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Exposure
• Cohort studies are a wonderfully logical and direct way of studying risk,
but they have practical limitations. Most chronic diseases take a long time
to develop. The latency period, the period of time between exposure to a
risk factor and the expression of its pathologic effects, is measured in
decades for most chronic diseases. For example, smoking precedes
coronary disease, lung cancer, and chronic bronchitis by 20 years or more,
and osteoporosis with fractures occurs in the elderly because of diet and
exercise patterns throughout life. Also, relatively few people in a cohort
develop the outcome of interest, even though it is necessary to measure
exposure in, and to follow-up, all members of the cohort. The result is
that cohort studies of risk require a lot of time and effort, not to mention
money, to get an answer. The inefficiency is especially limiting for very
rare diseases
• This chapter describes another way of studying the relationship between a
potential risk (or protective) factor and disease more efficiently: case
control studies. This approach has two main advantages over cohort
studies. First, it bypasses the need to collect data on a large number of
people, most of whom do not get the disease and so contribute little to the
results. Second, it is faster because it is not necessary to wait from
measurement of exposure until effects occur.
• But efficiency and timeliness come at a cost: Managing bias is a more
difficult and sometimes uncertain task in case-control studies. In addition,
these studies produce only an estimate of relative risk and no direct
information on other measures of effect such as absolute risk, attributable
risk, and population risks.
• A case-control study is designed to help determine if an exposure is
associated with an outcome (i.e., disease or condition of interest). In
theory, the case-control study can be described simply.
• First, identify the cases (a group known to have the outcome) and the
controls (a group known to be free of the outcome). Then, look back
in time to learn which subjects in each group had the exposure(s),
comparing the frequency of the exposure in the case group to the
control group.
The validity of case-control studies depends on the care with which
cases and controls are selected, how well exposure is measured, and
how completely potentially confounding variables are controlled.
Selecting Cases
Ate food
Cases
Did not eat food
Population
at risk
Ate food
Controls
Did not eat food
a/c
odds ratio = odds of eating food (cases) =
odds of eating food (controls) b/d
axd
odds ratio = (cross product)
bxc