rinse
cycle.
If clothes are heavily contaminated, run two
complete cycles and then clean the washing
machine by running it through a full cycle with
detergent and no clothes to remove any pesti-
cide residue. Hang clothes outside to dry in the
sunlight if possible.
Personal and
Environmental Safety
Guidelines
Buying Pesticides
• Make sure the pesticide is registered for your
specific use.
• If possible, buy only what you can use up in
one growing season.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Transporting Pesticides
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
• Never transport pesticides with food, feed,
clothing, or household goods.
• Lock up the pesticides if you leave your
vehicle.
• Never transport pesticides in the passenger
section of a vehicle.
• Ask the supplier if you need shipping papers
and hazard warning signs.
Storing Pesticides & Shelf Life
Pesticides vary in their stability and response to
storage conditions. Try to purchase only quan-
tities of pesticides that can be used up in one
growing season. However, under good storage
conditions, most pesticides can be used after at
least one year of storage. Follow these guide-
lines for storage:
• Commercial and Restricted pesticides must
be kept in locked and vented storage that has
a warning sign on the door.
• Store pesticides in the original container with
the original label.
• Never keep pesticides near livestock, food,
feed, seed, fertilizer, wells, water supplies,
drainage ditches or in your home.
• Keep herbicides separate from other pesti-
cides to avoid cross-contamination.
• Keep all pesticides, including herbicides
locked up to prevent theft and/or vandalism.
(One container of herbicide could wipe out
an entire greenhouse crop.)
• Keep a current inventory of the pesticides in
storage so you will know if anything is
missing.
• Protect the pesticides from extreme tempera-
tures. Some liquid pesticides are destroyed
by freezing; others volatilize when too warm.
• Keep containers securely closed.
• Do not store fertilizer with pesticides as it
may become contaminated by absorbing
pesticide vapours.
143

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
144
• Do not store any feed, seed or slug bait
(except in rodent-proof containers) with
pesticides as they may attract rodents that
will proceed to damage the pesticide contain-
ers and labels.
• Dispose of unwanted, unmarked and dam-
aged containers when a free disposal day is
offered. These are provided periodically.
Contact your supplier for details.
• Keep containers above floor level to protect
from dampness and flooding.
• Post emergency numbers near-by.
• Keep a fire extinguisher, broom, shovel,
absorptive material, and protective clothing
near-by in case of a fire or spill.
Mixing and Loading Pesticides
• Wear protective clothing and equipment.
• Read and follow label directions.
• Choose a mixing and loading site away from
people, livestock, pets, wells, drains and
water bodies.
• Measure accurately.
• Hold the container below eye level when
measuring or adding pesticide into the spray
tank.
• Use measuring and mixing equipment re-
served for pesticides and return to locked
storage when not in use. Preferably mark
them with durable “for pesticides only”.
• Rinse pesticide containers as soon as they are
empty. Rinse measuring and mixing equip-
ment. Put rinse water into the spray tank
during the last filling.
• Use potable water of pH 5.0 to 7.0 for all
spraying if possible.
• Prevent overflow. Never leave the tank
unattended once the pesticide has been
added to the water.
• Prevent contaminating the water supply by
leaving at least a 15 cm air gap between the
end of the filler hose and the water in the
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
spray tank. Alternatively, you can use a
back-flow prevention valve on the water
supply but it must be checked annually by a
qualified technician.
Applying Pesticides
• Read and follow label directions.
• Use calibrated application equipment.
• Use the label or production guide rate.
• After applying pesticides, wash hands and
face before eating, drinking, smoking, or
using the toilet.
• Have fresh water and emergency supplies on
hand in case you spill pesticide on yourself.
• Make sure the area to be treated is clear of
people and animals.
• Don’t work alone when handling very toxic
pesticides.
• Post warning signs if necessary to keep
people out of treated areas.
• Use separate equipment for applying herbicides.
• Cover or remove animal food and water
containers near the treatment area.
• Wear gloves to replace or clean plugged
nozzles. Do not blow out a plugged nozzle
or screen with your mouth. Use a soft brush
or toothpick.
After Applying Pesticides
• Clean equipment away from water supplies
and drains.
• Remove and clean protective clothing and
equipment.
• Keep records of every application. Preferably,
keep one copy near the pesticide storage area
and one copy in the greenhouse office. Several
growers have reported misplaced or vandal-
ized spray records. A paper original with
frequent computer backup is ideal.
Disposal of Unwanted
Pesticides
• Calculate the amount needed so none is left
over.
• Do not re-spray an area to get rid of left-over
spray.
• Apply left-over material according to label
directions on another site or crop listed on
the label. Do not put unwanted pesticides
into sewers, down drains, or on the land.
• Contact your supplier for information on the
disposal of unwanted pesticides. Free dis-
posal days are offered periodically.
• While waiting for a free disposal time, place
containers of unwanted pesticides in a
suitable size drum marked “pesticides for
disposal only” Keep the drum locked away
in your pesticide storage until you can dis-
pose of it.
Disposal of Containers
• Triple or pressure rinse emptied drums, glass
bottles, plastic and metal containers into the
spray tank. Rinse plastic and paper bags once
or twice by holding the neck closed and
shaking back and forth before emptying into
the tank.
• Empty all rinse water into the spray tank.
The amount of pesticide added to a large
tank will not be significant compared to the
amount added by measurement. For a small
spray tank, estimate the amount of pesticide
in the rinse water and reduce your measured
amount accordingly.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• Crush, puncture or damage empty containers
so they cannot be re-used. A limited number
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
of cleaned and flattened containers can be
included with the regular waste removal.
• For larger numbers of containers, contact
your supplier to find out where and when
they can be returned. It is not necessary to
destroy containers being returned to the
supplier but they do have to be completely
rinsed out.
• Do not attempt to burn unwanted pesticides
or empty pesticide containers. Dangerous
fumes will be produced.
Re-entry Restrictions
Poisoning may occur when people work in
treated areas too soon after pesticides have
been used. Such poisoning may be from breath-
ing pesticide fumes or handling treated plants
when tying, pruning and picking. Even pesti-
cides of low toxicity may cause discomfort,
especially for workers subject to allergies.
If a person needs to enter a treated area before
the re-entry period is over, protective gear must
be worn.
Harvesting Restrictions
Wait the pre-harvest interval (days-to-harvest)
before picking to avoid illegal pesticide residues
on harvested produce. Maximum residue limits
(MRLs) for greenhouse peppers assume that the
consumer receives and consumes unwashed
fruit. Pre-harvest intervals can be found on the
pesticide labels and are also listed for each
recommendation in this publication.
145

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
146
Special Environmental
Precautions
Protecting Fish and Other
Wildlife
All insecticides, as well as some fungicides and
herbicides, are very toxic to fish. Insecticides are
toxic to birds and wildlife. Exposure to trace
amounts of these pesticides may kill fish or
birds. Removing vegetation along fish-bearing
water harms fish by removing food and shelter.
Protect fish and wildlife from pesticide poison-
ing by following label precautions and the
guidelines below.
• Use pesticides only when necessary.
• Select the least toxic and least persistent
pesticides for the purpose.
• Leave a buffer zone along all bodies of
water, including drainage ditches, to keep
pesticides out of the water.
• Use precautions to prevent drift, leaching
and run-off to areas outside the treated area.
• Growers not equipped to re-circulate drain-
age water must be particularly vigilant about
the quality of water leaving the greenhouse.
• If rodent baits are used outside the green-
house, they must be placed in secure, cov-
ered bait stations to prevent poisoning of
larger animals.
Protecting Bees and Beneficial
Insects
Bees and other pollinating insects are essential
for the production of many crops. Beneficial
predators and parasites are essential to green-
house biological control. Many pesticides,
particularly insecticides, are very toxic to
honeybees, wild bees, and beneficials. Growers
using beneficials in IPM programs must be very
selective in the choice and timing of chemical
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
pesticide applications. Populations of
beneficials provided by different suppliers may
differ in tolerance to some pesticides. There-
fore, it is essential to obtain information from
your own supplier before using pesticides in a
crop using biocontrol.
Emergency Response
• Keep the phone numbers for local Poison
Control Centre, doctor, ambulance (911 in
heavily populated areas), and Provincial
Emergency Centre (1-800-663-3456) nearby.
• Have protective gear and equipment easily
available.
• Keep absorptive material, a container for
contaminated waste, tools to pick up con-
taminated material, bleach, and hydrated
lime available.
Spills
• Protect yourself.
• Keep bystanders away.
• Contain the spill. Surround and cover with
absorbent material.
• Put absorbent material in special waste
container and seal it.
• Remove and wash protective gear. Shower.
• If you need help and for large spills, call the
Provincial Emergency number,
1-800-663-3456.
Fires
• Let your fire department know ahead of time
where you store your pesticides and other
hazardous chemicals.
• Call the fire department and keep people
away from the area. Advise firefighters if
pesticides or other toxic chemicals are stored
near the burning area.
Properties of Chemical
and Biological Crop
Protection Products
This chapter is intended for reference and
background information only; it is by no means
intended to replace labels. Always consult the
label; it is the primary source for information
on safety, rates, and application methods.
Material in this chapter was compiled from the
following sources: Farm Chemicals Handbook ’99,
MeisterPro Reference Guides; pesticide labels;
The Pesticide Manual, Eleventh Edition, Editor
C. D. S. Tomlin, British Crop Protection Coun-
cil, 1997; and the Handbook for Pesticide Applica-
tors and Dispensers by B.C. Ministry of Water,
Land and Air Protection.
Fungicides and Bactericides
captan (Captan, Maestro)
Captan is a broad-spectrum, protective and
curative dicarboximide that controls seed and
soil-borne diseases. It may be used as a soil
and greenhouse bench treatment for damping-
off and root rot diseases of seedlings and
transplants. Do not combine with oil or
strongly alkaline materials such as hydrated
lime. Do not use in combination with, imme-
diately before or closely following an oil spray.
It has low mammalian acute toxicity (LD50:
oral = 9,000), but it may cause skin and eye
irritation. It is toxic to fish.
myclobutanil (Nova 40W)
Nova is a sterol-inhibiting product for pow-
dery mildew that is locally systemic and has
both eradicant and protectant properties. It
is important not to exceed the maximum of
three applications per growing season or to
use higher than label rates. For greenhouse
peppers, it should be applied at first sign of
mildew and again 12 days later. It has a 3
day PHI and 12 hour re-entry on greenhouse
peppers. Note the phytotoxicity disclaimer
on the label. In the United States,
myclobutanil labels carry the warning that
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
over-dosage can result in observable foliar
greening and shortened internodes. Use extra
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
caution during cool, dark periods when plants
are not growing rapidly. It has low mamma-
lian acute toxicity (LD50: oral = 1,600; dermal
> 5,000), but is hazardous to fish.
Streptomyces griseoviridis strain k61
(Mycostop)
Mycostop is a biofungicide for the control or
suppression of damping-off, root and stem
rot and wilt caused by Fusarium of green-
house tomato, cucumber and pepper. It is
labeled for seed treatment and as a drench
although seed treatments are not recom-
mended for sweet pepper. It is a preventive
treatment; it is not a quick fix or curative
treatment. It must be applied to the growing
media of plants during propagation and/or
immediately after transplanting. For green-
house peppers in rockwool blocks, it should
be applied immediately after transplanting
and at 3-6 week intervals. Do not tank mix
with chemical pesticides or strong fertilizers.
It is a living organism and cannot be treated the
same as conventional fungicides. Storage
conditions, soil and air temperatures, and the use
of other pesticides or fertilizers can affect its
performance. Unopened packages must be
stored in a cool dry place where temperatures are
below 8ºC. Once packages are opened the
product must be used the same day since the
product will lose its activity. It will not work
properly unless basic disease strategies such as
sanitation and proper growing conditions are
followed. Use well-drained media; do not subject
crops to water stress; keep greenhouse humidity
below 85%; and ensure that pH and nutrients
are within the proper range for each crop.
Mycostop contains naturally occurring soil
bacteria and suppresses disease through
several ways. It deprives pathogen fungi of
living space and nourishment by colonizing
plant roots in advance of fungi. In addition,
it secretes various enzymes and metabolites
that inhibit pathogen growth. It has been
147

