Becoming a Member of Society

This chapter focuses on how individuals learn about culture and become members of society. Specifically, this chapter
aims to help students determine how people identify and acquire norms and values that define their interaction with
others in society, understand the consequences of ignoring these aspects, assess the rules of social interaction,
appreciate the role of innovation in response to problems and challenges, and recognize the value of upholding human
rights and promoting the common good.

At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:

1. explain the development of one's self and others as a product of socialization;

2. identify the context, content, processes, and consequences of socialization;

3. identify examples of agents of socialization and describe their role in socialization;

4. discuss how agents of socialization shaped their individual identities;

5. discuss conformity and its significance to society;

6. discuss deviance and social control and cite examples of each; and 7. promote the protection of human rights and the
common good.

Socialization and Enculturation

John Locke, a British Enlightenment philosopher, said that the human mind at birth is nothing but a blank slate, or tabula
rasa. As a child grows, various experiences imprint knowledge on his or her mind. The human mind, for Locke, acquires
information about the outside world through the senses, and this information molds and defines a person's awareness
and view of the outside world. Locke definitely did not believe that the human mind has innate conceptions. Throughout
a person's life, simple ideas are integrated with more complex ones, and these define his or her political, economic, and
social affairs.

Socialization refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire their identities and
necessary survival skills in society. It prepares new members of society and trains them to think, feel, and act in
appropriate ways. Socialization is considered the central process of social life, and is also a process of member
recruitment and replacement. Examples of socialization include activities. like child-rearing, the orientation of a student
to his or her new school, an initiation to an organization, attendance in Sunday school, cathecism for Catholics,
recruitment processes for political parties, and acquainting an immigrant to significant aspects of life in his or her new
country.

The process of socialization enables a person to gradually become a self-aware and knowledgeable human being, and
learn the ways, values, rules, and culture of his or her society. The development of the individual as a member of society
is greatly influenced by the context of his or her respective society, and the social groups that he or she interacts with.
Socialization is also important in politics, and a citizen develops and acquires political ideas, values, attitudes, beliefs, and
opinions through political socialization, a process which enables the development of citizens to function effectively
within a particular political system.

In the early years of American sociology, the process of socialization was equated with "civilization." In this view, it was
assumed that an unruly human nature or fierce individualism existed prior to an individual's encounter with society.
Socialization then was tantamount to "taming" individualists so that they would willingly cooperate with others on
common goals and conform to socially acceptable ways of behaving.

However, as the field of sociology developed over time, socialization was increasingly viewed in the context of
internalization. Internalization refers to the process of accepting the social norms, attitudes, roles, and values
transmitted by people and social groups within society as one's own. Society, for its part, is seen as the primary factor
responsible for how individuals learn to think and behave. This is the view of functionalists like Talcott Parsons, who
explains that if people failed to play their expected roles or behaved "strangely," there is incomplete or inadequate
socialization. This means the members of society have not yet fully acquired and learned what is expected of them.
However, functionalists do not consider that socialization might vary from person to person, or that individuals might
have needs, desires, values, or behaviors different from those that society expects or demands of them.

Interpretevist sociologists, on the other hand, see socialization as an interactive process between individuals and other
members of society. This view gives importance to the independence of the individuals and their capacity to define their
own personal views and ideas. They then engage other members of society in an effort to integrate their own views,
beliefs, and ways into society. An example of socialization in the interpretevist view is the changing definition of the
family. Decades ago, single-parent families, especially an unwed mother and her child, do not conform to the
conventional definition of family and was frowned upon by society. However, the increased prevalence of single
mothers over the next few years, and the growing assertion of single parents regarding their identity as a family, have
led to a gradual acceptance of single-parent families at present. This phenomenon shows how a segment of society can
gradually gain acceptance in society through constant interaction with other, more mainstream members of society.

For a more comprehensive view on the process of socialization, sociologists suggest combining the perspectives of
functionalism and interpretevism and incorporate them in the analysis of other aspects of social life. The sociologist
William Wentworth has proposed a synthesized view of socialization which considers how factors such as free will,
human autonomy, and social structures and processes influence socialization. Wentworth believes that socialization is a
two-way process between the individual and the larger groups in society such as social organizations and institutions.

The synthesized view identifies three significant aspects of socialization: social context, content and process, and results.

Social context refers to the particular circumstances of a society and consists of its culture, language, and the social
structures that define social class, ethnicity, and gender. It also includes social and historical events, mechanisms of
power and control, and institutions and individuals that engage the person in the socialization process.

The content and process of socialization refer to how socializing activities are structured. Content refers to ideas, beliefs,
behavior, and other information that are passed on by members of society to the individual; the process refers to the
methods of interaction that enable the content to be given to the person undergoing socialization. Socialization is
considered a highly interactive process which enables old and new members to cooperate with and exercise mutual
influence on one another.
Results refer to the outcomes of socialization, and are evident when individuals begin to practice the behaviors,
attitudes, and values that society considers necessary for them to function effectively as its members. An example of a
result is the ability of an individual to speak his or her native language, and understand and comply with basic rules and
norms in his or her community. A significant result of socialization is self-identity, which refers to the establishment of a
unique sense of identity and an awareness of how it relates to their society and the world.

