ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL
Title no. 92-821
Designing Silo Walls for Flow Patterns*
by John E. Sadler, F. Thomas Johnston, and Mostafa H. Mahmoud
A procedure for design of concrete silo walls subjected to asymmetric flow
patterns is presented. Differences between concentric and asymmetric flow
for both the mass flow and the funnel flow cases are discussed. A method of
computing differential wall pressures resulting from flow channels is pre-
sented along with guidelines for selecting design flow channel geometry
and creating a practical silo design for asymmetric flow. Design aids
(based on finite element modeling) for estimating circumferential moments
are included. Two silo design examples are presented; one for grain and
one for coal.
Keywords: bending; bins; concrete construction; eccentric loads; finite
element method; granular materials; loads (forces); reinforced concrete;
silos; stresses; structural analysis; walls.
Silo codes J.s have traditionally recommended design pres-
sures that apply a factor, usually called Cd, to an initial filling
pressure (typically Janssen's 6 .7) to cover the increased pres-
sures during discharge. Most codes have limited their recom-
mendations to concentric flow patterns and have offered
little guidance for asymmetric flow patterns. While Cd fac-
tors are useful to cover the concentric case, a different ap-
proach is necessary for the asymmetric case. This paper
discusses both the concentric and asymmetric cases but fo-
cuses on a method for direct design of walls for the asymmet-
ric flow case.*
FLOW PATTERNS
Flow patterns that exist in silos are illustrated in Fig. 1. For
purposes of wall design, we can say mass flow exists when
all material is in motion and funnel flow exists when only a
portion of the material is in motion. Funnel flow patterns
where flow channels come near [Fig. l(K)] or contact the
wall asymmetrically [Fig. 1(G), (H), (1), and (J)] require spe-
cial analysis.
In cases where silos are unloaded from the top [Fig. l(F)]
or where flow channels are remote from the wall [Fig. 1(E)
and (L)], the wall pressures during unloading are not unlike
the initial filling pressures. Initial filling pressure measure-
ments in full-size concrete silos 8· 12 and metal or plexiglas
*This approach is being considered as a potential addition to a revised version of
ACI 313-91, "Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete Silos and
Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials." Comments to this paper received and
published in ACt Structural Journal will be considered during Committee 313's dis·
cuss ion of the proposed revision.
ACI Structural Journal I March-April 1995
TECHNICAL PAPER
models 13 - 17 show localized peaks, valleys, and patches of
higher pressure that deviate from Janssen's curve. These ap-
pear to result from the settling material reacting to an imper-
fectly shaped and irregularly surfaced cylinder, and from
segregation during filling.
Such pressures peak slightly higher than Janssen's and for
conventional slip or jump-formed concrete silos can be cov-
ered by a Cd factor of 1.35. The resulting extra hoop rein-
forcement, especially when placed in two faces, provides
extra tension and moment capacity to cover the localized
bending effects of patches of higher load.
Alternatively, one may compute moments from a patch-
type loading 2.4 which simulates the pressure peaks.
Mass flow case
During mass flow [Fig. l (A)], the downward movement of
the material is like the consolidation or settling movement
during initial filling, but with higher velocity. In the mass
flow regions of instrumented full-size 8•12 and model 13 - 17 si-
los, the locations of pressure peaks did not change from their
locations during tilling, but their intensities generally in-
creased. Some codes 2 .4 recognize mass-flow pressure in-
creases above the transition can be covered by a Cd factor of
1.50 applied to Janssen's pressures.
Wall pressures at the top of the hopper (transition) are
higher and must be computed using methods for converging
flow channels. Walker's method 13 •17 seems to predict verti-
cal and horizontal pressures that are suitable for use in design
of concrete silos. Other methods 2 •4 •16 predict higher spike
pressures at the transition, but examinations by the authors of
wall distress, at least in concrete silos, indicate the stored
material is unable to impart such higher pressures.
Funnel flow cases
Where the flow channel is concentric and does not contact
the wall [Fig. l(E)], the Cd factor of 1.35 can be used. Where
the flow channel expands to the wall [Fig. l(B), (C), and
AC/ Structural Journal, V. 92, No.2. March·Aprill995.
. Received Sept. 19, 1994, and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copy-
nght © 1995, Amencan Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making
of copies unless permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent dis-
cussion will be published in the January-February 1996 ACt Structural Journal if
received by Sept. I, 1995. ·
219