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
148
shown to promote the growth and yield of
plants even in healthy crops.
abamectin (Avid)
It has low mammalian acute toxicity (LD50:
oral > 9,000), but may cause an allergic skin
reaction. It is toxic to fish. It is believed to
be compatible with most beneficials.
sulphur (Bartlett Microscopic)
Sulphur is a naturally occurring element that
has been used to control plant diseases,
especially powdery mildew, since ancient
times even before the cause of disease was
understood. It may injure plants during hot,
dry weather. Do not tank-mix or use in
combination with, immediately before or
immediately after an oil spray. Do not use
when temperatures are above 30ºC. It is
relatively nontoxic to humans, but may be
irritating to the eyes and skin. It is also
relatively nontoxic to animals and bees. For
greenhouse peppers, do not apply more than
10 applications per crop cycle or more fre-
quently than every 14 days. It currently has a
24 hour re-entry period.
thiram (Thiram Seed Protectant)
Thiram is not applied to greenhouse crops
but it is used as an alternate to captan for
treatment of vegetable seed against damp-
ing-off and some seed-borne pathogens.
Workers in seedling production facilities who
are exposed to thiram-treated seed for pro-
longed periods should avoid consuming
alcohol immediately before or for 24 hours
after exposure.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Insecticides and Miticides
Avid is a naturally derived miticide/insecti-
cide produced by the soil microorganism
Streptomyces avermitilis. It acts by stimulating
the presynaptic release of GABA, an inhibi-
tory neurotransmitter. Pests become immobi-
lized shortly after ingesting or coming in
contact with it. It may take three to four days
to achieve maximum mortality; pests will
continue moving, but will not feed or breed.
It has translaminar activity and penetrates
the leaf tissue and remains there, so when
it’s applied to upper leaf surfaces, it pen-
etrates into tissue and kills pests that inhabit
and feed on lower leaf surfaces. Surface
residues rapidly dissipate and degrade in
sunlight.
On greenhouse peppers, it is used for control
of two-spotted spider mites. It is effective
against all mite stages except the egg stage; it
is effective against leafminer larvae and
adults. It has moderate mammalian acute
toxicity (LD50: oral = 300; dermal > 1,800).
It causes substantial, but temporary eye
injury. It is toxic to predatory mites, fish,
wildlife, and highly toxic to bees.
Effectiveness is limited to between February
and October and/or when daily light inten-
sity in the greenhouse is at levels higher than
700 joules/cm2/day. Apply when spider
mites first appear and repeat as necessary to
maintain control. For resistance management
purposes, it is recommended not to use it in
successive applications. Rotate sprays with
at least one other product before using it
again. Do not apply more than twice in
sequence or more than five times per crop.
Do not apply within 3 days of harvest.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Foray 48BA,
Vectobac 600L, Safer’s BTK)
BT is a microbial insecticide based on toxins
produced by a bacterium. There are a
number of varieties of this bacterium that
are toxic to specific groups of insects. The
two main varieties used in commercial
products are Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki,
used to kill leaf-eating caterpillars and B.
thuringiensis var. israeliensis, used to kill fungus
gnat larvae. Products are formulated as a
wettable powder, dust, or liquid suspension
of spores and crystals produced by the
bacteria. They must be eaten by the target
insects to cause toxic effects; there is no
contact activity. Thorough coverage is essen-
tial. The pest stops all further eating and
death occurs within one to three days. It has
a short residual effect, so applications must
be repeated every few days until control is
achieved. Products do not control the adult
stage life cycle, so they must be applied for
when the target pest is in the correct stage of
its life cycle. There is evidence for resistance
building in greenhouse looper populations so
proper resistance management is important
(i.e. avoid doses below the label rate, ensure
thorough coverage and use alternative con-
trols). Avoid applying in conjunction with
fertilizers or fungicides that contain copper
or chlorine because they may neutralize the
active ingredient. Do not apply to plants
under stress or follow application with
excessive amounts of water. It has a low
mammalian acute toxicity (LD50: oral =
5,000 - 13,000; dermal = 75,000).
diazinon (Diazinon 500E)
Diazinon is a broad-spectrum organophos-
phate compound that is non-systemic with
contact, stomach, and respiratory action. It
has moderate residual activity. Phytotoxic to
some plants. Emulsifiable concentrates may
cause more plant damage than wettable
powders It has moderate mammalian acute
toxicity (LD50: oral = 300 - 400; dermal =
3,600). It is toxic to fish, bees (highly), birds,
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
and wildlife. Aplications may be made
monthly or when aphids reach treatment
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
levels. Pre-harvest interval (PHI or days-to-
harvest) is 5 days for peppers.
endosulfan (Endosulfan, Thiodan
40EC)
Thiodan is an organochlorine compound that
is non-systemic with contact and stomach
action. It is fairly persistent, undergoes slow
hydrolysis, and is stable in sunlight. This
product should only be used as a last
resort as it is incompatible with most
biocontrol programs. It has high mamma-
lian acute toxicity (LD50: oral = 22.7 - 160;
dermal = 359) and is very toxic to fish and
moderately toxic to bees and birds. For
aphids and tarnished plant bugs on green-
house peppers, it may be used up to twice
per season. PHI is 2 days.
imidacloprid (Intercept 60WP)
Intercept is a chloronicotinyl that combines
systemic activity with long residual control
of aphids and whiteflies. It has no effect on
spider mites. It is not used as a foliar spray
but as a soil drench to actively growing
plants with established root systems. It is
translocated upwards in the plant. Use
calibrated drip, hand-held or motorized
irrigation equipment to apply the soil drench.
For best results, do not leach media for 10-
14 days after application. It is harmful to
Aphidius and Aphidoletes. Effect on other
beneficials is unknown. It has moderate
acute mammalian toxicity (LD50: oral = 450;
dermal = >5000. It is highly toxic to aquatic
invertebrates. PHI is 3 days.
naled (Dibrom)
Dibrom is a fast acting broad-spectrum
organophosphate fumigant formed by the
action of bromine on dichlorvos. It is non-
systemic, with contact and stomach action,
and it provides some short residual fumigant
action. Dibrom is not registered and
cannot be used on greenhouse peppers,
149

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
150
but can be used for end-of-season
cleanup in empty greenhouses. It has a
moderate mammalian acute toxicity (LD50:
oral = 272 - 376; dermal = 1100). It is
corrosive; causing irreversible eye and skin
damage. Dibrom is toxic to fish and highly
toxic to bees.
nicotine (Plant-fume Nicotine Smoke
Fumigator)
Nicotine as the alkaloid or sulphate is a by-
product of tobacco that is used as a fumigant
for greenhouse crops. It may be used to
control aphids and thrips on greenhouse
peppers. It is non-systemic, with predomi-
nantly respiratory action, but it also has
slight contact and stomach action. It can be
phytotoxic to tender plants. Preharvest
interval (PHI or days-to-harvest) for peppers
is 5 days and it is restricted to only one
application per planting. Maintain green-
house temperatures at 22 - 25ºC during
application. The mammalian acute toxic-
ity at the time of application is danger-
ously high, especially from breathing
vapours or smoke. (LD50: oral = 50 - 60;
dermal = 50). It is toxic to birds and bees
but has low residual toxicity.
pyrethrin plus Safer’s Insecticidal
Soap (Trounce)
Trounce is a mixture of Safer’s insecticidal
soap and pyrethrin. Safer’s insecticidal soap
is made of selected fatty acids that kill
insects on contact. Thorough coverage of all
leaf surfaces is essential as it kills only by
contact action at the time of application and
has no residual effect. It may injure soft plant
tissues. Do not spray plants in direct sunlight
as burning may occur. Apply when weather
conditions promote slow drying such as early
morning or late afternoon to evening. Mam-
malian toxicity is low (LD50: oral = 1,500
mg/kg: dermal > 1,800 mg/kg), but it may
cause minor lung irritation from mist inhala-
tion during application. Use an approved
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
respirator. Eye exposure to concentrated
soap may cause irritation. Pyrethrins are
toxic to bees and fish. For greenhouse pep-
pers, applications may be made bi-monthly
or when aphids reach treatment levels. PHI is
5 days.
pyridaben (DYNO-Mite, Sanmite)
DYNO-Mite is a pyridazinone that acts as a
mitochondrial electron transport inhibitor; it
blocks cell respiration causing the pest to
lose motile co-ordination and eventually die.
It is non-systemic with contact action, so
thorough spray coverage is essential, espe-
cially of the lower leaf surfaces. With spider
mites, the most susceptible stages are the
larval and first two nymph stages
(protonymphal and deutonymphal). The egg
stage is less susceptible and the adult stage is
least susceptible. If adult females represent
more than 15% of the population, then a
product such as Avid that provides quick
adult knock-down should be used before
applying DYNO-Mite. This product can be
effective against whiteflies in ornamentals.
The full extent of its efficiency is not seen
until 4 to 7 days after application; a point
that should be considered when evaluating
its efficacy. It has a low mammalian acute
toxicity (LD50: oral = 820 – 1350 mg/kg:
dermal > 2,000 mg/kg). For resistance
management purposes, it’s recommended not
to use DYNO-Mite in successive applica-
tions. Rotate sprays with at least one other
product before using it again. PHI is 3 days.
soap (Safer’s Insecticidal Soap)
Insecticidal soap is an organic substance
consisting of the salts of oleic acid - a natu-
ral constituent of oils and fats. Thorough
coverage of all surfaces of the sprayed plants
is essential as it kills only by contact action
at the time of application and has no residual
effect. It may injure soft plant tissues. Do not
spray plants in direct sunlight as burning may
occur. While its mammalian toxicity is very
low, it may cause minor lung irritation if
 inhaled during application. Use an approved
respirator. Eye exposure to concentrated
soap may cause irritation. For greenhouse
peppers, do not apply more than twice per
crop cycle or within 3 days of harvest.
tebufenozide (Confirm)
Confirm is an insect growth regulator used to
control Lepidopteran pests such as cabbage
loopers. It is generally compatible with most
beneficials but may impact those that go
through moulting stages (e.g. Orius spp.).
Timing and good coverage are an important
part of control. Thorough, uniform spray
coverage is essential, and it should be used
on early larval stages. Larvae must eat the
product on the leaves in order for it to work.
Do not exceed 4 applications per year.
Confirm is in the moult accelerating com-
pound (MAC) family; it mimics the action of
the insect molting hormone, ecdysone, in
larval Lepidoptera (caterpillars). Larvae stop
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
feeding within hours after ingesting a toxic
dose, although they may continue moving for
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
several days. They begin to undergo an
unsuccessful and lethal moult. Mortality time
is dependent upon the physiology of the
target species and on environmental condi-
tions. Generally death occurs between three
and ten days after ingestion. It is essentially
nontoxic to adult bees. It is toxic to certain
aquatic invertebrates. Beneficials such as
predatory mites, beetles, wasps, and spiders
are not adversely affected. It is irritating to
skin upon repeated and prolonged contact. It
has low mammalian toxicity (LD50: oral >
5,000 mg/kg: dermal > 5,000 mg/kg).
For greenhouse peppers, apply to foliage not
more than 4 times per crop cycle or more
frequently than every 7 days. PHI is 3 days.
Re-entry is 12 hours.
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7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
152
Spraying Equipment
Sprayer Basics
High-Volume Sprayers
Conventional pesticide application involves
chemicals diluted in a large amount of water.
The large amount of water (high-volume) is used
to produce comparatively large spray droplets
(100 to 400 microns in diameter) and the spray is
applied until the foliage is visibly wet. High-
volume, dilute sprays are well suited to low-
pressure backpack sprayers; whereas low-volume
backpack sprayers do not achieve uniform
coverage. However, high-volume sprays tend to
waste material as attempts to cover all the
foliage can result in excessive runoff.
Low-Volume Sprayers
Low-volume (LV) pesticide application refers
to spraying pesticides at the label rate (per area)
with much less water, requiring a more concen-
trated spray mixture. A low-volume sprayer
applies the same quantity of active ingredient
to a given area as does a high-volume sprayer.
The term low-volume refers to the small
amount of water or diluent used to apply the
pesticide. Low-volume spraying is sometimes
referred to as concentrate spraying. Low vol-
ume in greenhouses is typically associated with
misters and foggers that are used only in green-
houses. Misters and foggers are ultra-low-
volume when compared to most conventional
outdoor sprayers.
Table 7-2 Typical droplet sizes for various types of pesticide spray applications
Average Droplet Size
Type of Spray
(microns)
Fog 0.1 - 5.0
Coarse fog/fine
10 – 50
mist
Coarse mist 50 - 100
Fine spray 100 - 250
Medium spray 250 – 500
Coarse spray 500 – 1000
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Droplet Size
Spray droplets are categorized by their size
which can vary greatly depending on the spray
equipment. Spray droplet size and typical uses
are shown in Table 7-2.
Very small droplets are typically used in green-
house misting or fogging operations and are
generally termed low-volume, or even ultra-low-
volume applications. The droplets are tiny enough
to remain suspended in the air for long periods.
Spraying with smaller droplets results in cover-
ing the surface with less spray solution. Be-
cause the volume of the droplet is based on the
cube of the droplet diameter, 1,000 ten micron
diameter droplets have the same volume of
water as a single 100 micron diameter droplet.
The 1,000 small droplets will cover the surface
area much better than the single larger droplet.
The smaller droplets are also much less prone
to runoff than larger droplets and are more
easily carried by the swirling air-stream to the
undersides of leaves. While the science behind
droplet transport and impact on plant surfaces
is complicated the results are not; smaller
droplets mean more area is covered with less
water and less run-off.
Examples of Uses
compressed air and cold foggers
thermal foggers and rotary misters
air-blast and high pressure sprays of insecticides or
fungicides
conventional insecticide or fungicide sprays
herbicide sprays
herbicide ground sprays; root zone drenches
The disadvantage of smaller droplets is that
they are more prone to drift in outdoor applica-
tions due to wind conditions. Smaller droplets
are also more vulnerable to dry air conditions
that may cause the water carrier to evaporate
before the droplet lands on the target. In green-
houses this may limit mister and fogger use to
night-time when workers are not present and
when the venting systems can be closed to
contain the mist and fog within the greenhouse.
Lack of venting would cause overheating
during warm, sunny days. With these LV
sprayers, the air circulation system is used to
help distribute the pesticide spray throughout
the greenhouse, so it is possible to apply pesti-
cides without any workers in the greenhouse.
By venting the greenhouses and observing the
re-entry times, potential worker exposure to
pesticides is reduced.
Monitoring Spray Coverage
The underlying issue of choosing high or low
volume spraying and the type of pesticide
application equipment should be which pro-
vides the best coverage. If purchasing new
equipment, arrange a demonstration where the
technology can be evaluated for coverage.
Obtaining complete coverage is critical to good
pest control and good coverage is not as obvi-
ous when spraying with lower volumes that do
not “wet the crop to the point of runoff ”.
Water sensitive paper available from most
sprayer supply companies can be attached to
tops and bottoms of leaves with paper clips.
Spray drops of water will be visible as small
coloured dots on the paper. Very fine droplets
such as fogs and smaller mist droplets may be
too small to register on the water sensitive
paper. For these sprays buy a fluorescent dye to
be mixed in the water then view the leaves
under a black light to see the coverage of the
spray droplets. Contact your supplier or local
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
office for more information.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
High-Volume Spraying
Equipment
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
Backpack Sprayer for Spot Treatment
The most common spraying equipment on small
operations is the backpack sprayer. It is suitable
for high-volume or dilute spraying both in field
and greenhouse conditions. Basic, low cost
backpack sprayers generate only low pressures
and lack features such as diaphragm pumps,
agitators, pressure adjustment controls (regula-
tor), and pressure gauges found on commercial
units. These low-pressure sprayers without
pressure regulators and gauges should not be
used for applying insecticides and fungicides
where uniform coverage is important.
Commercial quality sprayers with diaphragm
pumps and agitators will allow more effective
use of wettable powder sprays. Pressures
should be above 200 psi at the nozzle to
achieve the finer sprays suitable for applying
insecticides and fungicides. Pressure gauges and
pressure regulators enable the sprayer to oper-
ate at higher pressures (200+ psi) and the
operator to achieve a more uniform output
from the sprayer. Note that consistent walking
speed and spray wand motion is also required
to achieve uniform coverage. Nozzles must be
selected for the operating pressure of the
sprayer and spraying conditions. Backpack
sprayers should have a positive shut-off spray
control valve to eliminate pesticide drips from
the wand and nozzle. Drip-proof nozzle assem-
blies are also available as an alternative. Ball
check valves in the nozzle body require 5 to 10
psi of liquid pressure to start spraying and close
when the pressure drops below this level to
prevent drips.
153