For their part, anthropologists view socialization in terms of becoming familiar with one's own culture, and use the term
enculturation to describe the process of being socialized into a specific culture. Through enculturation, individuals learn
cultural symbols, norms, values, and language by observing and interacting with family, friends, teachers, and the rest of
society. Furthermore, it is a process that helps individuals become functional members of society. Going to mass,
learning the local language, and attending school are some concrete examples of enculturation. According to the
renowned American anthropologist Margaret Mead, one must undergo a process of learning a culture "in all its
uniqueness and particularity." Meanwhile, E. Adamson Hoebel considers enculturation as "both a conscious and
unconscious conditioning process whereby a person, as a child and an adult, achieves competence in his or her culture,
internalizes it and becomes thoroughly enculturated." Melville Herskovits further clarifies the enculturation process by
saying that in the early stages of human growth, the individual unconsciously internalizes his or her culture; but in the
conscious stage during his or her later years, the process already involves innovations and inquiry on the part of the
individual.

Socialization and enculturation go hand-in-hand in instilling in the individual the accepted values, norms, and standards
of behavior in society through social rules on behavior and laws. Additionally, these processes also impart social status,
roles, and identity on members of society. Socialization and enculturation occur throughout an individuals' life from
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, old age, until death.

Agents of Socialization and Enculturation

An important part of the socialization and enculturation processes are the social groups that people come in contact and
interact with throughout their lives. These groups are called participants or agents of socialization and enculturation,
and consist of persons, groups, and institutions that teach people essential knowledge to participate successfully in
society. An individual encounter these agents or participants throughout his or her life. The most prominent agents of
socialization include the family, school, peer groups, mass media, religion, the state, and social and historical events.

The Family

The family is the primary agent of socialization of an individual upon birth, throughout infancy, and up to childhood.
Parents and other family members are essential for the early care and development of the child, and as the child
matures, the family becomes an important venue for social engagement and political socialization.

Apart from defining the identity of the individual as a member of society, the family itself as an institution is also defined
by the changes that society undergoes. The traditional view of the family at present is experiencing change, and more
children are receiving primary care from other individuals apart from their parents. The prevalence of single-parent
families and OFWs has given rise to families where one or both parents are absent, leading to other individuals to take
on the responsibility of child-rearing. These may include members of the extended family such as aunts, uncles, cousins,
and other relatives who influence the child during his or her formative years. Other households also employ helpers or
yayas who are tasked to look after the child. Children who attend preschool or daycare centers also receive care from
teachers or early childhood development professionals who supervise the child's early education and training.

Despite the changes to the dynamics of the family, it continues to be a primary network for the transmission of values,
attitudes, and behaviors. Children are first socialized at home within the family structure and they learn what is and
what is not permissible behavior. They learn obligations, often with clearly defined responsibilities, from family
members, and also become aware of their rights and privileges. Parents and family members also have a significant role
in planning the future of their children. The family, as a significant agent of political socialization, also determines the
political values and views of children. In most Western countries, individual affiliations with political parties are often
determined by the party affiliations of family members. The family also exerts a great influence on religious affiliation
and belief. Oftentimes, the child is baptized or indoctrinated into the religious belief of the family. It is only later in
adulthood that most individuals assert their own religious and political beliefs, often coming into conflict with the ideas
and beliefs of their family.

The family's social and cultural backgrounds are also significant factors that define a child's social opportunities and
experiences. The family's social class, economic position, and ethnic background influence the child in various ways. The
unique context of families may lead them to emphasize certain behaviors and values which they deem more important.
For instance, a religious and conservative family may forbid their children from dating or having relationships at a young
age; while other families may have a more liberal view regarding relationships and allow their teenaged children to
engage in them. More politically-minded and socially-aware families may choose to discuss political and social issues
with their children regularly and even involve them in social action or advocacies. Also, families who belong to the
political or economic elite will have lifestyles and experiences that are different from those who come from middle-class
or lower-income families. Individuals raised in families considered as "minorities," such as the poor or indigenous
communities, may exhibit distrust in the government and have less interest in political involvement. Gender roles and
values. are also heavily influenced by the family; how family members value certain gender identities and roles
influences the individual's outlook on gender and sexuality.

Schools

Schools have a critical and active role in socialization, as their various academic and social activities mold students'
beliefs, values, and attitudes. Schools teach students important values like competitiveness, cooperation, conformity,
innovation, punctuality, orderliness, and respect for authority. In addition, students learn the value of self-improvement
and hard work through classroom activities and learning tasks which give them opportunities to apply their knowledge
and skills. Students. also benefit from the constant guidance and evaluation provided by teachers.

There are varied classifications of schools. There are public schools, private schools, technical-vocational schools, and
alternative schools. Most schools offer a traditional education based on a standard curriculum, while some schools
implement a progressive or constructivist education that put emphasis on individual needs and skills of students.
Schools are also distinguished as sectarian or nonsectarian, with the former being grounded on a particular set of
religious values while the latter is not affiliated to a particular religious group. All activities and elements experienced
and encountered in school including classes, the curriculum, values, the interaction with teachers and other members of
the school administration, extracurricular activities, and participation in student government influence one's views
about society and his or her role in it.
Institutions such as the University of the Philippines have a significant role in the socialization of their students.