John E. Sadkr, FACI, is a consultant in Columbus, Ohio, and a member of ACI Com-
mittee 313, Concrete Bins and Silos. He has more than 25 years of experience in
design and investigation of silos and has authored many articles and technical
papers. He has been the recipient of several awards, including the Delmar L. Bloem
Distinguished Service Award for his work as past Chairman of AC1 Committee 313.
AC1 member F. Thomas Johnston is President of Facility Design, Inc., Columbus,
Ohio, a consulting engineering firm specializing in the design of material handling
and storage facilities. He is a member of ACI Committee 313, Concrete Bins and
Silos, and received his BS and MS degrees from Ohio State University. He has investi-
gated several hundred silos with flow-related problems and corrected many problems
by modifying flow patterns. He has published several papers on silo failures and prob-
lems.
ACI member Mostafa H. Mahmoud is President of Silo Engineers & Consultants,
Inc., Columbus, Ohio. He is Chairman of AC1 Committee 313, Concrete Bins and
Silos, and received his BS from Cairo University and his MS and PhD degrees from
Ohio State University. He has more than 20 years of experience in design and investi-
gation of silos and has published several articles on silo design and asymmetric flow
analysis.
(D)], the higher Cd factor of 1.50 should be used at and above
the transition.
If the asymmetric flow channel contacts the wall or has the
possibility of tilting and contacting the wall [Fig. 1(G), (H),
(1), and (J)], an analysis of pressure differentials and result-
ing silo wall bending moments must be made. If the channel
is asymmetric but does not tilt to the wall [Fig. l(K)], an
analysis for bending may still be necessary. Failure to recog-
nize and provide for wall moments resulting from asymmet-
ric flow channels, especially when they contact the wall, has
led to numerous and serious problems 18-21 and has led many
authors 22 -28 to discuss solutions.
DESIGN FOR ASYMMETRIC FLOW
The steps for designing the wall for a particular asymmet-
ric flow channel are: 1) Determine hoop tensions due to ini-
tial filling pressures; 2) Determine pressures in the flow
channel; 3) Determine pressures in the static material; 4) De-
termine circumferential bending moments in the wall that re-
sult from the difference in horizontal pressure between the
flowing and static material; and 5) Reinforce the wall to re-
sist the circumferential tensions and moments.
Selection of a flow channel configuration to be used for
design is important. The recommended flow channel geom-
etry will be shown in Fig. 3 and discussed later.
Pressure in flowing material
The pressure within the flowing material after the flow
channel has formed is different in the converging portion
than in the constant diameter portion of the flow channel.
The converging portion of the flow channel below the
transition (Fig. 2) may be treated as a hopper that has formed
within the material, and vertical pressure q1 can be approxi-
mated using Walker's 13 mass flow formula for qh [Eq. (A-1)
in the Appendix] with the following modifications.
1. Use 9 1 instead of 9 for the hopper angle. 9 1 may bees-
timated from Fig. 2, which shows the relationship between
8 and 9 f established by Giunta. 29
2. Use <)l instead of <)l ' for the hopper friction angle. If part
of the surface is material and part of the surface is silo wall,
use a weighted average for <)l •
220
The portion of the flow channel with constant diameter Y
in Fig. 2 may be treated as a silo within the silo. The vertical
pressure q1 can be approximated using Janssen's equation 1•6•7
with the following modifications.
1. Use an R (R = A11P1) appropriate for the flow-channel
diameter rather than the silo diameter.
2. Since the material in the flow channel is flowing against
the static material, use a wall friction coefficient of tan <)l • If
the flow channel is partially exposed to the silo wall, use a
weighted average of tan <)l and tan <)l '.
The horizontal pressure in the flowing material, where the
channel is nonconverging, can be approximated by
(I)
The ratio kin Eq. (1) may be taken as
k = 1- sin<!> (2)
Where the flow channel is converging and tilted with one
side against the vertical silo wall, the authors estimate the
horizontal flow pressure against the wall by substituting ( 9 t
+ 9 1) for 9 in Eq. (A-6) in the Appendix.
Pressure in static material
The vertical pressure qs in the static material can be ap-
proximated by summation of vertical forces at the level in
question as follows.
1. Determine vertical pressure qi due to initial filling of the
silo and the reduced vertical pressure q1 in the flow chan-
nel(s) after flow is started.
2. From the plan geometry defined in Fig. 3, determine A1,
or if multiple flow channels, the summation of Af'
The vertical and horizontal pressure in the static material
can be approximated by
(3)
(4)
where k is given by Eq. (2).
Determine circumferential wall moments and
tensions
To obtain moments, apply the pressures PJ and Ps as out-
ward radial forces on the silo wall as illustrated in Fig. 4(a)
and use a method of analysis that recognizes the resistance
the static material provides to the otherwise free deformation
of the ring. To do so, a stored material modulus of elasticity
Eb can be included in the analysis (like the sub grade modulus
in the classical "Beams on Elastic Foundations" problem).
Methods of analysis such as the ring formulas in Roark30
that do not recognize the subgrade modulus effect yield un-
realistic deformations and overestimate the moments. For
example, without support from the static material, the com-
puted deflection of a 12-in. (305-mm) wall on a 70-ft- (21.3-
m)-diameter silo with two 18-ft (5500-mm) flow channels, is
ACI Structural Journal I March-April 1995
 A B c D
FUNNEL FLOW
'" MASS FLOW .,, ..