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
154
Specialized Greenhouse
Pesticide Equipment
Pesticide application equipment for green-
houses is often differentiated by the kind of
particle they produce, namely mists, fogs, or
smokes. A more accurate method to group
them is by the method used to make the drop-
lets rather than by the particle size. Technically
the four pesticide applicators, mist blowers,
thermal foggers, high-pressure applicators, and
compressed air systems, are all low volume mist
(LVM) systems. They produce fine droplets,
less than 100 microns in size and they use very
low water volumes. However, industry termi-
nology generally only refers to the compressed
air systems as LVMs. Table 7-3 compares the
four specialized greenhouse sprayer systems.
Mist Blower
A small engine and fan creates an air stream
with a velocity of 100 to 200 mph. Concen-
trated spray injected into the air stream by a
special nozzle is carried to the target by the air.
Application is done by the applicator walking
through the greenhouse directing the nozzle
into the plant canopy to get good penetration
and coverage. Nozzles held too close to the
plants might cause blast damage. For good
coverage, the nozzle should be moved at a pace
that replaces the air within the canopy with air
from the mist blower. They are suitable for
large and small treatment areas. Greenhouses
do not have to be tightly sealed during applica-
Table 7-3 Comparison of specialized greenhouse sprayers
Droplet Tightly
Sprayer size sealed
(microns) greenhouse
Mist blower 60 - 80 no
Thermal fogger 12 - 25 yes
High pressure 30 - 60 no
Compressed air 5 or less yes
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
tion; vents may remain open, but fans should
be turned off. Rotary misters use a spinning
disc to break up the spray into small droplets.
The spray stream must be directed at the crops
and moved up and down to take advantage of
air turbulence and get good distribution. Some
manufacturers also include a fan behind the
disc to propel the spray towards the target and
create a turbulent air stream. They are also
referred to as controlled droplet applicators and
rotary atomizers. Trade names include:
“Ulvafan”, “Electrafan”, “Motafan”, and
“Turbair”.
Thermal Fogging Machines
Thermal foggers have been used for many
years. They are usually gasoline-powered
backpack or cart mounted units that are moved
throughout the greenhouse as they operate. The
pesticide is sprayed onto a hot element and
evaporates. As it condenses it produces a heavy
fog that drifts through the greenhouse and
penetrates the foliage. It covers both upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves. Thermal foggers
require specialized carrier solutions to produce
a visible fog, eliminate the evaporation of
droplets, and ensure uniform particle sizes. The
pesticide is usually sold as a ready to use (RTU)
formulation with the carrier included. Green-
houses must be tightly sealed during application
and for several hours afterwards to allow the
fine particles to settle out of the air. Trade
names include: “Pulsfog”.
Moved by
Special carrier
applicator or
solution
stationary
moved by applicator no
moved by applicator yes
moved by applicator no
stationary no
High Pressure Pesticide Applicator
This specialized greenhouse pesticide applica-
tor uses very high pressure (1,000 to 3,000 psi)
to create extremely fine sprays. Sprayers operat-
ing at 3,000 psi can produce spray droplets
averaging 30 to 60 microns in diameter that are
projected 20 to 25 feet from the spray gun. A
small spray tank, motor, pump, long high-
pressure hose, and handgun are all mounted on
a small wheeled hand cart. The operator walks
slowly through the greenhouse directing the
spray ahead and into the crop. Special fogging
formulations are not required. It is not neces-
sary to tightly seal the greenhouse during appli-
cation; vents may remain open, but fans should
be turned off. These sprayers are also referred
to as mechanical foggers. Trade names include:
“Coldfogger”.
Compressed Air or Aerosol Generators
These devices use compressed air to break the
spray liquid into small drops using an atomizing
nozzle. The nozzles are usually placed in front
of a fan that disperses the spray into the green-
house air.
These units are often used as stationary
sprayers that rely on the greenhouse air move-
ment system to circulate the aerosol throughout
the foliage in the greenhouse. They are de-
signed to operate unattended when staff are
not present. Good coverage depends upon
proper placement in relation to the greenhouse
air circulation system. It will not be effective in
greenhouses lacking adequate air movement.
Special formulations are not required. Green-
house must be tightly sealed for several hours
during and after application. Trade names
include: “Autofog”.
Electrostatic Sprayers
These are not a separate class of sprayers,
rather it’s a feature that is found on some of the
previously mentioned sprayers. Electrostatic
sprayers electrically charge droplets as they
leave the nozzle. The charged droplets pen-
etrate the foliage and adhere to all plant sur-
faces, including the underside of leaves. An
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
advantage of this is that the electrically charged
particles are attracted to the oppositely charged
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
leaf surfaces, providing good coverage of both
surfaces. A disadvantage is that the foliage first
contacted attracts so many spray particles that
there are not enough left to contact foliage
deeper in the canopy.
Smoke Fumigators – Cans
A pesticide fog or smoke that comes in ready-
to-use cans. When the fumigant is ignited, the
smoke carries the pesticide on air currents
throughout the greenhouse. Each can is suffi-
cient for a certain volume of greenhouse.
Greenhouses must be tightly sealed during and
after application. They must only be used
when unprotected workers are not present.
They have been used successfully in small
greenhouse for many years. Trade names
include: Plant-fume Nicotine Sulphate.
Sprayer Components
Power Source
The power-sprayer is normally driven by the
power-take-off (PTO) of a tractor or in green-
houses, by an auxiliary engine. The power
rating of these should be double the theoretical
power required by the pump.
Pumps
A pump creates the pressure required for atomi-
zation and penetration of the spray. For pres-
sure requirements of pumps, choose a pump
that has the specifications required for your job.
The capacity of the pump should be deter-
mined by the highest rate of application the
sprayer is expected to deliver, plus an adequate
volume for agitation.
Common pumps include:
• roller pump, excessive wear can occur with
wettable powders;
• piston pump;
• diaphragm pump.
155