Schools are also venues for political socialization. Governments make it a point to include in the curriculum knowledge
and values that are essential for the promotion or preservation of the ideal social, political, and economic system in
society. All states attempt to perpetuate certain core values but the substance of these values, as well as the methods
used to instill them, may vary depending on the particular social context. During Martial Law, for instance, almost all
classrooms in public schools. have pictures of the president and the first lady. Students were also required to sing Ang
Bagong Lipunan or "A New Society," the government slogan or theme during that time.

Children start learning political information and attitudes during their elementary years. Among the first things that
children learn is that they belong to a political unit, starting with the barangay, then a town or a city, a province, and the
nation. Very young people also develop a sense of identity in relation to their own country, language, and culture and
learn to see their country's uniqueness from other countries. The school also shapes the political concepts that expand
and develop children's feelings of attachment to his or her nation or country. This sense of belonging and identity can be
further influenced by religion, ethnolinguistic identity, and the type of community where one belongs to..

Schools are also vital in the development of political unity by establishing shared identities among citizens who come
from diverse social and cultural backgrounds. Schools provide information that highlight and reinforce the shared
identities that unite members of a nation. Apart from learning about the varied ethnolinguistic groups, cultures,
religions, and geographic regions in the country, Filipino children are taught the common values, historical experiences,
and shared symbols, rituals, and practices such as the Lupang Hinirang, the Panatang Makabayan, and the national
language.

Through education, students become more aware of the interactions between people and social institutions and how
these influence society. The school also provides students venues for increased political and social participation,
enabling them to become increasingly aware of political issues, processes, and opportunities for involvement. This
results in students taking on more mature and responsible political roles as they grow into adulthood, and they begin to
exercise their rights and responsibilities in their respective communities by voting and becoming active supporters of
certain political or social causes. Life ich ke sinie -

Peer Groups

Peer groups also reinforce acceptable behaviors introduced by the family and school, allow a certain degree of
independence from family and certain figures of authority, and are also a means for socialization and involvement in
social and political issues. Peer groups refer to people who share the same interests or characteristics such as age and
social background. For instance, children going to school form groups with other children of their age. Through
interaction, these children develop habits such as sharing toys, food, and other resources; playing games; and doing
school work By having a peer group, a child attains a sense of belonging and a shared identity with other members of the
group because of mutual support, shared activities, and common interests.

·Peer groups for the most part are formed by informal, spontaneous, and voluntary means. There are certain organized
groups, however, that can be considered peer groups since they allow individuals who share similar backgrounds and
interests to come together. Examples of these organizations are the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and the Young Liberals. Peer
groups, in fact, are often utilized by governments to further their interests. In these instances, peer groups become
active agents of political socialization, targeting not only the youth but also adults. Democratic states encourage
organizations to foster camaraderie and a sense of unity and purpose. This is to encourage greater citizen involvement
across age groups. Some states with authoritarian governments use peer groups to reshape attitudes and beliefs, and
compel citizens to subscribe to their views and agendas. This was seen in the decades prior to the Second World War,
when the Nazi Party in Germany directed a large-scale social movement with an elaborate network of centrally-
controlled peer groups. The former Soviet Union also utilized this strategy when its Communist Party organized clubs
and civic associations to further the communist cause.

Mass Media

Mass media includes forms of communication such as books, magazines, newspapers, other print materials, radio,
television, and movies. It is a powerful agent of socialization which is widely used by many institutions and organizations
involved in the use of print and electronic communication.

Decades ago, mass media was characterized as nonproximate agents of socialization, meaning it lacks direct, face-to-
face interaction between the sender and receiver. Nowadays, the pervasive nature of media and the emergence of
social media have led social scientists to focus more closely on studying the impact of media as significant socializing
agents or influences. Filipinos now spend a considerable amount of time engaging various forms of mass media,
particularly television, radio, and the Internet. The increased access to these forms of mass media in recent years,
through the introduction of innovations such as smartphones and tablets, has transformed the way people experience
the world and have provided an unprecedented amount of information to them.

Mass media functions as a socializing agent in the following ways: it is a source of information regarding events in
society; it presents various viewpoints regarding events and developments within society; and it provides entertainment
by showcasing other people's experiences. The prevalence of mass media within society results in its enormous impact
and influence on people's views, behavior, and attitudes.

Government and mass media are also closely related. Most democratic states have government-owned television and
radio stations that are regulated by agencies tasked with enforcing policies ensuring freedom of the press and upholding
professional standards in media and communication. The relationship between mass media and politics is very complex,
and scholars have varied views regarding how mass media influences and shapes people's attitudes and behavior. 10
HORES MA

The pluralist model portrays media as an ideological marketplace that enhances debate and electoral choice. Examples
of these are talk shows that engage in discussions on relevant social issues, and live debates i t allow political candidates.
to engage in discussion and inform the citizens regarding their respective government programs. The market model
suggests that media reflects the views of the general public, and that media presents what they think the people want.
This is seen in television networks where telenovelas and "reality shows" are dominant on air, since these types of
shows are seen by media owners and executives as the most popular forms of entertainment among the people. The
dominant-ideology and elite-values models, meanwhile put emphasis on the influence of bias in the activities of media
institutions. The dominant-ideology model traces this bias to links between media and the political and social elite. This
could be seen in instances when prominent business or political figures own, control, or exert influence over certain
media outlets through their business or social connections. The elite-values model, meanwhile, recognizes media bias as
a product of the personal views of media professionals such as journalists, broadcasters, and editors.online wesextus et
misgul

The influence of media, however, is lesser among people who have been exposed to more agents of socialization and
have a stable set of political and social views. Other views point to the contribution of media to a decline in political
awareness and participation, as people now spend more time watching television and devote their time to
entertainment rather than informing themselves on significant social issues. This leads to a decline in the sense of
community which is vital in upholding democracy.