SYMMETRIC PATTERNS

G H J K*
I· MASS FLOW ·I· FUNNEL FUJI

ASYMMETRIC PATTERNS
* FLOW IS NOT IN CONTACT liTH WALL
Fig. 1-Flow patterns

I<
4
0 '
.....
a: 3
<
'\
;i I""
u 2 .......
1-
1'-
a:::
u

Vl 16
.....
1.£.1
a:::
~;;)

~ 12

~
- \

:.
c
8 \. TRANSITION
.....
...J
I'-
l5 4

-
1.£.1
...J
~;;)

:£
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 I I
lliMNA<····-·X·······>CEIINT I.' I
\II
y__________ _
<···ASH-·>
GRAll(········) <······-tOll··········)
FLOIII<···-> <··-I.NESTOIIE··> - H'
<··CEIOT·> <···SOYBENI IIEil··>
SlllM< •••••) ( ···11000 CliPS···> Y = 2 ton 9t I 1 + X ton 9f I
CI.IIC£R<····X ····-cacE·····>
<·····>SAt!, GRAVEl
<·········-I.IIE·········>
DELTA Ia> DEGREES
RELA Tl ONSH IP OF 8 TO Bt VERTICAL CHANNEL

Fig. 2-Typicaljlow angles and channel shape per Giunta29

ACI Structural Journal/ March-April 1995 221

-
Lw • 5~ 3 arcs1n( ~)

VLEVEL a· 2 h' t tan 9tlcos 9t

f-t,FYl

LEVEL C

o. 0 '-:-1-L::-'-~...l......:.L:-.JL....,J..,-J-~
o.o o.2 o.4 o., o.a 1.0
x /lh'1 · h1 tor 91 • 9t
lESION AID Fill Ulo Af, • PF
BETIIEEN LEVELS A &. B
B

h' • D'cos 9t
b 2 tan 9r
Fig. 3-Recommended design flow channel geometry

15 in. (381 mm), as shown in Fig. 5. Such large deformations
are not supported by field measurements.
The authors use a linear elastic finite element model that
approximates the horizontal interaction between silo wall
and static material. A typical model for symmetric arrange-
ments of flow channels (two opposite channels) is construct-
ed as illustrated in Fig. 4(b) and described in the following
paragraphs. For arrangements of flow channels that are not
symmetric, an analysis of the entire silo may be necessary.
1. A horizontal slice (usually of unit height) of the silo and
its contents is modeled using three-dimensional finite ele-
ments. Use of a slice model recognizes that the wall resists
differential pressures primarily by horizontal spanning ac-
tion for most of the silo height. Near the roof and foundation,
a different approach may be required to recognize radial re-
straint.
2. The silo wall is modeled using three-dimensional shell
elements with vertical and circumferential stiffnesses equal
to Eb and Ec, respectively. The wall is assumed uncracked,
but the effects of cracking can be investigated by using are-
duced wall modulus or thickness.
3. The static material is modeled using three-dimensional
solid elements. The elements are assigned a modulus of elas-
ticity Eb in the range of 50 to I 00 ksf (20 to 40 MPa). Be-
cause the wall is significantly stiffer than the material,
Poisson's ratio is assumed to be k/(1 + k) where k is computed
by Eq. (2). The analysis is not sensitive to the exact values
chosen for Eb.
4. The material within the flow channel boundary is as-
sumed to have no stiffness and is, therefore, modeled as a
hole.