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
156
Tanks
The size of the spray tank depends on the
intended volumes of spray to be applied and
the ease of movement throughout the green-
house. For ease of filling and accurate mixing,
the tank should be marked off by volume,
preferably in litres. The tank should be
equipped with a large screened opening for fast
filling and easy cleaning. Tanks should be
constructed from stainless steel, fiberglass, or
polyethylene. Galvanized steel tanks are a
headache that should be avoided. Never use
Roundup or liquid nitrogen in galvanized
tanks. Either hydraulic by-pass or mechanical
agitation must be provided. If hydraulic agita-
tion is used in the spray tank, additional pump
capacity is required. Mechanical agitation is
preferred if wettable powders are to be used
but can be a nuisance by causing excessive
foaming of materials that contain a high level
of wetting agent.
Nozzles
The size of droplet produced by various noz-
zles depends upon operating pressure and
nozzle opening. The droplet size decreases
with increasing pressure and with decreasing
diameter of nozzle orifice.
Types
The main nozzle types used for chemical appli-
cation are:
• Tapered flat-fan spray nozzles are used for
low volume, low pressure spraying such as
the application of herbicides to the soil.
They are also known as fan type or T-jets.
They produce a fan type pattern with less
material applied along the edges of the spray
pattern. By properly over-lapping the spray,
a uniform application is produced across the
area covered by the spray boom.
• Even flat-fan spray nozzles produce an even
spray pattern across the entire fan width.
These nozzles are used in band spraying of
herbicides where there is no overlap from
other nozzles, for example with a backpack
sprayer having only one nozzle.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
• Cone nozzles are used for high pressure
spraying (mostly fungicides and insecticides).
These nozzles produce a swirling mist so the
spray material can reach the undersides of
leaves. They are available as either hollow
cone or solid cone types - both produce the
same swirling mist but the solid cone nozzles
are used when larger volumes are required.
The most commonly used cone nozzles are
the two-piece disc-core nozzles. They must
be correctly installed with the rear nibs facing
the base of the nozzle body (see Figure 7-2).
Various sizes of swirl plates and orifices can
be fitted in the same nozzle body.
Figure 7-2. Assembly of disc-core cone nozzle
Sizes
Various sizes of flat and cone nozzles may be
used to obtain the volume of application desired.
Your sprayer equipment supplier has tables
showing flow rates for different nozzle sizes.
Materials
Nozzles are made from a variety of materials.
Choice of material depends upon the
abrasiveness of the spray mixture. Wettable
powders are more abrasive than emulsions.
Brass tips are cheap but the metal is soft and the
tips wear faster than the more expensive tips. In
sequence of durability from least to most, the
following materials are used: brass, stainless
steel, hardened stainless steel, ceramic, and
tungsten carbide. For greenhouse applications,
where not many nozzles are required, only the
best materials should be used.
As nozzles wear out, the volume of application
increases. For this reason, frequent calibration
of equipment is necessary.
Screens
Screens prevent larger particles from entering
the system, clogging nozzles and wearing out
the pump.
There should be screens in the tank opening,
between the tank and the pump, and in the
nozzle tips. Suction strainers, line strainers and
nozzles should all be equipped with 50 mesh
screens when wettable powders are to be used.
Screens finer than 50 mesh, for example 100
mesh, may prevent the unrestricted flow of
some wettable powders. Screens are generally
used in fine nozzles, but slotted strainers can be
used in those that have a larger opening, and
with cone nozzles. Clean screens and strainers
are essential to the efficient operation of the
spray system. They should be cleaned often
and checked for breaks in the mesh.
Mixing Chemicals
When mixing the chemical in the sprayer tank,
NEVER put the chemical in first and then top
up with water. Always fill the tank 1/3 to 1/2
full with clean water, spray out a small amount
of water to ensure the system is working prop-
erly and then add the required quantity of
chemical with the agitator running. Continue
the agitation while continuing to fill the tank.
If two or more chemicals are to be applied
together, first check the labels for compatibility
and then add the first chemical at the 1/3 to 1/
2 full stage and the second chemical at the 2/3
to 3/4 full stage. Mixing by this method will
ensure that both chemicals are completely
mixed in the water. Wettable powders can be
premixed before being added to the spray tank.
Make a slurry of wettable powder and water
and then pour it into the spray tank. Always
follow manufacturers’ directions when mixing.
Always keep the agitator running once the
spray materials have been added to the tank.
However, for liquid pesticides with highly
active wetting agents, it is better to add the
pesticide just before filling is complete to avoid
excessive foaming.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Sprayer Cleaning
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
Immediately after use, flush the sprayer with
soapy water and then rinse with clean water.
Select a cleaning area where wash water will not
contaminate wells, streams, drainage ditches or
areas frequented by workers or animals.
Even stainless steel nozzles will rust if left in
the sprayer. Nozzles and nozzle screens should
be removed, cleaned and stored in a can of light
oil or diesel fuel if the sprayer is not going to be
used for several weeks. After a spray applica-
tion, the nozzles should be cleaned and coated
with a light coat of oil to prevent corrosion.
Ceramic nozzles are not subject to corrosion.
Sprayer Calibration
Calibration helps ensure good pest control. It
also helps prevent potential crop damage, high
pesticide residues, and environmental contami-
nation. All application equipment should be
calibrated to ensure that pesticides are applied
accurately and uniformly at the recommended
rate. Calibration involves preparing the equip-
ment so it is working properly, measuring the
delivery rate, adjusting the equipment to
change the delivery rate, and calculating how
much pesticide to add to the sprayer tank.
Calibrate equipment regularly, at least once per
year, to make sure the output is not changing.
Also calibrate equipment when it is new and
when making changes that affect the delivery
rate. Proper calibration will minimize, if not
eliminate, leftover pesticide solutions in the
sprayer tank that can be very difficult to dis-
pose of properly.
There are four basic procedures to be carried
out when calibrating almost any sprayer. Details
on these procedures are given below.
1. Set-up.
2. Measuring delivery rate.
3. Adjusting delivery rate (if different from
recommended rate).
4. Calculating how much pesticide to add to the
spray tank.
157

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
158
Calibration of back pack sprayers, boom
sprayers and specialized greenhouse sprayers will
be discussed. All spraying equipment should be
calibrated using the same basic steps; more
complex equipment may require more setup.
Set-Up
Set-up is often the most neglected component
of calibration and without proper set-up the
likelihood of good spray coverage and uniform-
ity is greatly diminished. The reason why set-up
is often neglected is that it takes time, lots of
time, if the sprayer has not been well-main-
tained. During sprayer set-up, check that the
sprayer nozzles and spray pressure suit the
pesticide, crop conditions and pest conditions.
Check the equipment to ensure all parts are in
good working order. Refer to the sprayer’s
operating manual for specific operating instruc-
tions. All sprayers should be properly set-up
before you move on to the second step in
calibration, measuring the delivery rate.
Selecting Spray Volume
Many pesticides used for greenhouse crops are
given as dilution rates where the crop is to be
sprayed thoroughly. Spraying a test area of the
crop, say 100m2, with water will allow the
operator to calculate the amount of water
required to adequately cover a hectare by
simply multiplying the volume of spray used X
100 because one ha is 100 times larger than
100m2. This technique is useful to determine
the amount of pesticide needed per hectare
when labels only provide the recommended rate
in volume of water.
The same technique can be used to identify the
volume of water required to cover one ha and
thus the quantity of pesticide that must be
added to that volume of water when the label
rate is expressed as a certain amount of pesti-
cide per ha. Keep in mind that the spray vol-
ume changes with size of plants, pest condi-
tions, and method of application.
For high volume application of fungicides and
insecticides, volumes of 300 to 1000 L/ha are
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
typically used, unless otherwise specified. For
foliar sprays, just enough water should be used
to obtain thorough coverage of the leaves
without run-off. Early in the season when
growth is light, 300 L/ha of water may be
adequate. In situations where foliage is dense
and coverage is critical, at least 1,000 L/ha of
water should be used. For drenches (high-
volume, low-pressure sprays directed to the soil
for control of soil-borne pests), usually at least
2,000 L/ha is used
To maintain effective coverage of the foliage
with lower spray volumes, finer droplets are
required to cover the same area. Finer droplets
are more prone to drift and harder to spray into
dense foliage. In hot, dry conditions, low ambi-
ent relative humidity may cause the water in
fine droplets to evaporate before the pesticide
reaches the target. This is another cause of
drift. Sprayer operators should carefully moni-
tor the foliage including the lower stems and
undersides of lower leaves to ensure thorough
coverage. Water-sensitive spray cards are
available to assist in carrying out this task.
Selecting Nozzle Pressure
Insecticides and fungicides are applied at
pressures up to 2,000 kPa (300 psi) in conven-
tional spraying equipment depending upon the
pest to be controlled, the type of pesticide, and
the density of the foliage. For non-systemic
pesticides and high, dense plant canopies, high
nozzle pressures should be used to penetrate
and cover the foliage. Systemic pesticides and
plants with open canopies can be sprayed at
lower nozzle pressures, generally 550 kPa (80
psi) and higher. Commercial quality backpack
sprayers will produce pressures up to 1,000 kPa
(150 psi). These units should be equipped with
a pressure gauge and pressure regulator just like
a powered sprayer. Some manufacturers supply
kits to convert backpack sprayers that do not
have these components.
Many nozzle manufacturers have chosen to
report nozzle outputs with pressures in “bars”
not kilopascals (kPa). The bar unit is equal to
100 kPa. Pesticide labels report pressures in
kPa. Use a pressure gauge on the sprayer
marked in both psi and kPa (or bar) so both
units can be read directly from the gauge. The
maximum pressure on the pressure gauge for
powered sprayers should be twice the maximum
pressure of the pump to protect the gauge from
damage and allow it to be read accurately.
Calibrating Boom Sprayers
Preparing Your Equipment
Before calibrating, make sure all nozzles,
screens, and filters are clean; the pressure gauge
is giving an accurate reading; all hoses are in
good condition; there are no leaks in the sys-
tem; and the agitation system is working.
Select the right nozzle tips for the type of spraying
you are planning. Changing tips affects sprayer
output. Disc type hollow cone nozzles are suitable
for most insecticides and fungicides applied with
vertical spray booms. Check each nozzle to make
sure that the output is the same for all.
To check output:
1. Select desired pressure, e.g. 500 – 1500 kPa.
2. With the sprayer operating at the desired
pressure, collect output from each nozzle for
30 seconds.
3. Using a suitable-sized graduated cylinder,
record the output from each nozzle and
calculate the average. (Average output = total
output of all nozzles / number of nozzles)
4. Replace any nozzles which are more than 5%
above or below the average, or which have a
visibly distorted spray pattern.
5. As nozzles wear, output increases. If output
has increased 15% above the output when
the nozzles were new, replace them.
Calibration Method
Find the delivery rate (output) by measuring the
amount of spray applied to a test area by:
1. Accurately measure and mark a reasonably
long test strip in the greenhouse, e.g. 100 m.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
The longer the test strip, the more accurate
the calibration.
7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
2. Place a carefully measured volume of water
in the spray tank.
3. Set the pressure at the desired position.
4. Spray the test strip. Open the boom valve as
you pass the first marker and close it as you
pass the second. Make sure you are using
the selected pressure and are moving at the
desired speed when you spray the test strip.
5 Drain the sprayer into a measuring container
and determine the volume of water that has
been used.
6. Calculate the sprayer output by using the
following formula: Delivery rate in L/ha =
(litres used X 10,000) divided by (boom
width in metres X length of test strip in
metres)
Adjusting Sprayer Delivery Rate
If the measured delivery rate of your sprayer is
different than the spray volume recommended
on the pesticide label or in the production
guide, it can be adjusted in three ways:
1. Nozzle size can be changed. Check the table
of nozzle sizes that came with your sprayer
or get the information from your supplier. A
larger orifice gives higher output and smaller
gives lower output.
2. Adjusting the speed of moving up the row
will change the output. Moving twice as fast
will cut the output by 50%.
3. Spray pressure should be set for the correct
droplet size. Changing pressure is recom-
mended only for very small changes in deliv-
ery rates. Otherwise the droplet size will
change and cause drift or runoff problems.
Since pressure must be increased four times
to double the delivery rate, this is not a good
way to adjust delivery rate.
After making the adjustments, measure the
delivery rate again!
159