Religion and Statebet adi gourd

in Both religion and state are considered as the ultimate sources of authority, making the church and government
important agents of socialization. Religion exerts a great influence on the views of a person, legitimizes accepted social
practices, provides stability to society, and can even be sources of social change. The Catholic Church in the Philippines
has, in several instances, taken a prominent role in bringing about social and political change in the country. The church
was active in the anti-Marcos movement during the Martial Law period, and has been instrumental during the First
People Power in 1986. In 2001, the church was also instrumental in the mass movement that led to the ouster of
President Joseph Estrada. The Catholic Church also continues its engagement with the government through its support
or opposition to the latter's policies on social and political issues such as graft and corruption, land reform, social justice,
and reproductive health. Asum

The state's response to religion is fairly complex. In democratic states, the separation of church and state is guaranteed,
though in reality, the state defines and limits the influence of religion on society through laws, regulations, and other
means. The interactions between the church and government often define the boundaries of their relationship, and
determine the place religion occupies within the larger political order. However, in many nondemocratic states, the
government often restricts church activities and persecutes its members. Some authoritarian states, however, use the
church to lend legitimacy to dictatorial regimes and repressive policies. Throughout history, religion has either been
used to promote noble aims or subverted to serve less righteous causes such as the persecution of minorities or to
justify wars and conflict.

The state, meanwhile, participates in socialization through laws and other regulations that reinforce appropriate
behavior, and help form values and attitudes of the citizens. Through laws, the state upholds important concepts such as
rights and responsibilities, and regulates the behavior of its citizens through the use of rewards or sanctions. While the
state has an overwhelming influence over the lives of its citizens, society, on the other hand, also defines certain aspects
of the state. Laws are defined and influenced by the values and attitudes of citizens, and citizens work together to
enforce laws and other regulations in society.

Major Social and Historical Events

Major social and political events can also be significant socializing forces for an entire generation. The changes and
developments brought about by historical events often cause transformations in the values, attitudes, and views that
define societies, leading to further changes in the behavior and traditions of societies. Western societies have been
greatly affected by major historical events such as the Great Depression, the Holocaust in Europe, the two World Wars,
the civil rights movement in the United States, and the Vietnam War.

Generations of Filipinos have been affected by various historical events like the Second World War, the Martial Law
period, and the First People Power in 1986. The views and attitudes of Filipinos who have lived through these events
were greatly defined by the changes these events introduced. For instance, those who lived through the Marcos regime
and experienced the First People Power have a high regard for upholding democracy and fighting authoritarianism.
These individuals often express dismay at the tendency of today's generation to glorify authoritarianism and embrace
personalities who display dictatorial tendencies.g Fielit

Historical events, however, tend to affect individuals and societies differently. Just as family members may have varied
political and religious views, individuals may consider and react to events in different ways. This is most evident when
considering the legacy of the Marcos dictatorship in our country. Certain families, groups, and communities that have
benefited during the Martial Law period often see that historical period as a time of progress and stability, and often
highlight its benefits. Others, especially those who were part of the opposition to the Marcos regime, consider this
period as a time of repression and tend to highlight the negative aspects of that time. Variations in the interpretation of
historical events often lead to substantial variations in socialization within a society-one segment of the population may
grow up to appreciate a more positive version of a historical event, while another will have a different, more negative
account of the event. This disparity tends to give rise to complications that threaten the unity and stability within a
society.

This is the reason why the state is one agent of socialization that takes an interest in defining a cohesive history for its
society. Some countries choose to adopt a single, uniform history which must be taught to all citizens. Other countries,
on the other hand, have a more liberal approach in dealing with their histories, and encourage critical study, discussion,
and debate regarding significant moments in history.

Other challenges to socialization emerge when dealing with multicultural or multiethnic nations. These nations attempt
to implement a socialization process that will unite people into a single, cohesive community. However, this process is
not often successful and there will be some groups that will not be successfully integrated and will be unable to share
the norms, rules, and laws of the larger society.. Over time, social differences give rise to conflicts, and if these go
unaddressed, social conflicts will give way to the eventual breakup of society.

Conformity, Deviance, and Social Control

Conformity

Groups exert great influence on an individual's thoughts, values, attitudes, and behavior. They also provide a sense of
identity and belongingness that enable the person to relate fully with other group members. For an individual to
continue functioning as a member of the group, he or she should conform to the general behaviors and attitudes
prevalent within it.

Conformity refers to the process of altering one's thoughts and actions to adapt to the accepted behavior within his or
her group or society. Social psychology considers conformity as a product of pressure exerted by the group on the
individual. Herbert Kelman identifies three types of conformity: compliance, identification, and internalization or
acceptance.

Compliance refers to the outward conformity to social pressure but privately disagreeing with it. This action is often
motivated by the desire to gain rewards or avoid punishment. This is the least enduring type of conformity, since the
motivation provided by rewards and punishments may not always be present, or the authority figure may be unable to
exert his or her influence fully on the group or society at all times.