222 ACI StrJctural Journal I March-April 1995

.....
HIGHER ps PRESSURE
a. RADIAL DESIGN LOADS FOR WALL
Fig. 4-Method of loading silo wall
5. Rather than apply the horizontal static pressure Ps di-
rectly to the walls, the vertical static pressure qs is applied to
the upper face of the solid elements. This results in a more
realistic distribution of Ps on the wall.
6. The horizontal flow pressure PJ is applied as a radially
outward pressure acting on the flow-channel boundary.
7. Because of small variations in vertical pressure from top
to bottom of a silo slice of unit height, the base of the model
is assumed restrained against vertical translation. This is
equivalent to applying equal vertical pressures to the top and
bottom.
8. Boundary conditions applicable because of symmetry
are applied along the x- andy-axis.
9. The model is analyzed to determine the variation of
bending moments, hoop tensions, and deflections around the
perimeter of the silo.
Analysis shows, as indicated in Fig. 5, the maximum MIF
occurs at the center of the flow channel, and the maximum
M 0 p occurs outside the flow channel. Maximum deflection
occurs at the center of the flow channel, and hoop tensions
decrease in the zone of the flow channel. However, it is rec-
ommended that the full F; tension rather than reduced ten-
sion be used for design.
Wall moments for single- and double-flow channels can
be estimated using Fig. 6. The curves resulted from a series
of finite element runs using the previous model. The param-
eters Dlh and L./D were varied to compute a coefficient C1
for the following
(5)
The moment MIF is determined by multiplying MroTAL by
the coefficient C2 from the table of Fig. 6. The coefficient C2
shows that for smaller L.jD ratios, MIF is equal to or greater
than M 0 p, in which case, more hoop reinforcement is re-
quired on the inside than outside face.
It is desirable, especially for slip-formed walls, to use the
>arne reinforcement in both faces. Section 8.4 of ACI 318
\CI Structural Journal I March-April 1995
Pf FLOW
PRESSUR£5
30 SOL I D aEI£NTS
LOADED VlTH
VERTICAL STATIC
PRES~E QS
b. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
recognizes the possibility of formation of plastic hinges at
points of maximum stress and allows redistribution of mo-
ment from the negative to the positive zone. The authors
have found that plastic hinges do occur and that many times
each face of the wall can be designed for a redistributed mo-
ment equal to the average of M 1p and M OF· If the reinforce-
ment is too heavy and the wall thickness must be increased,
new moments can be computed from Fig. 6 using an updated
Dlh ratio.
Even though moments need not be considered below Lev-
el A of Fig. 3, it is recommended that the extra reinforcement
at Level A be decreased linearly to zero at the bottom of the
pressure zone.
SELECTION OF DESIGN FLOW CHANNEL
CONFIGURATION
Before the preceding analysis can be made, a "design"
flow channel must be selected. Fig. 7 presents questions that
raise the issues and help determine if bending from asym-
metric flow is likely. The following also raises issues related
to material properties, segregation, and geometry. As differ-
ent potential flow channel sizes are considered, recognize
that larger channels do not necessarily result in more mo-
ment than smaller ones (Fig. 6). Even though theoretical
considerations are important, final selection should be based
on actual flow channels observed in comparable silos or
from evidence (wall abrasion, scour marks, cracking pat-
terns, etc.) of actual flow channels having been active in
comparable silos, if at all possible.
Segregation influences flow channel configuration
Segregation is the primary determinant of whether a flow
channel will tilt. Although industry practice has been to as-
sume center-filled silos with center outlets do not segregate
enough to flow asymmetrically, such segregation does
occur2° [Fig. l(J)].
Segregation occurs during filling when the trajectory off
the conveyor or sloping spout causes the heavier particles to
travel farther than the fines. Even if flow is baffled to stop the
223

l::. = 14 IN
1356 mnl
IIIII WITHOOT S(J)POOT FRON ..1..
STATIC MATERIAL
Fig. 5-Comparison of wall moments and movements
trajectory, material rebounds and falls in a segregated pattern
or the baffle wears through unexpectedly.
The coarse material is typically less cohesive (weaker)
than fines, so flow channels tend to tilt toward the coarser
material, which is usually against the wall. When contact is
made with the wall, the flow channel size often remains un-
changed from the contact point to the top of the silo.
Unless the material is uniform-sized (no fines), segrega-
tion almost always occurs across the diameter regardless of
how the silo is filled. Therefore, any flow channel, especially
if off-center, should be assumed to tilt toward the wall.
Geometry influences flow channel configuration
Fig. 1 illustrates how geometry influences flow channels
in a variety of ways. Fig. 2 provides information to help size
the channel. Flow channels develop by expanding from the
outlet size at an angle e 1 with the vertical. Depending upon
the amount of cohesion (value of 8) and silo proportions,
they may or may not reach a stable diameter.
Investigations of flow channel development in laboratory-
size model silos 29 •31 - 33 show a variety of results. For cohe-
sive materials like coal, Giunta's work29 seems to closely
predict flow channel angles and sizes in full-size silos. Other
studies may do better for noncohesive materials like grain.
Fig. 3 defines the geometry of the recommended design
flow channel for the tilted condition ( e 1 > 0). The geometri-
cal relationships of Fig. 3 result from the assumption that the
flow channel tilts toward the wall and expands from its apex
at a rate equal to an included angle of 2e 1 as measured in a
direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper. When the
channel centerline hits the wall (Y =chord np) at Level B, the
224
• 1 KFT
(1.4 kN-ml
--Mt11C • 12 KFT
I 16.3 kN-ml
M1F • l3 KFT
!49 kN-ml
~ = -1.4 IN
<-36 rrml
70' DIA COAL SILO
WITH TWO 18'15500 mml
FLOW CHANNELS AND
12• 1305 mml WALL
IUNCRACKEDl
A= 0.1 IN
I 18 r.ml
WITH SUPPORT FROM
STATIC MATERIAL
channel must deviate away from the wall to continue to ex-
pand to its maximum size at Level C. The channel then ex-
tends the full height of the silo, over which Y and Lw remain
constant.
lfthe Yexceeds D [Fig. l(H)], the analysis for asymmetric
bending need only be done between Levels A and C using
procedures described for the converging portion of the flow
channel.
Generally, the flow channel does not tilt more than e f'
However, if the hopper surface adjacent to the outlet is suf-
ficiently smooth and steep, and exceeds
a= arctan (4tan<jl') (6)
it is recommended the channel be assumed tilted to flow on
the hopper surface adjacent to the outside of the silo. Then h'
equals the height of the actual hopper.
Flow can also expand at a rate greater than the included
angle of 2 e 1 in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
paper, if the hopper configuration permits such.
Geometry dictates that as the number and size of flow
channels around the perimeter of a multiple-outlet silo in-
crease, the pressures in the static material and resulting mo-
ments increase significantly. However, when the flow
channels increase to the point of merging, the moments de-
crease, provided all feeders are active. If not, severe checker-
board loading can occur. It is, therefore, important to consid-
er realistic combinations of flow channels. Do not arbitrarily
assume all feeders will be interlocked and operated together.
ACI Structural Journal I March-April 199£
...
.036 IS THE SILO Ult.OAOEO OOES Tl£ SILO MASS

sCHANNELS~
1ING~E JLO~ ---t--t-rt----_._--'-::_,_-+~~;;<='=;-1 FROM Tl£ TOP? FLO~?
.034 c..
IX v O/h-30 Lv/D Cz YES