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
160
Calibrating Hand Operated
Sprayers
Sprayer Set-Up
Hand operated sprayers should be checked to
make sure that there are no leaks, especially
where the hose enters the tank and around the
trigger valve. The nozzle should deliver a
uniform spray pattern. Many nozzles can be
adjusted to produce the desired droplet size.
Adjust the nozzle to produce a coarse spray
with larger droplets, for herbicides and medium
to fine spray with smaller droplets, for insecti-
cide and fungicide applications.
For uniform spray application it is important to
maintain a constant spray pressure. Some
manufacturers offer pressure regulators and
pressure gauges as optional accessories that
enable the operator to set specific pressures
depending on the spraying job. Commercial
quality backpack sprayers should have these as
standard equipment. Uniform spray application
also requires the operator to co-ordinate the
walking speed with uniform sweeping move-
ments of the nozzle. The back and forth move-
ments determine the swath width.
Most pesticide labels give instructions as a
specific amount of pesticide per unit area (e.g.,
apply 2.4 L/ha). Some labels give instructions
as a specific amount of pesticide in a given
volume of water sufficient to give thorough
and complete coverage (e.g. apply 2.4L/500L
of water). Some labels give both (e.g. apply
2.4L/500L of water/ha).
Application Rate Given as a Dilution
with Water
Pesticide labels sometime give instructions to
dilute an amount of pesticide in water and
apply to runoff.
Example: A label recommends mixing 175
grams of a pesticide product in 100 litres of
water and applying until it runs off of the
foliage. If you have a 12 litre backpack you must
calculate how much pesticide to add to the tank
using the following formula: Amount of pesti-
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
cide in grams to add to spray tank = (175 grams
divided by 100 L) X 12L = 21 grams.
Before filling the sprayer, spray a test strip with
one litre of water to determine how many litres
you will need to spray the whole area. If one
litre covers 30 metres and you want to spray
500 metres, you will need (500 divided by 30)
X (1 litre divided by 12 litres) = approximately
1.4 tankfulls to spray the area.
Application Rate Given as Amount
of Pesticide per Hectare
Pesticide labels sometimes give instructions to
apply a specific amount of pesticide per unit
area (e.g. apply 2.5 litres per hectare). To
calibrate your sprayer for this type of rate
follow these steps:
First measure the delivery rate or the output of
your sprayer by:
1. Accurately measuring and marking a test
strip, e.g. a 20 metre strip.
2. Measure the width of the spray swath. The
spray width varies with the type of nozzle
used and the distance between the target
and the nozzle.
3. Measure several litres of water into the
spray tank. Pump the hand lever to the
operating pressure you will be using.
4. Spray over the measured test strip while
maintaining a steady, uniform walking speed
and a steady pumping pace. Variation in
speed and pumping pressure will change the
output.
5. Drain the spray tank, measuring the volume
of water left. Calculate the volume of water
used.
6. Calculate the sprayer delivery rate (output)
by using the following formula: Sprayer
delivery rate (L/ha) = (litres used X
10,000m2) divided by (spray width in meters
X test length in metres).
 7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection
Example: The test strip is 20 m long, the spray swath is 1 m wide. The amount of water
sprayed during the test is 2.5 litres. Sprayer output is:
2.5 L x 10,000 = 25,000 = 1250 L/ha
1 m x 20 m 20
Secondly, calculate the area that can be treated with a full tank.
Area sprayed by 1 tank = Volume of spray mixture in tank
Delivery Rate
For example, if your backpack sprayer has a capacity of 12 litres and you calibrated the sprayer
delivery rate based on your walking speed at 1250 L/ha then one full tank will cover
12 L = 0.0096 ha
1250 L/ha
Thirdly, calculate the amount of pesticide to add to the spray tank as follows:
Amount of pesticide = Application x Area sprayed by
to add to tank rate one tank

Example: A label says to use 4 L/ha of pesticide product and you calculated that one 12 L
backpack will cover .0096 hectares.
Amount of pesticide = 4 L/ha x .0096 ha = 0.0384 L or 38.4 mL
to add to tank

Approximate Quantities to Use In Backpack Sprayers Using Metric

Measurement
Fungicides, Herbicides, Insecticides (using a volume of 1000L/ha)
Liquids — If recommendation is 1 L/ha use 100 mL in approximately 100 L of water per
1000 m2 or 1 mL in approximately 1 L of water per 10 m2.
Wettable or Soluble Powders — If recommendation is 1 kg/ha, use 100 g in 100 L of water
per 1000 m2 or 1 g in 1 L of water per 10 m2.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 161

7. Chemical and Biological Crop Protection

162 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 8. APPENDIX

8. Appendix
Preparation of Nutrient Solutions
The following tables are adapted from: Sonneveld, C. A Method for Calculating the Composition of
Nutrient Solution for Soilless Culture. Some growers may find useful information in them.

Definitions:
– molar solution = molecular weight of fertilizer ingredient in grams per litre of water;
– millimolar (mmol) solution = molecular weight in milligrams per liter of water;
– micromolar (µmol) solution = molecular weight in micrograms per litre of water;
– milligrams per litre (mg/L) = parts per million (ppm);
– molecular weight of fertilizer ingredient = sum of the atomic weights of the elements making up
the ingredient (see Table 8-1).

Conversion of millimoles per litre to parts per million:

– consult Table 8-1 to obtain molecular weight;
– multiply molecular weight X mmol required = ppm
– for example, a 3 mmol solution of ammonium nitrate would be 3 X 80 = 240 ppm
Conversion of parts per million in the feed solution to kilograms per cubic metre (1000 litres) in the
100X concentrated stock solution:
– kilograms of fertilizer / 1000L = ppm of the final feed solution / 10
– for example, 240 ppm feed solution of ammonium nitrate would require 240/10 = 24 kg.

Tables 8-2, 8-3, 8-4, and 8-5 give the fertilizer quantities in grams or kilograms required to make up
100X concentrated stock solutions for various levels of feed solutions.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 163

 Table 8-1. Molecular weights for various fertilizers
8. Appendix

Fertilizer Chemical Nutrient Molecular

Compound Formula Content (%) Weight

Nitric acid (100%)* HNO3 22 N 63

Phosphoric acid (100%)* H3PO4 32 P 98
Sulphuric acid (100%)* H2SO4 33 S 98
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 15.5 N, 19 Ca 200**
Potassium nitrate KNO3 13 N, 38 Kt 101.1
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 35 N 80
Magnesium nitrate Mg(NO3)2.6H2O 11 N, 9 Mg 256.3
t t
Mono potassium phosphate KH2PO4 23 P , 28 K 136.1
t
Mono ammonium phosphate NH4H2PO4 12 N, 27 P 115
Potassium phosphate K2SO4 45 Kt, 18 S 174.3
Magnesium sulphate MgSO4.7H2O 9.8 Mg, 13 S 246.3
Manganese sulphate MnSO4.H2O 32 Mn 169
Zinc sulphate ZnSo4.7H2O 23 Zn 287.5
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O 11 B 381.2
Solubor Na2B4O7 21 B 201.2
Copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O 25 Cu 249.7
Sodium molybdate Na2MoO4.2H2O 40 Mo 241.9
Iron chelate liquid Fe – DTPA 3.8 Fe 1471tt
iron chelate liquid Fe – DTPA 6.1 Fe 916tt
iron chelate Fe – EDTA 13 Fe 430tt
iron chelate Fe – EDDHA 6 Fe 932tt
potassium bicarbonate KHCO3 39 K 100.1
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 54 Ca 74.1
sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 19 Na 75

* Calculations must take into account that acids are available in concentrations of less than
100%. i.e. nitric acid @ 67%, phosphoric acid @ 75%, and sulphuric acid @ 93%.
** Calcium nitrate also contains crystallization water and some ammonium nitrate so molecular
weight is only an estimate.
t
The % P & K do not agree with the labelled fertilizer analysis because P is expressed as P2O5
and K as K2O in fertilizers. To convert P to P2O5, multiply by 2.29; K to K2O, multiply by 1.205.
tt
Iron chelate molecular weights are only estimates calculated on the basis of iron content.

164 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Table 8-2. Quantities of acids and salts to add to 1000 litres to make
100X stock solution.

8. Appendix
Concentration Nitric Phosphoric Potassium Ammonium Monopotassium
of Feed Acid Acid Nitrate Nitrate Phosphate
Solution HNO3 H3PO4 KNO3 NH4NO3 KH2PO4
(mmol/L) (kg)* (kg)* (kg) (kg) (kg)
0.5 3.2 4.9 5.1 4.0 6.8
1.0 6.3 9.8 10.1 8.0 13.6
1.5 9.4 14.7 15.2 12.0 20.4
2.0 12.6 19.6 20.2 16.0 27.2
2.5 15.8 24.5 25.3 20.0 34.0
3.0 18.9 29.4 30.3 24.0 40.8
3.5 22.0 34.3 35.4 28.0 47.6
4.0 25.2 39.2 40.4 32.0 54.4
4.5 28.4 44.1 45.5 36.0 61.2
5.0 31.5 49.0 50.6 40.0 68.0
5.5 34.6 53.9 55.6 44.0 74.9
6.0 37.8 58.8 60.7 48.0 81.7
6.5 41.0 63.7 65.7 52.0 88.5
7.0 44.1 68.6 70.8 56.0 95.3
7.5 47.2 73.5 75.8 60.0 102.1
8.0 50.4 78.4 80.9 64.0 108.9
8.5 53.6 83.3 85.9 68.0 115.7
9.0 56.7 88.2 91.0 72.0 122.5
9.5 59.8 93.1 96.0 76.0 129.3
10.0 63.0 98.0 101.1 80.0 136.1

* Quantities listed are for 100% acid; increase amount to take into account the actual concentration being
used. e.g. for 1 mmol nitric acid, add 6.3 kg x 100/67 = 9.4 kg of 67% acid.

Table 8-3. Quantities of salts to add to 1000 litres to make

100X stock solution.

Concentration Potassium Calcium Potassium Magnesium

of Feed Bicarbonate Nitrate Sulphate Sulphate
Solution KHCO3 Ca(NO3)2 K2SO4 MgSO4.7H2O
(15.5%N)
(mmol/L) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
0.25 8.3 5 4.4 6.2
0.5 16.6 10 8.7 12.3
0.75 24.9 15 13.1 18.5
1.0 33.3 20 17.4 24.6
1.25 41.6 25 21.8 30.8
1.5 50.0 30 26.1 37.0
1.75 58.3 35 30.5 43.1
2.0 66.6 40 34.9 49.3
2.25 74.9 45 39.2 55.4
2.5 83.2 50 43.6 61.6
2.75 91.5 55 47.9 67.8
3.0 99.9 60 52.3 73.9
3.25 108.2 65 56.6 80.1
3.5 116.6 70 61.0 86.2
3.75 124.9 75 65.4 92.4
4.0 133.2 80 69.7 98.6
4.25 141.5 85 74.1 104.7
4.5 149.8 90 78.4 110.9
4.75 158.1 95 82.8 117.0
5.0 166.4 100 87.2 123.2

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 165

 Table 8-4. Approximate quantities of iron chelates to add to 1000 litres to make
100X stock solution.
8. Appendix

Concentration 13% iron 6.1% iron 3.8% iron

6% iron chelate
of Feed chelate chelate chelate
(EDDHA)
Solution (EDTA) (DTPA) (DTPA)
grams
(Pmol/litre) grams millilitres milliltres

5 215 466 458 736

10 430 932 916 1471
15 645 1398 1374 2207
20 860 1864 1832 2943
25 1075 2330 2290 3679
30 1290 2796 2748 4415
35 1505 3262 3206 5151
40 1720 3728 3664 5887
45 1935 4194 4122 6623
50 2150 4660 4580 7359
55 2365 5126 5038 8095
60 2580 5592 5496 8831
65 2795 6058 5954 9567
70 3010 6524 6412 10303
75 3225 6990 6870 11039
80 3440 7456 7328 11775
85 3655 7922 7786 12511
90 3870 8388 8244 13247
95 4085 8854 8702 13983
100 4300 9320 9164 14719

EDTA chelating agent is used in pH range of 5 – 7.5; DTPA is effective over a wider range;
EDDHA is effective over a still wider range, as high as pH 9.

166 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Table 8-5. Quantities of minor elements to add to 1000 litres to make
100X stock solution.