Identification, on the other hand, refers to the individual adopting a certain behavior because it enables him or her to
have a satisfying relationship with the members of his or her group. The individuals also adopt the opinions and values
of the group, and may strive to emulate an authority figure usually a parent or leader that he or she respects or admires.

Internalization or acceptance involves both public compliance and internal acceptance of the norms and standards
imposed by the group. This is the most permanent and deeply-rooted response to social influence. Acceptance or
internalization is motivated by the desire to be right, with the authority figure or person of influence being deemed
trustworthy, credible, and of good judgment. Acceptance eventually results to the integration of the group's set of
beliefs and behavior into the individual's own framework.

Deviance

Deviance is defined as a behavior that elicits a strong negative reaction from group members and involves actions that
violate commonly held social norms. What is defined as deviance, however, varies depending on the context of the
group or society. What may be considered normal behavior in one culture may be considered deviant behavior in
others. For instance, during the Nazi regime in Germany, many individuals were singled out as deviants-Jews, gypsies,
the disabled, homosexuals, and other "non-Aryans." However, Germany and the rest of Europe at present officially no
longer consider these people as deviants. Another example is the case of women driving cars. In the Philippines, women
drivers are a common sight, but in Saudi Arabia driving a car is considered an undesirable behavior for women and is
banned by law.

There are various views regarding the causes of and influences on social deviance. Biological and psychological theories
consider deviance as being influenced by biological factors such as genetics, but these views have been largely
discredited. Sociologists believe that conformity and deviance are closely tied concepts, and that social influences such
as socioeconomic status and relationships of power define how individuals react to authority and behave in certain
situations. Thus, deviant or criminal behavior is learned in the same way as abiding by the law. For example, a child
growing up in the slums and interacting with gangs on a regular basis eventually conforms to the set of behaviors which
are characteristic of "gang behavior" which is considered deviant by the rest of society. Another child who is brought up
in a safe and secure neighborhood eventually acquires and internalizes law-abiding values that characterize him or her
as a "productive citizen." The child from the slums and the child from the safe neighborhood will view each other's
behavior as departures from their idea of what is the norm, thus, each will view the other as a deviant.

This view often lead sociologists to have varied assessments of deviance and crime. Those who follow a structural-
functionalist framework consider crime and deviance as the result of structural tensions and lack of moral regulation
within society. Emile Durkheim uses the term anomie to refer to a condition where social control becomes ineffective
due to the loss of shared values and sense of purpose in society. This gives way to either the breakdown of traditional
life or a period of social change.

Another sociologist, Robert Merton, relates deviance to the strain felt by individuals whenever social norms conflict with
reality. His structural strain theory argues that the tensions and strains between socially-approved goals and an
individual's ability to meet them will lead to deviance. For example, a construction worker who has been trying to gain
employment for months but is unable to do so will have increasing frustration with society. The worker aspires to
socially-approved goals and gain lawful employment, but society's inability to provide him the means to gain
employment may force him into less-desirable means of livelihood or even crime.

The subcultural view points to the emergence of deviant behavior within certain groups in society or subcultures. The
set of values and behavior prevalent within these groups makes them very prone to engage in deviant or criminal
behavior. This perspective originated from sociological studies of gangs and youth culture which determine that these
groups tended to celebrate defiance, delinquency, and nonconformity as traits that define their identity as a group.
These traits, however, also render them most vulnerable to deviant or criminal behavior.

The symbolic-interactionist view considers deviance as a socially constructed phenomenon influenced largely by
interpersonal relationships between members of society. This view is related to the labeling theory, which believes that
there is actually no deviance in society: deviance only emerges when society begins labeling certain actions as "deviant"
or "undesirable." Labeling comes into play when society deems the behaviors of a certain group, such as gang members,
as deviant. Th labeling reinforces negative views regarding the group, which further drives them toward deviance. The
judgment of society, in this case, modifies the group's and their member's self-concept and also changes the way other
members of society relate to the labeled group or individual. This view also believes that deviant behavior emerges and
is reinforced by interacting with people who display deviance. Additionally, people are more prone to display deviant
behavior when their family members or other people close to them display the same deviant behavior.

The conflict perspective, meanwhile, analyzes deviance in the framework of competing interests between social groups
and the maintenance of power among the elites. This view considers concepts of deviance as a reflection of society's
inequalities as those who are less powerful in society or minorities are more likely to be considered as deviants or
criminals. Examples of these groups include the poor and ethnic or religious minorities.

Finally, control theories consider deviance as emerging because of inadequate social controls. If society is unable to
maintain control and order, it encourages members to engage in deviant behavior. The broken windows theory suggests
a direct relationship between social disorder and deviance, and that maintaining even an appearance of order is
sufficient to discourage deviance. An example is a local government maintaining constant police presence and
cleanliness in areas associated with criminality to discourage the occurrence of petty crimes and vandalism.

Social Control and Sanctions

Social control is defined as any systematic means and practices used to maintain norms, rules, and laws; regulate
conflict; and discourage deviant behavior. Sanctions are the most common means of social control, and are often
employed to address conflicts and violations of social norms. Sanctions can be formal or informal..
Formal sanctions are those provided for by laws and other regulations in society. Laws formally designate certain
deviant behaviors as crimes, and prescribe sanctions for such acts. The adoption and enforcement of laws serve to
reinforce accepted social norms, as well as define deviant behaviors that merit punishment in society. Each society has
its own set of definitions regarding crime and the appropriate sanctions to be applied. For instance, several states in the
United States impose the death penalty on crimes such as murder. Meanwhile, Philippine law provides for the
imposition of the death penalty on certain crimes, but the government has chosen to suspend the imposition of death
penalty since 2006. Other sanctions provided for crimes include imprisonment, banishment, fines, and corporal
punishment.