T/ /
.032 FIG.l·F
0.1 0.75
t-+--+--t--+----ril---7'1-+--l\--t--+-1--+-1
.030
.028
TWO OPPOSITE
FLOW
t+t i\
0. 2
I I , - o.J o.n
0.4 0.68
0. 15

.026 t-CHTA_N4
NE-'L'-St--;-.,f\-/-,llAL-kf-'"""'?"'fk~~~d--O+/h_=4+S--+4 o. 5 o. 64
I I IY o.6 o.6o
.024
I
/I' "
.022 t-+--+--+1'-f++i-J~/Y--t-"v
\ )..--Dth"'6D o.r
'-f<'...d'AI-:+t
L,_,_+-lo. 8
o.sr
o. 54
.ozo I ~~ /" t \ ~:~ ~:;~
c1.o1s ~I I /" :1 \ 'l. I-D/h=90 1-1 0-47

.016
#Jf/ .-r .I 'Xfr'" K'': \ 1.2 0-46

.014
1////; / !'{ \\\ ::~ ~::~
.012
fjfJ/ -. .I \\ 1.s o.4s

.010
.oos //)f/J 1\ 1\\
.006
.004
.002

Lw/0
Fig. 6-Moment coefficients
BENllr«J FilM BOOir«J FROM
Sometimes, also, a hopper opening fails to become fully I\SYIKTRIC FLOV IS I\SYIKTRIC FLOV
I«<T LIKaY.• L.. ;.;.IS..;;.LI;;.;;KE;;;.LY..;_._ ____.
active because of a partially open gate, or a malfunctioning
'ASYN4ETRIC LOAOIHG LIKE IN FIG. 1-K VILL R£SllT IN VPU 80011«;, Yl£ IWiN!Tta OF
feeder or improperly proportioned feeder skirting. In such VH!Ot V!LL IE'Ef() lfON Tl£ PIIJX!H!TY OF Yl£ FLOV OWtfl TO Yl£ ~ALL.

cases [Fig. l(J)], flow immediately becomes asymmetric in

the hopper, and an unexpected flow channel can form at the Fig. 7-Logic chart for determining if bending from asym-
metric flow is likely
silo wall.

Variable material properties influence channel
configuration
Base the design flow channel on material properties repre-
sentative of the material stored and the conditions of storage.
The material property that most dramatically affects the flow
o,
channel geometry is which is a measure of cohesion. More
o.
cohesive materials have a higher For high values of &, ef
approaches zero, and steep flow channels or ratholes occur.
o varies with vertical pressure and approaches in the
bottom of large silos where pressures are high. If segregation
exists, oalso varies and approaches <)l where the coarse ma-
terial is located, which is usually near the silo wall. Fig. 2
shows various granular materials and a range of 0 for each,
compared to Giunta's curves.
The values for <)l and <)l' also vary. Explore a range of rea-
sonable assumptions for each.
SERVICE LIFE CONSIDERATIONS
Consider the following suggestions to improve the life and
maintenance of concrete silos. Owners and engineers have,
on many occasions, cooperated to design silos that lessen the
severity of or even prevent asymmetric bending in their silos.
1. Strive to avoid configurations that have only off-center
outlets [Fig. 1(H), (1), (K)]. Try to incorporate a center outlet
and use it as the primary means of emptying the silo.
2. Where outlets near the perimeter are necessary, try to lo-
cate them away from the wall to minimize flow channel con-
ACI Structural Journal I March-April 1995
tact with the wall. This will reduce the forces on the wall and
decrease the abrasion.
3. Consider limiting the use of outlets near the wall to
those times when the level of filling is low. Consider more
than the normal concrete cover over inside face reinforce-
ment subject to heavy abrasion.
4. Avoid hopper configurations that can cause unpredict-
able flow patterns or unexpected merging of adjacent flow
<)l channels.
5. Be cautious about using post-tensioned reinforcement
for resisting bending from asymmetric flow. Compressive
stresses can become critical under heavy bending plus axial
load.
6. Reach an understanding with the owner regarding im-
portant silo design and operating parameters for the silo.
Record decisions on the drawings, such as:
a. Stored material design parameters.
b. Design flow channel configuration.
c. Basis for selection of hopper, such as flow studies, etc.
d. Normal operating conditions.
e. Emergency operating conditions, if one or more of the
gates or feeders is inoperable or are partially open, causing
hopper outlet to be only partially active.
DESIGN EXAMPLES
Two silo designs are presented in Fig. 8 and 9 as examples.
The general procedure for an actual silo is as follows:
1. Establish values for y, p, &, <)l, $ 'cone• 11 '; and k.
225
 GRAIN SILO !NO HOPPER l
t = 50 PCF 9't g• =
p = 22· A= 2.1
\ = 33. h' =
157 ft
~ = 33. y =26 ft
D= ~· CONC = 25.2• hh = 81 ft
k = 0.47 h = 7 in
u'= 0.47 d' = d• = 1.75 in
f' c = 4000 psi 0/h = 51
fy = 60 l<si {'X=6 ft
Y(ft) 39 67 92 98
nvCft > 0 28 53 59
y ( ft) 26 17 9 2.4
Lw ( ft I 31.5 18 9.3 7.1
Lw/0 1.05 0.60 0.31 0.24
Adft 2 ) 404 144 37 28
Pt <ft l 72 45 24 18
~· 29.7 30.1 30.1 30.1
Qf(psfl 878 635 346 271
0 qi Cpsfl 1153 1460 1582 1601
N
Qscpsfl 1520 1672 1651 1656
Pt lpsf l 412 485 262 205
Ps<psfl 714 786 776 778
Ps -pt 302 300 513 572
c1 0133 .0256 .0167 .0127
c~ 0.48 0.60 0.73 0.74
M., (kftl 1. 73 4.15 5.59 4.85
LEVEL B
~(kftl 1.88 2.78 2.12 1.68
Fi (kips> 8.13 10.3 11.2 11.3
A;.IF(in2) 0.30 0.52 0.65 0.59
As OF(in2) 0.31 0.42 0.39 0.36
Total 0.61 0.94 1. 04 0.95