8. Appendix
Conc. Conc. Conc.
MnSO4 ZnSO4 Na2B4O7* CuSO4 Na2MoO4
of of of
.H2O .7H2O .10 H2O .5 H2O .2 H2O
Feed Feed Feed
Sol’n. Sol’n. Sol’n
grams grams grams grams grams
Pmol/L Pmol/L Pmol/L
2 34 1 29 38 0.1 2.5 2.4
4 68 2 58 76 0.2 5.0 4.8
6 101 3 86 114 0.3 7.5 7.3
8 135 4 115 152 0.4 10.0 9.7
10 169 5 144 191 0.5 12.5 12.1
12 203 6 172 229 0.6 15.0 14.5
14 237 7 201 267 0.7 17.5 16.9
16 270 8 230 305 0.8 20.0 19.4
18 304 9 259 343 0.9 22.5 21.8
20 338 10 288 381 1.0 25.0 24.2
22 372 11 316 419 1.1 27.5 26.6
24 406 12 345 457 1.2 30.0 29.0
26 439 13 374 496 1.3 32.5 31.4
28 473 14 402 534 1.4 35.0 33.9
30 507 15 431 572 1.5 37.5 36.3

* 1 mol Na2B4O7.10 H2O) = 4 mol B.

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 167

 Table 8-6. Useful Measurements
8. Appendix

Calculating Parts Per Million

Parts Per Million

1 per cent = 10,000 parts per million
Imperial:
1 fl. oz./gallon = 6250 ppm
1 gallon in
1,000,000 gallons of water = 1ppm
1 litre in 1,000,000 litres of water = 1ppm = 1 mL/1,000 L
Metric:
1 mg/litre (water) = 1 ppm
1 g/litre (water) = 1000 ppm
1 mL/litre = 1000 ppm

Metric Units for Farm Sprayers

Tank Capacities Pressures
Imp. gal litres (L) US gal. litres (L) pounds per square inch (psi) kilopascals (kPa)

100 455 100 379 10 70

200 910 200 758 15 100
250 1138 250 948 20 140
300 1365 300 1137 25 175
400 1820 400 1516 30 200
500 2275 500 1895 35 240
600 2730 600 2274 40 275
800 3640 800 3032 45 310
1000 4550 1000 3790 50 345

The Metric System

LINEAR MEASURES WEIGHT-VOLUME EQUIVALENTS (FOR WATER)

10 millimetres (mm) = 1 centimetre (1.00 kg) 1000 grams = 1 litre (1.00 L)
100 centimetres = 1 metre (m) (0.50 kg) 500 g = 500 mL (0.50 L)
1000 metres = 1 kilometre (0.10 kg) 100 g = 100 mL (0.10 L)
(0.01 kg) 10 g = 10 mL (0.01 L)
SQUARE MEASURES (AREA) (0.001 kg) 1 g = 1 mL (0.001 L)
100 m X 100 m = 10,000 m2
= hectare (ha) WEIGHT MEASURES
100 ha = 1 square kilometre (km2) 1000 milligrams (mg) = 1 gram (g)
1000 g = 1 kilogram (kg)
CUBIC MEASURES (VOLUME) 1000 kg = 1 tonne (t)
Dry Measure 1 mg/kg = 1 part per million (ppm)
1000 cubic millitres (mm3) = 1 cubic metre (m3)
1,000,000 cm3 = 1 cubic metre (m3) DRY – LIQUID EQUIVALENTS
Liquid Measure 1 cm3 = mL
1000 millilitres (mL) = 1 litre (L) 1 m3 = 1000 L
100 L = 1 hectolitre (hL)

168 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

 Conversion Conversion

8. Appendix
Imperial Units Factor Metric Units Imperial Units Factor Metric Units
LENGTH oz./acre 70 g/ha
inches 2.5 centimetres (cm) lb./acre 1.12 kg/ha
feet 30 centimetres (cm) bu./acre 0.9 hL/ha
feet 0.3 metres (m)
yards 0.9 metres (m) tons/acre 2.24 t/ha
miles 1.6 kilometres (km) fl. oz./acre 70 mL/ha
pt./acre 1.4 L/ha
AREA
square inches 6.5 square centimetres (cm2) qt./acre 2.8 L/ha
square feet 0.09 square metres (m2) gal./acre 11.2 L/ha
acres 0.40 hectares (ha) gal./acre (US) 9.35 L/ha
plants/acre 2.47 plants/ha
VOLUME oz./gal. 6.2 mL/L
cubic inches 16 cubic centimetres (cm3) lb./gal. 0.1 kg/L
cubic feet 0.03 cubic metres (m3) oz./sq.ft. 305 g/m2
cubic yards 0.8 cubic metres (m3) lb./sq.ft 4.9 kg/m2
fluid ounces 28 millilitres (mL) oz./ft.row 93 g/m row
pints 0.57 litres (L) lb./ft.row 1.5 kg/m row
quarts 1.1 litres (L) ft./sec. 0.3 m/s
gallons (Imperial) 4.5 litres (L)
gallons (US) 3.75 litres (L) m.p.h. 1.6 km/h
bushels 0.36 hectolitres (hL) p.s.i. 6.9 kPa
WEIGHT To convert from imperial to metric, multiply by the
ounces 28 grams (g) conversion factor.
pounds 0.45 kilograms (kg)
short tons 0.9 tonnes (t) For example: 10 inches x 2.5 = 25 centimetres
TEMPERATURE To convert from metric to imperial, divide by the
degrees degrees conversion factor.
Fahrenheit (F - 32) 0.56 Celsius (oC) For example: 25 centimetres ÷ 2.5 = 10 inches
POWER Imperial Conversions:
horsepower 750 watts (w)
lb/acre x 0.0033 = oz/yd2
0.75 kilowatts (kw) gal/acre x 0.033 = oz/yd2

UsefulUseful Measurements
Measurement – English System
1 Imperial gallon = 4 quarts 1 mile = 5,280 feet
= 8 pints = 1,760 yards
= 160 fluid ounces 1 yard = 3 feet
= 10 pounds of water = 36 inches
= approx. 1.2 US gallons 1 foot = 12 inches
1 U.S. gallon = 0.8345 or approx. 5/6 Imperial gallon 1 acre = approx. 209 by 209 feet
= 8.3 pounds or 43,560 square feet.
1 Imperial pint = 20 fluid ounces = 570 mL 1 square yard = 9 square feet
1 U.S. pint = 16 fluid ounces = 475 mL 1 square foot = 144 square inches
1 pound = 16 ounces 1 mile an hour = 88 feet a minute
1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons = 14 mL 1 cubic yd = 27 cubic feet
2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce = 28 mL
1 pound in Litres per hectare x 0.4 = litres per acre
100,000 gallons Kilograms per hectare x 0.4 = kilograms per acre
of water = 1 ppm (part per million)