Informal sanctions are most commonly imposed by smaller societies, communities, or groups. There are no set laws or
regulations that define the nature of these sanctions, and these are often arbitrarily agreed upon by members of the
group or society. Ostracism and social stigma are the most common forms of informal sanction. An ostracized individual
is forcibly isolated from the rest of society for a certain time. A stigmatized person, on the other hand, still remains
within society but is subject to isolation and rejection by other members of society. Gossip is considered as another way
of imposing informal sanctions, as it is an informal means. of monitoring and censuring the behavior of certain
individuals.

Human Dignity and Human Rights

Human dignity refers to the idea that a person has the innate right to be valued, respected, and treated well. Human
rights are legal, social, and ethical principles that consider the human person as deserving of liberties and protections by
virtue of his or her human dignity.

Human dignity and human rights are significant concerns when dealing with socialization and issues on deviance and
social control. Socialization primarily aims to instill recognition of and respect for human rights and dignity. These issues
are also legitimate concerns when society deals with deviance and the enforcement of social control. Human rights are
founded on natural rights, which are universal and inalienable, and are not contingent on laws, customs, beliefs, or
values of a particular culture. Examples of these rights are the right to life and freedom. Human rights are considered to
have the following characteristics:

They are universal because they belong to all human beings regardless of race, religion, gender, and other
characteristics.

They are fundamental since they cannot be taken away from any human being.

They are indivisible as various rights are interrelated and given equal importance.

They are absolute since they cannot be qualified and are considered basic necessities for living a genuine life.

A major legal instrument that upholds the recognition of human rights is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR), which was drafted by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights in 1948. This document was one of the
major results of the end of the Second World War. The atrocities committed during the war convinced many countries of
the need to craft an international charter that will ensure that such crimes will no longer be repeated.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1. All human beings are born free and equal. Each individual is gifted with reason and conscience

2. There shall be no discrimination in the recognition of rights. Whatever your race, color, sex, language, religion,
political or other opinion, birth, or status, you are entitled to the same rights as other people. We all have the right to
life and to live freely and safely. 3.

4.There shall be no slavery. We cannot make another person our slave. No one has any right to torture or hurt another
person, or subject degrading treatment.

6. Everyone has the right to equal and fair treatment under the law.

them to inhuman or

7. All are entitled to equal protection of their rights under the law. We have the right to seek protection and remedy
from the courts in case our rights are violated.

9. We cannot be placed under arrest or imprisoned without good reason.

10. We are all entitled to a fair and public trial by an impartial court. 11. A person accused of a crime is presumed to
innocent until proven guilty by the court.

The accused also has the right to defend himself or herself and prove his or her innocence. We have the right to privacy.
Nobody has the right to come into our homes, open our letters, or interfere with our daily activities. We also have the
right to defend our name and reputation. 13. We have the right to travel to any place in our country and even travel to
other countries. 12.

14. We have the right to seek protection in other countries if we are being persecuted in our own country. 15. Everyone
has a right to a nationality and one cannot be deprived of or her nationality.

16. All consenting adults have the right to be married and start a family. Men and women have the same rights when
they are married and when they are separated. 17. Everyone has the right to own property. A person's property cannot
be taken away from

him without reason.

18. Each person has freedom of thought, belief, and religion. One also has the right to freely practice his or her beliefs
and religion, or change them if they wish.. 19. Everyone has the right to have an opinion and to freely express their
thoughts and ideas. 20. We have the right to gather together and associate with other people freely.

21. We have the right to participate in government, have access to public services, and vote in

the elections.

22. Everyone has the right to affordable housing, medicine, education, and childcare. 23. We have the right to be
employed and to choose our profession. We also have the right to be paid justly for our work, to be given protection in
our workplace, and to join a trade union.

24. Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, and to be given reasonable hours of work.

25. Everyone as the right to live a good life and have adequate food, clothing and shelter. The elderly, unemployed,
disabled, and children have the right to be cared for.

26. We have a right to education. Basic education should be free, and higher education should be affordable and easily
available for all. Education should lead to the full development of the individual. Parents have the right to decide on
their children's education. Everyone has the right to be part of their community and culture, to enjoy the arts, and share
in the benefits of scientific advancement. A person also has the right to ownership of 27.

his or her own artistic or intellectual creation. All persons have the right to live in a society that upholds human rights
and freedoms. 28.