Total As(in2)

Fig. 8-Silo design example-Grain

2. From Fig. 2, determine 9, A , H', andY.
3. Decide if and how much the channel will tilt.
4. From equations of Fig. 3, determine h' b• h', h'1, and hh.
5. From equations of Fig. 3, for each depth Y, determine
the value off, Lw, L,/D, A1, P1, and <1> '.Use the design aid of
Fig. 3 if depth Y falls between Levels A and B.
6. Determine q1 using Janssen's equation (if above Level
C) or Walker's Eq. (A-1) (in the Appendix) (if below Level
C).
7. Determine qi for each depth fusing Janssen's equation.
8. Determine qs, Ps• andp1 from Eq. (1), (3), and (4). Use
Walker's equation for Pt [Eq. (A-6)] if depth Y falls below
Level C.
9. Determine pressure differential Ps- Pt-
10. Obtain moment coefficients from Fig. 7. Determine
moments, tension forces, and wall reinforcement using the
standard methods of computing reinforcement for members
subjected to both tension and moment.
In the particular example of Fig. 8, the total As required
just below Level C drops because the flow pressure Pt in-
creases with respect to the static pressure Ps• and the mo-
ments decrease. It is recommended in such cases that the
reinforcement envelope be constructed by extending a
straight line from the point of maximum As required above
Level C to the point of maximum As required below Level C.
Generally, the extra reinforcement provided at the flow
channel should be extended around the entire perimeter of
the silo. The final design should never result in less rein-
forcement than required under ACI 313 (or the governing
code) for the concentric flow case.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The guidelines and procedures presented are easy to use
and applicable for the normal range of concrete silo sizes and
flow channel configurations encountered. They are applica-
ble to a variety of stored materials and have resulted in prac-
tical designs that have proven successful for the authors over
the last several years.

226 ACI Structural Journal I March-April 1995

 0· 70'
I' WITH 2 ·23' FlOW CHANNELS COAl SILO !WITH 60"
STAINLESS STEEl
PYRAMIDAL HOPPER!
1'=60PCF &f = s•
p = 37" A= 2.1
'b = <13' h' = 157 ft
~ = 36' y = 23 ft
~· CONC = 29. 3' hh = 131 ft
k = 0.<11 h = 14 in
I.
l
u'= 0.56 d' = d'' = 2 in

,
:t·. . .
rf ..
f' c = 4000 psi
~· SS = 21'
0/h = 60
fy = 60 ksi
WILL LIKELY FLOW ON HOPPER
;··.: . ·. Ylftl
hy ( ft l
40 80 130 138
,..,
0 1..· 8
r· y (ftl 23 23 23 21.6
.{·
1: .. Lw 1ft I 23.<1 23.4 23.4 22.0
1.· Lw/0 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.31
0
......
Af(ft') 238 238 238 208
Pr 1ft> 60 60 60 59.9
-~ 33.4 33.4 33.4 33.4
Qf I psf I 824 879 882 678
Qi !psfl 1866 2969 3738 3820
Qslpsf 1 2013 3264 <1141 4201
Pi I psf I 338 300 362 443
Pslpsfl 825 1338 1697 1122
Ps'Pf 487 978 1335 1278
c, .Q14C .0140 .0140 .0133
c2 0.71 0.71 0.11 o. 72
t..1r:(kftl 23.8 47.8 65.2 60.1
l.loF I kft I 9.6 19.3 26.3 23.0
Fi !kips! 26.8 42.6 52.2 54.8
·~(in2) 1.25 2.35 3.17 3.00
A.SoF<in2) 0.78 1.39 1.82 1. 73
Toto! 2.04 3.14 4.99 4.78