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 169


Glossary
8. Appendix
active ingredient : the portion of a pesticide
product that is toxic to the target organism.
acute toxicity: ability of a substance to cause
ill effects shortly after exposure; e.g. LD50
values of pesticides refer to acute toxicity.
ADT: average daily temperature over 24 hr; for
greenhouse pepper production, ADT ranges
from 15° to 25°C. For how to calculate, see
Table 3-2, page 16.
adjuvant: a chemical additive that improves
the performance of a pesticide mixture.
adventitious: roots or shoots arising on occa-
sion from unusual places on the plant.
a.i.: active ingredient.
anion: a negatively-charged ion, e.g. NO3-, Cl-
antenna (pl. antennae): the paired segmented
sensory organs, borne one on each side of
the head of insects; commonly termed horns
or feelers.
anthers: the pollen-producing organs of flowers.
bar: a unit of pressure = 100kPa (approxi-
mately 15psi)
BER: blossom-end rot; a physiological disorder
of peppers and tomatoes related to water
and calcium shortage in the fruit.
biological control (biocontrol): the action of
parasites, predators, or pathogens in main-
taining another organism’s population density
at a lower average level than would occur in
their absence. Biological control occurs
naturally in the field but may be enhanced by
manipulation or introduction of biological
control agents by people.
calyx: the sepals of a flower; they surround the
170 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
petals and enclose the unopened flower bud.
canopy: leafy parts of vines or trees; the
overhanging foliage of greenhouse vegetable
crops.
caterpillar: larva of a butterfly, moth, sawfly,
or scorpionfly.
cat-facing (monkey-facing): disfigurement or
malformation of fruit; in the case of straw-
berries, usually the result of injury to devel-
oping achenes by lygus bugs, frost injury or
boron deficiency.
cation: a positively-charged ion, e.g. H+, Ca++.
chelate: a complex molecule combining a
metallic ion with an organic(carbon-contain-
ing) portion; frequently used as a means of
safely supplying a minor element to a plant.
chlorosis: yellow colour of a plant that should
be green; may be due to nutrient imbalance,
chemical toxicity, or virus infection.
chronic toxicity: ability of a substance to
cause ill effects over the long term rather
than in the short term, e.g. cancer .
compatibility: ability of two chemicals to be
combined without any adverse effects; ability
of biocontrol agents to function in the
presence of chemicals and/or other
biocontrol agents.
contact pesticide: a pesticide that must con-
tact the outside of an insect or weed in order
to control it; not systemic.
cornicles: two tubular structures located on
the posterior part of an aphid’s abdomen.
D: abbreviation for dust formulation of a
pesticide.
dead zone: the difference between the heat set
point and the vent opening set point in a
greenhouse.
dew point: The temperature at which water
vapour in the air will condense to form water
when in contact with a cooler surface such as
plant leaves.
DF: abbreviation for dry flowable formulation
of a pesticide.
diapause: a period of physiologically control-
led dormancy in insects.
drench: high volume pesticide application
(>2000L/ha); usually to the soil at the base
of a plant.
EC: electrical conductivity of a solution ex-
pressed as mS/cm, an indicator of nutrient
concentration; in pesticide terms, an
emulsifiable concentrate formulation.
ectoparasite: parasite that lives on the outside
of its host, e.g. a nematode that feeds from
the outside of a root, using a long stylet.
emulsifiable concentrate (EC): a pesticide
formulation containing a toxicant in a
solvent and an emulsifier that allows it to
mix with water.
endoparasite: a parasite that lives inside its
host, e.g. Encarsia in a whitefly scale.
entomophagous nematodes: nematodes that
eat insects.
F: abbreviation for flowable pesticide formula-
tion in which finally ground particles are
suspended in liquid that mixes readily with
water; an improvement on WP formulations.
fumigation: the use of chemicals in gaseous
form to kill pests in confined structures,
such as greenhouses or in the air pockets
within the soil.
G: granular formulation of a pesticide, usually
spread on the soil to control weeds or soil-
inhabiting insects; usually not safe to use
inside greenhouses.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
honeydew: An excretion from insects, such as
aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies, and soft
8. Appendix
scales, consisting of modified plant sap;
usually colonized by sooty mould fungi that
interfere with photosynthesis in the leaves.
host: a plant or animal that provides suste-
nance for another organism.
hyper-parasite: a parasite living inside another
parasite that may be living inside a host;
interferes with the effectiveness of a
biocontrol program.
inoculum: bacterial or fungal cells that can
cause disease if they contact a susceptible
host.
instar: the larval or nymph stage of an imma-
ture insect between successive moults.
IPM : integrated pest management ; using all
available means to safely and sustainably
control pest and disease problems with
minimal impact on the environment.
IRGA : infrared gas analyzer ; used for moni-
toring and controlling CO2 level in the green-
house.
L or LC: liquid formulation of pesticide ;
properties are similar to EC formulations.
LAI : leaf area index; the ratio of plant leaf
area to ground area beneath the plant ; for
maximum light interception, the LAI for
peppers should be at least 3.
LD50 : lethal dose of a pesticide that kills half
the animals, (usually rats or mice), in a
feeding trial ; gives an indication of acute
toxicity to humans but tells nothing about
chronic toxicity; the lower the LD50, the more
toxic the chemical.
larva (pl. larvae) : immature insects that
develop during the process of complete
metamorphosis from egg, through several
larval stages, pupa, and adult. In mites, the
first-stage immature is also called a larva.
171
 microbial pesticide: pesticide that consists of
bacteria, fungi, viruses, or other microorgan-
8. Appendix
isms used for control of weeds, inverte-
brates, or plant pathogens.
monitoring: carefully watching and recording
information on the activities, growth, devel-
opment, and abundance of organisms or
other factors on a regular basis over a period
of time, often utilizing very specific proce-
dures; monitoring pest populations in a crop
is one of the basic components of an IPM
program.
molecular weight: the weight of a molecule
expressed as the sum of the atomic weights
of its constituent atoms.
moult: insects and other arthropods shed skin
before entering another stage of growth
MRL: maximum residue limit of a pesticide
that may be on a food product when it
reaches the market; usually expressed as
parts-per-million or parts-per-billion
mummy: the crusty skin of an aphid or other
insect whose inside has been consumed by a
parasite.
mycelium: the vegetative part of a fungus
composed of a network of fine threads
called ‘hyphae’.
natural enemies: predators, parasites, and
pathogens that feed on other insects, mites,
pathogens, etc.; may be exploited by man to
provide biological control of pests.
necrosis: death of plant cells indicated by
darkening and desiccation; often the next
stage after severe chlorosis.
nectary: flower or plant gland that secretes
nectar; honeybees collect nectar to make
honey.
nematicide: a pesticide used to control nema-
todes.
172 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
nymph: the immature stage of insects such as
grasshoppers and aphids, that hatch from
eggs and gradually acquire adult form
through a series of moults without passing
through larval or pupal stages.
OD: over-drain; the drainage water from green-
house media slabs that can be collected for
measurement, analysis and re-circulation.
PAR: photosynthetically active or photoactive
radiation; the range of the light spectrum
(400-700 nm) that can be used by plants in
photosynthesis; expressed as microeinsteins
per m2.
parasite: an organism that derives its food
from the body of another organism, the host,
without killing the host directly, e.g. mos-
quito; also an insect that spends its immature
stages in the body of a host that dies just
before the parasite emerges, this type is also
called a ‘parasitoid’ and is commonly used in
biocontrol progams.
parthenocarpy: fruit development without
fertilization of the flower; parthenocarpic
fruit is seedless and generally smaller and of
poor quality compared to seeded fruit.
P band: the range of temperatures over which
the greenhouse vents open.
pedicel: the stalk of one flower or fruit in a
cluster.
peduncle: the stalk of a cluster of flowers or
fruits or of an individual flower or fruit if it
is the only one in the inflorescence.
pesticide: any substance or mixture intended
for preventing, destroying, repelling, killing,
or controlling insects, rodents, weeds, nema-
todes, fungi, or other pests; (any other sub-
stance or mixture intended for use as a plant
growth regulator, defoliant, or desiccant is
also classified as a pesticide under the Pest
Control Products Act).
pesticide resistance: The genetically acquired
ability of an organism to survive a pesticide
at doses that once killed most individuals of
the same population.
petiole: the stalk of a leaf that connects the
blade to the stem of the plant.
pH: a logarithmic scale from 1 (very acid) to 14
(very basic) used to express the acidity or
alkalinity of a solution; most plants require a
nutrient solution between pH 5.5 & 7.5;
greenhouse peppers do best in a solution
ranging from 5.8 in the feed to 6.8 in the
drain water.
pheromone: a substance secreted by an organ-
ism to affect the behavior or development of
other members of the same species; sex
pheromones that attract the opposite sex for
mating are used to bait traps used in moni-
toring or mass trapping of certain insects.
phloem: the food-conducting tissue of a plant,
made up of sieve tubes, companion cells,
phloem parenchyma, and fibers; it transports
the products of photosynthesis from the
leaves to all parts of the plant.
photosynthesis: the process by which plant
cells make carbohydrates from carbon diox-
ide and water in the presence of chlorophyll
and light and release oxygen as a byproduct.
physiological disorder: a disorder of plants
caused by factors other than pathogens; also
known as abiotic, non-parasitic, or non-
pathogenic.
phytotoxicity: the ability of a material such as
a pesticide, fertilizer or air pollutant to cause
injury to plants.
pistil: female part of the flower, usually con-
sisting of ovules, ovary, style, and stigma.
pollinator: an agent of pollen transfer from
anther to stigma of the same or different
flowers; usually bees.
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
pollenizer: a cultivar or variety of a plant that
produces compatible pollen that allows the
8. Appendix
flowers of another cultivar or variety to be
fertilized so they can produce fruit.
predator: any animal (including insects and
mites) that kills other animals (prey) and
feeds on them.
PPM: parts-per-million; expression of concen-
tration for very dilute solutions; often used
to describe the concentration of minor
elements in a nutrient solution or pesticide
residues on a food product; 1 ppm = 1 gram
in 1000 kilograms or 1 mL in 1000 L.
pupa (pl. pupae): The non-feeding stage fol-
lowing the larva in insects with complete
metamorphosis; during pupation, radical
structural changes take place allowing for the
emergence of the adult.
RH: relative humidity expressed as the water
vapour in the air as a % of what it would be
if the air was saturated at the same tempera-
ture.
selective pesticide: a pesticide that is toxic
primarily to a narrow spectrum of insects,
weeds, etc; leaving most other organisms,
including natural enemies, unharmed; anto-
nym of ‘broad spectrum’ pesticide.
sepals: the outermost flower parts making up
the calyx which usually encloses the petals
and other flower parts in the bud.
situ: on location; e.g. rockwool slabs in the
greenhouse rows.
slab: in greenhouse terminology, refers to the
rectangular bags of sawdust or rockwool
growing media.
stomate (pl. stomates or stomata): openings in
the epidermis of the plant, especially the
leaves, that allows for diffusion of gases into
and out of the leaves; they are essential to
the operation of the transpiration stream that
draws water and nutrients up from the roots.
173
 surfactant: a surface active compound that
lowers the surface tension of water, allowing
8. Appendix
pesticide droplets to spread out and cover
more of the plant surface; may also be called
wetting agents or spreader-stickers.
systemic pesticide: a pesticide that has the
ability to be absorbed into the plant where it
is carried in the xylem or phloem to various
parts; systemic insecticides are particularly
effective against sucking insects, such as
aphids, but they frequently have very long
pre-harvest intervals when used on food
crops.
transpiration: the process in which water and
accompanying nutrients are drawn up the
plant; most of the water turns to vapour and
is lost through the stomates; this process
feeds and cools the plant.
trap crop: a crop or portion of a crop intended
to attract pests so they can be controlled by
treating a relatively small area; or so the trap
crop and the pests can be destroyed together
before the pests can reproduce and disperse.
174 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
vector: usually an insect, mite, fungus or nema-
tode that acquires a virus from feeding on an
infected host and then transmits it when it
starts feeding on another host. The term
applies to both animal and plant diseases.
VPD: vapour pressure deficit; the difference
between water vapour pressure in the leaves
and in the greenhouse air expressed as
grams/m3.
W or WP: wettable powder pesticide formula-
tion; older-type formulation that is difficult
to measure and handle; largely replaced by
flowable and soluble granule formulations.
xylem: that part of the plant’s vascular tissue
that conducts water and nutrients from the
roots up through the plant in the transpira-
tion stream.
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Useful Publications
General
A Guide to Starting a New Farm Enterprise
–BCMAFF – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/scregion/index.htm
B.C. Trickle Irrigation Manual 1999 –
$30.00 – available at Irrigation Industry Asso-
ciation of B.C., 2330 Woodstock Dr.,
Abbotsford, B.C. V3G 2E5. Phone 604-859-
8222. Also online at http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/
resmgmt/publist/500series/565000%2D1.pdf
Business Management Online: A Business
Planning Directory & Resource Guide –
2002 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/busmgmt/
Environmental Farm Planning Reference
Guide 2004 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/esrd.htm
Farm Management and Human Resources
– assorted factsheets – available online at
http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/indcomp/
bus_mgmt.htm
Lower Mainland Horticultural Improve-
ment Association Short Course Proceed-
ings – limited quantities of back issues are
available at the Abbotsford Agriculture Centre,
1767 Angus Campbell Rd., Abbotsford, B.C.
V3G 2M3. Phone 604-556-3001
Greenhouse
An Overview of the B.C. Greenhouse Veg-
etable Industry 2003 – BCMAFF – available
at http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/ghvegetable/
publications/documents/industry_profile.pdf
B.C. Greenhouse Vegetable Production
Statistics – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/stats/greenhouseveg/
42.htm
Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
8. Appendix
Business Planning Guide – Greenhouse
Vegetable 1992 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/busmgmt/bus_guides/
green_guide.htm
Greenhouse Climate Control – An Inte-
grated Approach. – Bakker, J.C. et al. 1995.
Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, Netherlands.
279 pp.
Greenhouse Equipment Suppliers and
Contractors 2003 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/resmgmt/publist/300se-
ries/334200-3.pdf
Greenhouse Heating Requirements 1983 –
available online at http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/
resmgmt/publist/300series/334230-1.pdf
Greenhouse Pepper – Planning for Profit
Sheets 2001 – available at Abbotsford Agricul-
ture Centre, 1767 Angus Campbell Rd.,
Abbotsford, B.C. V3G 2M3
Greenhouse Vegetable Production Guide
for Commercial Growers 1996/97 – out of
print – limited number of pages may be photo-
copied at Abbotsford Agriculture Centre
Greenhouse Ventilation 1990 – available
online at http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/resmgmt/
publist/300series/306445-1.pdf
InfoBasket –portal to agri-food information
on the net – Greenhouse Vegetable 2004
www.infobasket.gov.bc.ca
Irrigation Water Quality for B.C. Green-
houses 1996 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/ornamentals/floriculture/
irrwater.pdf
177
 Strengthening Farming – Right to Farm –
Farm Practices, Greenhouses 2004 – avail-
8. Appendix
able online at http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/
resmgmt/fppa/refguide/commodity/870218-
17_Greenhouse.pdf
Treatment of Greenhouse Recirculation
Water and Bio-Sand Fitration 1999 – avail-
able online at http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/
resmgmt/publist/500series/512000-2.pdf
Tuning Your Heating System for Maximum
Efficiency 1985 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/resmgmt/publist/300se-
ries/306220-1.pdf
Understanding Humidity Control In Green-
houses – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/ornamentals/floriculture/
humidity.pdf
Pest and Disease Control
A World-wide Guide to Beneficial Animals,
Insects, Mites, and Nematodes used for
Pest Control Purposes. Thompson Publica-
tions. PO Box 9335, Fresno, CA 93792.
Ph.209-435-2163, Fax.209-435-8319
Biological Control Agent Catalogue.
Terralink Horticulture Inc. 464 Riverside Rd.,
Abbotsford, BC V2S 7M1. Ph.604-864-9044;
1-800-661-4559; Fax.604-864-8418. website:
www.terralink-horticulture.com
Biological Control – Protected Crops.
Desmond Day. 1991. Grower Digest #11.
Grower Books Ltd., 50 Doughty St., London
WC1N2LS
Biological Technical Manual. Applied Bio-
nomics Ltd. / Evergro-Westgro Canada Inc.
7430 Hopcott Way, Delta, B.C. V4G 1B6.
Ph.604-940-0290; 1-800-663-2552, Fax.604-
940-0269. Website: www.growercentral.com
Compendium of Pepper Diseases. Pernezny,
K.L. et al. 2003. APS Press. 3340 Pilot Knob
Rd., St. Paul, MN 55121-2097, USA Ph.1-800-
328-7560. 88pp.
178 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia
Compendium of Tomato Diseases. Jones,
J.B. et al. 1991. APS Press. 3340 Pilot Knob
Rd., St. Paul, MN 55121-2097, USA Ph.1-800-
328-7560. 100pp.
Diagnosis of Mineral Disorders in Plants
V.3: Glasshouse Crops. Winsor, G. and P.
Adams. 1987. HMSO, London. 168pp.
Diseases and Pests of Vegetable Crops in
Canada. Howard, R.J. et al. 1994. Entomologi-
cal Society of Canada. 393 Winston Ave.,
Ottawa, Ontario K2A 1Y8. 554pp.
Greenhouse Vegetable – Crop Cleanup
1997. available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/cleanup.htm
Handbook for Pesticide Applicators and
Dispensers. B.C. Ministry of Water, Land and
Air Protection, Pesticide Management, 10470 –
152 St., Surrey, B.C. Ph.604-582-5200
Integrated Control of Greenhouse Pests for
Commercial Growers. BCMAFF. 1992.
Abbotsford Agriculture Centre, 1767 Angus
Campbell Rd. Abbotsford, B.C. V3G 2M3.
Ph.604-556-3001.
Management of Powdery Mildew,
Leveillula taurica, in greenhouse peppers.
2004 – available online at http://
www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/
peppermildew.htm
Managing Diseases in Greenhouse Crops.
Jarvis, W.R. 1992. APS Press. 3340 Pilot Knob
Rd., St. Paul, MN 55121-2097, USA Ph.1-800-
328-7560. 288pp.
The Biology of Glasshouse Pests and Their
Natural Enemies – Knowing and Recogniz-
ing. Malais, M and W.J. Ravensberg. Koppert
Biologicals.
 Greenhouse Date Area Target Pest(s) Product PHI Applicator Results/Comments
Bay/Rows Applied/ Treated & Rate (days) Initials
Released (m2)
9. GROWER BIO-CONTROL & SPRAY RECORD