29. Everyone has the duty to uphold not only their own rights but also the rights of others, and to responsibly exercise
their rights and freedoms.SAU AWORY ONTORREPRES 30. No individual, group, or government can take away your
human rights. lindur m

balitaadio Source: www.youthforhumanrights.org, www.un.org

Though the United Nations cannot compel nations to enforce the Declaration, many member-states have ratified and
incorporated its provisions and principles in their respective laws. The UDHR also gave rise to succeeding conventions on
specific human rights issues such as the International Convention on Social, Economic, and Cultural Rights, the
International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, as well as other conventions on the rights of the child, women, and
migrant workers. Other nongovernment organizations, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, conduct
studies that monitor the adherence of countries to the principles and provisions of human rights conventions.
International cooperation and compliance regarding human rights are examples of the process of socialization beyond
that of specific countries or nation-states. This process relies on the relationship between countries and the shared
values and norms espoused by international conventions Zand agreements or gol arts steigafogadtak
Within specific countries, human rights are also a recognized political and social concern and governments address them
primarily through the adoption and enforcement of laws. The 1987 Philippine constitution includes a Bill of Rights where
the rights of Filipino citizens are enumerated. Many countries incorporate a Bill of Rights in their constitutions while
some, like the United Kingdom, which has no formal written constitution, uphold human rights through their common
law, the decision of their courts, and body of legislation.

Despite the high regard that societies have for the recognition of human dignity and human rights, some challenges still
remain. In many democratic countries, there are some limitations to the application and recognition of human rights.
Issues of security and safety, for instance, compel governments to suspend or ignore basic human rights such as the
right to privacy and certain freedoms. This is seen in the Philippine Constitution's provision that allows the government
to impose martial law for a limited period should the country face the grave threat of foreign invasion or rebellion.
Economic concerns may also give way to governments seizing private property when public welfare is at stake, such as
the acquisition of private land for the construction of infrastructure. Public health concerns can also be used as a reason
for governments to impose curfews, limit travel, or bar access to certain areas or facilities.

Another aspect that needs to be considered when discussing human rights are the distinctive views arising from the
debate between Western and Asian values. There is a contention that the discourse on human rights has mostly been
influenced by Western-centered concepts which primarily put emphasis on individualism. Asian values, on the other
hand, offer a human rights perspective that underscores social harmony and cooperation grounded on the values of
loyalty, duty, and respect for authority. The ongoing discussions on human rights underscore the importance of finding
common views and avenues for cooperation in the face of differing values and cultures.

REVIEW

Socialization refers to the lifelong process of social interaction through which people acquire their identities and all
necessary skills for survival in society. It prepares newcomers to become members of an existing group through the
adoption of values and behavior that are considered appropriate by the group.

Anthropologists use the term enculturation to refer to the process of being socialized to a particular culture. Through
enculturation, individuals learn the symbols, norms, values, and language of their culture by observing and interacting
with various members of society.

Agents of socialization refer to persons, groups, and institutions that interact with individuals and teach them the
essential knowledge needed to participate successfully in society. These agents constantly interact with individuals and
influence their thoughts and behavior.

B Socialization is defined by social context which consists of aspects of society such as culture, language, and the ocial
structures that define social class, ethnicity, and gender. It also includes social and historical events, mechanisms of
power and control, and institutions and individuals that engage the person in the socialization process.
The family is considered as the primary agent of socialization from infancy up to childhood. Other agents of socialization
include religion, peer groups, schools, mass media, and the law, among others. Conformity refers to the process of
altering one's behavior to adapt to more

Insigly socially-accepted means and goals within a society, culture, or group. Deviance is defined as behavior that elicits
a strong negative reaction Som from others in a particular group or setting. It involves actions that violate commonly
held norms of a group or society, B B

There are different sociological theories that explain deviance. These are functionalist theories, interactionist theories,
conflict theories, and control

theories. Social control refers to any systematic means and practices used to maintain society's norms, rules, and laws;
regulate conflict; and discourage. mon deviant behavior. Formal sanctions are those provided by laws and other
regulations in society, while informal sanctions consist of actions such as ostracism, social stigma, and even gossip. B

Human rights are legal, social, and ethical principles to which people are

entitled by virtue of their human dignity. They are said to be universal,

fundamental, indivisible, and absolute. Adherence to human rights may

differ from one society to another.

Individuals and Society

For an individual to become a functional member of society, he or she should have a meaningful interaction with the
various social structures and institutions of society that is, a pattern of relationship among the basic components of a
social system.

The most potent representation is the process of socialization. Socialization is a form of interaction by which people
acquire personality and learn the way of life of their society. It is considered the essential link between the individual
and society. In fact, socialization allows the individual to learn the norms, values, languages, skills, beliefs, and other
patterns of thought and action that are essential for social living (Robertson, 1987: 115).

A non-concomitant and non-conformist attitude or behavior pattern of an individual towards society produces deviance
because it primarily violates significant social norms and as a result disapproved by a large number of people. Thus,
social control is imposed as an effective means of ensuring that people generally behave in expected and approved
ways. It all starts on the socialization process, which ideally ensures that every individual internalizes and follows the
norms of society.

This chapter also dwells on how meaningful social interactions provide room for the formation and organization of
groups in a society. Groups play a pivotal role in the interplay, negotiation, and contestation of status, roles, and laws
that significantly shape an individual's link to his or her society.

Lesson 1

Enculturation and Socialization

In Chapter 3, we learned that the human evolutionary background provided an impetus to man's social behavior as
influenced by heredity and genetic science. The so-called "nature" viewpoint galvanized the idea that human instincts
served as formidable references on how individuals relate to society. Genetic explanations correlate a person's basic
needs (such as food, water, and sex) with his attitude and behavior in interacting with other species in the planet.
This belief, however, became less popular during the 20th century as more psychologists explained through empirical
studies that changes in human behavior are closely attributed to learning. For instance, the Russian physiologist Ivan
Pavlov noticed that dogs salivate in the presence of food and when exposed to anything associated to feeding. If dogs
could learn by association and conditioning, then people would surely have an even greater capacity to do so. Picking up
from where Pavlov started, American psychologist John B. Watson argued that human behavior and personality are
completely flexible and can be molded in any direction. Similarly, American sociologist Charles Horton Cooley's "the
looking glass self" views one's self concept as derived from a so-called "social mirror" in which we can observe how
others react to us; thus engaging us how to think and feel.