Total As(in2)

d',d" distances from face of wall to center of reinforcement nearest

NOTATION that face
e distance from center of silo to center of outlet (eccentricity of
A! area of ftow channel outlet)
A, tension steel area, usually per unit of height of wall eo distance from center of silo to apex of eccentric hopper (Fig.
A, i/o cross-sectional area of silo 3)
wall thickness
A critical ratio defined by Giunti 9 (Fig. 2) height of hopper from apex to top of hopper
B constant [Walker's Eq. (A-4) (see Appendix) depth below top of hopper to point in question
c, coefficient for MroTAL height from hopper apex to point where tilted ftow channel
c2 coefficient for M1F contacts wall
D diameter (inside) of silo height from hopper apex to effective outlet of hopper (Fig. 2
D' effective outlet diameter and 3)
modulus of elasticity of bulk material h' I height from hopper apex to point where Y for tilted ftow
Eb channel has expanded to equal the chord length n-p (Fig. 3)
Ec modulus of elasticity for concrete
k ratio of p to q
Fi hoop tension resulting from Pi n constant [Walker's Eq. (A-2) and (A-3)] (see Appendix)
H' height of ftow channel per Giunta 29 (Fig. 2) initial (filling) horizontal pressure due to stored material
Pi
Lw length of design ftow channel perimeter in contact with wall horizontal pressure within flow channel(s)
PJ
(Fig. 3) pressure normal to hopper surface [Walker's Eq. (A-6)] (see
moment causing tension on inside face of wall Pn
MIF Appendix)
moment causing tension on outside face of wall horizontal pressure within static material around ftow chan-
MoF Ps
nel(s)
MroTAL = sum of MIF and M OF• usually per unit of height of wall vertical pressure at depth h in converging channel [Walker's
pf perimeter of ftow channel Eq. (A-1) (see Appendix)]
R ratio of area to perimeter of horizontal cross section of stor- initial (filling) vertical pressure due to stored material
age space (hydraulic radius) vertical pressure within ftow channel(s)
y depth from surface of stored material to point in question
y vertical pressure within static material around ftow chan-
diameter of ftow channel per Giunti 9 (Fig. 2) nel(s)
c constant in equation for h' 1 (Fig. 3) angle of hopper with horizontal
effective depth of flexural member
a
d constant [Walker's Eq. (A-5) (see Appendix)]