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

179
180
Greenhouse Date Area Target Pest(s) Product PHI Applicator Results/Comments
Bay/Rows Applied/ Treated & Rate (days) Initials
Released (m2)

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

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Bay/Rows Applied/ Treated & Rate (days) Initials
Released (m2)

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

181
182
Greenhouse Date Area Target Pest(s) Product PHI Applicator Results/Comments
Bay/Rows Applied/ Treated & Rate (days) Initials
Released (m2)

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

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Bay/Rows Applied/ Treated & Rate (days) Initials
Released (m2)

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183
184
Greenhouse Date Area Target Pest(s) Product PHI Applicator Results/Comments
Bay/Rows Applied/ Treated & Rate (days) Initials
Released (m2)

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 Index
Symbols bicarbonate 61
biocontrol agents used in aphid control 82
2,4-D 130 Biological Control 76, 170
3 to 4-stem system 50 blossom end rot 5, 125
A Blue sticky traps 75
boost 18
A. colemani 82 Boron 38
a.i 170 Botrytis cinerea 117
abamectin 107 Bradysia spp 90
active climate 22 brodifacoum 111
active ingredient 170 bromadiolone 111
acute toxicity 170 Btk 94
adjuvant 170
ADT 17 C
ADT 17, 170 cabbage looper 92
adventitious 170 calyx 170
Aerosol Generators 155 canopy 170
air pollution 31 capacitive meter 22
Amblyseius cucumeris 77, 99, 104 captan 114, 119
Amblyseius degenerans 104 Carbon Dioxide 27
ammonium bifluoride 132 Carbon monoxide 32
anion 170 carmine mite 101
anthers 170 cat-facing 170
anti-sapstain 44 caterpillar 170
Aphelinus abdominalis 77, 82, 89 cation 170
Aphid Life Cycle 80 chelate 170
Aphidius 99 Chemcial and Biological Crop Protection 135
Aphidius ervi 89 Chemical Control 78
Aphidius matricariae 82 Chemprocide 118
Aphidius spp 77 Chlorination 121
Aphidoletes 82, 89 chlorophacinone 110, 111
Aphidoletes aphidimyza 77 chlorosis 170
Aphids 80 chronic toxicity 170
Aphis gossypii 80 CO 32
Applying Pesticides 144 CO2 1
Approximate Quantities to Use In Backpack Sprayers CO2 enrichment 27
161 coco-fibre 44
Aulacorthum solani 80 compatibility 170
average daily (24 hours) temperature 17 Compressed Air 155
Avid 107 condensation 26
B Confirm 94
contact pesticide 170
Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki 94 cornicles 170
Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis 91 cotton/melon aphid 80
Bacterial Soft Rot 121 Crop Cleanup 130
Bactericera cockerelli 97 Cultural Control 76
Banvel 130 Cuticle Cracking 127
bar 170
Bees and Beneficial Insects 146
Bemisia tabaci 107
BER 5, 40, 52, 61, 67, 125, 170

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 185

 D Foxglove aphid 80, 88
Frankliniella occidentalis 98
D 170 Fruit abortion 6
Damping-Off 113 Fruit Spots 128
Day storage 38 fumigation 171
DDAC 132 fungus gnats 49, 90
dead zone 20, 170 Fusarium 48, 91
Delphastus pusillus 108 Fusarium Stem and Fruit Rot 115
dew point 23, 171
DF 171 G
Diapause 101
G 171
diapause 78, 171
global radiation 15
Diazinon 89
glyphosate 129
Dibrom 90, 94, 96, 98, 99, 107, 108
Gramoxone 130
Dicyphus hesperus 93, 104
green peach aphid 80, 88
Dipel 94
Greenhouse Cleanup 78, 129
diphacinone 110, 111
Greenhouse Pesticide Equipment 154
Disposal of Containers 145
greenhouse whitefly 107
Disposal of Unwanted Pesticides 145
grey mould 117
drench 171
grow pipe 19
Dyno-mite 107
Growth Cracks 127
E H
EC 3, 39, 171
Harvesting Restrictions 145
Echinothrips americana 98
Hazard Shapes and Symbols 139
ectoparasite 171
High Pressure Pesticide Applicator 155
electrical conductivity 39
High-Volume Sprayers 152
Electrostatic Sprayers 155
honeydew 81, 97, 171
Embedded 22
Horticultural training iv
Emergency Response 146
host 171
emulsifiable concentrate (EC) 171
household bleach 129
Encarsia formosa 77, 108
humidity 22
endoparasite 171
hydrogen peroxide 132
endosulfan 90, 96
hygrometer 22
entomophagous nematodes 171
hyper-parasite 171
Eretmocerus spp 108
hyperparasitoids 82
ergocalciferol 111
Hypoaspis spp 77, 91, 99, 131
Erwinia carotovora 121
ethylene 31 I
F imidacloprid 89
Impower 89
F 171
infrared gas analyzer 30
FALL PRODUCTION 70
infrared thermometers 22
feeding formulas 38
inoculum 171
Field Mice 110
instar 171
Fires 146
Internal Growths and Wings 127
First Aid 139
IPM 75, 171
Fish and Other Wildlife 146
IRGA 30, 171
Fisheries Act and Migratory Birds Regulations 135
irrigation 33
fixed screens 21
flue gases 27 K
foam 44
Kipp solarimeter 15
fog 21
knots 127
Food and Drugs Act 135
Foray 94

186 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

L No Damp 114
Nova 120
L or LC 171 NOx 32
LAI 171 nymph 172
larva (pl. larvae) 171
LD50 171 O
Leaf area index 2
OD 35, 172
Leveillula taurica 119
onion thrips 98
Light Traps 94
Orius insidiosus 93
Liquid CO2 27
Orius insidious 77
Low-Volume Sprayers 152
Orius spp 104
Lysol 129
over-drain 33, 35
M oxine benzoate 114

Macrosiphum euphorbiae 80 P
Maestro 114
P band 20, 172
Manganese 38
PAR 15, 172
manganese 44
paraquat 130
manometer 30
parasite 172
maximum residue limits 135
Paratrioza cockerelli 97
MCPA 130
parthenocarpic 6
MDLA 22
parthenocarpy 172
Melon/cotton aphid 88
PCP Act 135
Mice 110
pedicel 172
microbial pesticide 172
peduncle 172
micromolar (mmol) solution 163
Pepper Mild Mottle Virus 122
Microscopic Sulphur 120
pepper mottle virus 81
millimolar (mmol) solution 163
perlite 44
Misshapen Fruit 127
Personal and Environmental Safety Guidelines 143
Mist Blower 154
Pest Control Products Act & Regulations 135
Mixing and Loading Pesticides 144
Pest Management Regulatory Agency 135
molar solution 163
Pest-in-First Method 103
molecular weight 172
pesticide 172
Monitoring 75
Pesticide Applicator Course for
monitoring 172
Agricultural Producers 135
moth flies 90
Pesticide Control Act and Regulations 136
moult 172
Pesticide Poisoning 139
MRL 135, 172
pesticide resistance 173
mummy 172
petiole 173
mycelium 172
pH 3, 173
myclobutanil 120
pheromone 173
Mycostop 48, 114
Pheromone traps 76, 93
Myzus ornatus 80
phloem 173
Myzus persicae 80
photometric 15
N Photosynthesis 1
physiological disorder 173
naled 90, 94, 96, 98, 99, 107, 108 Phytophythora 91
natural enemies 172 Phytoseiulus persimilis 77, 102
necrosis 172 phytotoxic 129
nectary 172 phytotoxicity 173
Nectria haematococca 115 pistil 173
nematicide 172 plant activation 26
Netafim 131 Plant Balance 10
Nicotine Smoke 89, 99 PMMV 122
nitrogen oxides 32 PMRA 135

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 187

 Podisus maculiventris 95 skim milk powder 123
Poison Control Centre 139 slab 173
Poisoning and First Aid 139 Smoke Fumigators 155
pollenizer 173 sooty 97
Pollination 7 sooty mould 81, 97, 108
pollinator 173 Special Environmental Precautions 146
potato aphid 80 Spills 146
powdery mildew 119 spined soldier bug 95
PPFD 15 spray nozzles 156
PPM 173 Sprayer Basics 152
pre-day 18 Sprayer Calibration 157
pre-night 18 Sprayer Components 155
predator 173 Spraying Equipment 152
Propagation 47 SPRING PRODUCTION 59
Protective Clothing and Equipment 141 SPRING-SUMMER PRODUCTION 64
Provincial Emergency Centre 146 Steam Sterilization of Rockwool Slabs 133
psychrometer 22 Stink bugs 95
Psyllids 97 stomate 173
pumice 44 Storing Pesticides & Shelf Life 143
pupa 173 Streptomyces griseoviridis 114
pyrethrin 90, 94, 98, 107, 108 sulfaquinoxaline 111
pyridaben 107 sunscald 1, 60, 126
Pythium 91, 113, 129 surfactant 174
sweet potato whitefly 107
Q systemic pesticide 174
Quality Control for Commercially Available Biologi 77
T
R Tails 127
radiometric 15 Tamarixia triozae 97
Rail pipe 19 tebufenozide 94
Rats 110 Tetranychus cinnabarinus 101
Re-entry Restrictions 145 Tetranychus urticae 101
Re-using Growing Media 132 Thermal Fogging Machines 154
red squill 111 thermistors 22
Respiration 2 Thiodan 90, 96
RH 173 Thiram 114
Rhizoctonia solani 113 Thrips 98
rockwool 44 Thrips fuscipennis 98
roof sprinklers 21 Thrips tabaci 98
Root-dieback 4 Time of seeding 48
Roundup 129 ToMV 123
TMV 123
S tobacco mosaic virus 123, 129
Safer’s Insecticidal Soap 89, 94, 98, 107, 108 tobacco mottle virus 81
Sanitation 129 tobacco ringspot virus 81
Sanmite 107 tobacco wilt virus 81
sawdust 44 Tomato Mosaic Virus 123
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum 120 tomato spotted wilt virus 99
Seed germination 48 transpiration 4, 33, 174
selective pesticide 173 Transportation of Dangerous Goods Act 135
sepals 173 trap crop 174
shore flies 90 Trialeurodes vaporariorum 107
simazine 130 Trichogramma 93
situ 173 Trichoplusia ni 92
trisodium phosphate 47, 123

188 Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia

Trounce 90, 94, 98, 107, 108 X
TSP 47
Two-spotted Spider Mite 101 xylem 174
two-stem system 50 Y
V Yellow cedar 44
vapour pressure deficit 4 Yellow sticky traps 75
VectoBac 91 Z
vector 174
violet aphid 80 zinc phosphide 110, 111
Virkon 47, 118, 129, 131
Voles 110
VPD 4, 22, 174
W
W or WP 174
warfarin 111
water quality 42
WCB regulations 136
Weed Control 129
western flower thrips 98
western red cedar 44
white mould 120
Whitefly 107
whitewash 21
WINTER PRODUCTION 53
Workers’ Compensation Board 136

Growing Greenhouse Peppers in British Columbia 189