227
ACI Structural Journal I March-April 1995
"{ weight per unit volume for stored material crete, Kong, F. A.; Evans, R. H.; Cohen, E.; and Roll, F., eds., McGraw-
I) effective angle of internal friction Hill Book Co., New York, 1983, Chap. 29, pp. 1-33.
j.t' coefficient of friction between stored material and wall or 23. Wood, J. G. M., "Analysis of Silo Structures Subject to Eccentric
hopper surface Discharge," Proceedings, 2nd International Conference on Design of Silos
angle of internal friction for Strength and Flow, Stratford-on-Avon, England, Nov. 1983, pp. 132-
angle of friction between material and hopper or wall surface 144.
angle of flow channel with vertical (Fig. 2 and 3) 24. Hunt, F. A., and Johnston, F. T., "Solutions for Asymmetrical Flow
angle of tilt of flow channel axis with vertical (Fig. 3, 7, and Problems," Coal Mining and Processing, Jan. 1984.
8) 25. Rotter, J. M., "Analysis of Steel Bins Subject to Eccentric Dis-
p angle of repose with horizontal charge," 2nd International Conference on Bulk Material Storage, Handling
and Transportation, Institution of Engineers, Wollongong, New South
Wales, Australia, July 1986.
REFERENCES 26. Blackler, M. J., and Woods, J. G. M., Discussion on Technical Note
I. ACI Committee 313, "Standard Practice for Design and Construction 490, "Eccentric Discharge in Circular Silos," by Haydl, H. M., Proceed-
of Concrete Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials-and ings, Institute of Civil Engineers, Part 2, June 1987, pp. 475-480.
Commentary," American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1991. 27. Blackler, M. J., and Wood, J. G. M., "Toward the Design Limit of
2. DIN 1055, Design Loads for Buildings: Loads in Silo Bins, Part 6, Steel Silos," Proceedings, International Conference on Design and Con-
Deutsches Institut fur Normung, Berlin, May 1987. struction of Non-Conventional Structures, London, Dec. 1987.
3. "Instructions for Design of Silos for Granular Materials," Sovi~t Code 28. Johnston, F. T., "How to Design Large-Diameter Silos that Last,"
CH-302-65, Gosstroy, Moscow, 1965. Powder and Bulk Engineering, May 1990, pp. 43-53.
4. "Loads Due to Bulk Materials," ISO, Karlsruhe, July 1990. 29. Giunta, J. S., "Flow Pattern of Granular Material in Flat-Bottom
5. Standards Association of Australia, "Loads on Bulk Solids Contain- Bins," Publication No. 68-MH-1, American Society of Mechanical Engi-
ers," Draft Australian Standard, SAA, Sydney, 1989. neers, New York, 1968.
6. Janssen, H. A., "Versuche uber Getreidedruck in Silozellen," VDI 30. Roark, R. J., Formulas for Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York.
Zeitschrift, Dusseldorf, V. 39, Aug. 1885, pp. 1045-1049
31. Bucklin, R. A.; Thompson, S. A.; and Ross, I. J., "Flow Patterns in
7. Janssen, H. A., Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, 1895,
Model Grain Bins," Transactions of ASAE, V. 34, No. 2, 1991, pp. 577-
39 (35), pp. 1045-1049
8. Sugita, M., "Flow and Pressures of Noncohesive Granular Materials 585.
32. Saperstein, L. W., and Ozgen, N. C., "Piping in the Flow of Granular
in Funnel-Flow Bins," Publication No. 72-MH-20, American Society of
Materials from Rectangular Bins," International Journal of Rock Mechan-
Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1972.
ics and Mining Science, Pergamon Press, V. 8, 1971, pp. 1-16.
9. Nielson, J., and Kristiansen, N. 0., "Pressure Measurements on a Silo
33. Carson, J. W., eta!., "Predicting the Shape of Flow Channels in Fun-
in Karpalund" (in Danish), Nordic Group for Silo Research, Report No. 5,
nel Flow Bins and Silos," ACI Committee 313 seminar, 1991 Spring Con-
Technical University of Denmark, Department of Structural Engineering,
vention, American Concrete Institute.
1979.
10. Blight, G. E., and Midgley, D., "Pressure Measured in a 20M Diame-
ter Coal Load-Out Bin," Journal of Powder and Bulk Solids Technology, V. APPENDIX
5, No.2, 1981, pp. 21-31. The following equations from Walker's paper are repeated for conve-
11. Anderson, E. Y., "Wall Pressures and Flow Patterns in Fly Ash Silos nience, using annotations consistent with this paper.
Due to Various Aerations," Internal Journal of Bulk Solids Storage in The vertical pressure at depth hh below top of hopper is computed by
Silos, V. 4, London, 1985, pp. 1-7.
12. Ooi, J. Y.; Pham, L.; and Rotter, M. M., "Systematic and Random
Features of Measured Pressures on Full-Scale Silo Walls," Engineering (A1)
Structures, V. 12, London, Apr. 1990, pp. 74-87.
13. Walker, D. M., "Approximate Theory for Pressure and Arching in
where q0 is computed by Janssen's, and:
Hoppers," Chemical Engineering Science, V. 21, 1966, pp. 975-997.
14. Pieper, K., "Investigation of Silo Loads in Measuring Models," Pub- For circular cones
lication No. 68-MH-30, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 1968. n = 2 __!!__ (but no less than 1.0) (A2)
15. Deutsch, G. P., and Schmidt, L. C., "Pressures on Silo Walls," Publi- tan a
cation No. 68-MH-24, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 1968. For plane flow hoppers
16. Jenike, A. W.; Johanson, J. R.; and Carson, J. W., "Bin Loads, Parts
B
2, 3, and 4," Publication No. 72-MH-1, 2, 3, American Society of Mechan- n = tan a (but no less than 1.0) (A3)
ical Engineers, New York, 1972.
-17. Clague, K., and Wright, H., "Pressures in Bunkers," Iron and Steel
Institute, Aug. 1973, pp. 336-346. where
18. Jenike, Andrew, W., "Denting of Circular Bins with Eccentric Draw-
points," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 93, STl, Feb. 1967, B = sinlisin2 (El + ~) (A4)
pp. 27-35. 1- sinlicos2 (El + ~)
19. Sadler, J. E., "Silo Problems," Proceedings, International Confer-
ence on Design of Silos for Strength and Flow, University of Lancaster, and
Sept. 1980.
20. Johnston, F. T., and Hunt, F. A., "Solutions for Silo Asymmetric 1[ , . sin4>']
~+2 4> +arcsm sinli (AS)
Flow Problems," Proceedings, 2nd International Conference on Design of
Silos for Strength and Flow, Stratford-upon-Avon, England, Nov. 1983, pp.
1-13. Except for the vertical end walls of plane flow hoppers, the pressure nor-
21. Colijn, H., and Pesch!, V., "Non-Symmetrical Bin Flow Problems," mal to the hopper surface at a depth hh below top of hopper is computed by
International Journal of Storing and Handling Bulk Materials, V. 6, No. 3,
1981, pp. 79-96. P = 1 + sinlicos (2~) (A6)
22. Sadler, J. E., et a!., "Bins and Silos," Handbook of Structural Con- n 1- sinlicos2 (El + ~)

228 ACI Structural Journal I March-April 1995