In pre-modern societies, learning often takes place through a non-fragmented and integrated process of passing
knowledge from one generation to another. For instance, an Ifugao child learns how to plant rice by becoming an
apprentice to his father, a skilled farmer, not from a structured and formalist agricultural school. In the same way, a child
from Bukidnon learns the treasured epics of his or her forebears by listening to the stories of his or her elders in the
community.

Enculturation, therefore, occurs when cultural knowledge is passed on to the next bearer who will perpetuate and
ensure the continuance of their tradition and practices. Enculturation is also a diffusion of one's culture to another
through diverse means, namely: learning, imposition by force, and conquest, among others.

Meanwhile, socialization takes place when prospective culture bearers learn their culture's body of knowledge and skills
through education or conscientization, training, exposure, and experience. In pre-modern societies, socialization is an
evolving process from apprenticeship to expertise in handling a certain craft, e.g. with other people. A person's
socialization with individuals or groups allows pottery-making and metallurgy. Overall, enculturation and socialization
results to:

Identity formation - An individual's identity is formed through his interaction him or her to imbibe certain characteristics
and interests that contribute to his or her identity. (Idea derived from Newman, 2012). For example, the centuries of
Philippine Chinese exposure to Filipino culture made them imbibe facets of Filipino character in the same way Filipinos
learned to love Chinese culture like food (e.g. preference for noodle-based cuisine like pancit).

Norms and values - On the one hand, norms are culturally determined rules that guide people regarding what is right,
wrong, proper, or improper. Norms create predictability in daily affairs and interactions, making it easier to live with
other members of society (Newman, 2012). These norms are fundamental to the establishment of social order in any
society (Newman, 2012).

Norms did not exist out of thin air. They were initially designed and created by people who benefitted from their
existence or suffered from their absence (Coleman, 2000). Through the practice of such norms, a order was established-
an order which allows those who created the norms to benefit from the resulting status quo.

People are subjected to norms when they become part of society. As such, they are

also subjected to the sanctions and rewards of a society's norms-whether rewards for adherence to a norm or
punishment for a violation of a norm (Coleman, 2000).. On the other hand, values are standards people use to
determine desirable goals and outcomes (Hewitt and Hewitt, 1986 in Newman, 2012). Values are criteria on which
people base their judgments regarding behaviors and decisions. In the Philippine setting, values are often used as
parameters in separating what is considered normal and moral from taboo and predatory.

Some examples of Filipino habits and practices that are considered normal and moral include the following: respect for
elders; caring for one's parents during old age; eating together as one family during meals; praying the rosary and
attending mass during Sundays (for Catholics); observing the five pillars of Islam (for Muslims); and a sense of
volunteerism during emergencies and disasters in the community.

Meanwhile, examples of taboos and predatory practices include following: engaging into pre-marital sex and extra-
marital affairs; involving one's self to crime and illegal activities, such as drug pushing and trafficking, stealing neighbor's
property; and testifying falsely in court proceedings.

In the Philippines, there are two most popular norms. First is the norm of appropriateness and wearing decent and
appropriate clothes for a particular occasion or event. For example, do not wear shorts when you attend mass or church
services. Instead, wear decent clothes like a Sunday dress.

Second is the norm of tact and courtesy. When somebody makes a mistake or slips in his or her words and actions, we
do not laugh or make fun of the person in order not to embarrass him or her and, at the same time, express our respect
and courtesy.

Filipinos are also noted for their excellent handling of human relations because they significantly value personhood and
human goodness. On the other hand, the two most important values that Filipinos posses are: first, value of industry
and, secondly, utang na loob (reciprocity or debt of gratitude).

Value of industry is shown when Filipinos take pride in their work because they toiled hard for it, regardless whether in
some instances, they fail along the way.

Filipinos credit success to love of one's work and hardwork. Meanwhile, utang na loob is shown through good will and
thoughtfulness and being mindful and helpful to someone during trying times. For Filipinos, utang na loob cannot be
repaid by money or any treasure. Utang na loob is a priceless value that sustains and strengthens human relations
beyond the individual, family, society, and even nation.

Values are created and shaped in the community through time. It does not happen overnight. As standards to determine
desirable outcomes and goals, values are experimented by a particular society to check its relevance and
appropriateness to existing norms and laws. Acceptable and widely practiced values (as well as norms) are called
conventions. Some conventions become dogmatic through time. For example, Filipino religiosity goes beyond
spirituality, which also include facets of fanaticism, such as dancing and shouting on the streets, walking barefoot on fire,
and wearing of amulets to get rid of evil spirits and diseases.

Statuses and roles - Status is any position that an individual can occupy in society (Newman, 2012). It is not a ranked
position, but simply a label that implies certain roles that must be performed (Newman, 2012). For example, one can be
a student, a singer, or a computer genius at the same time. While it is true that some statuses are acknowledged and
recognized as prestigious (e.g. chief justice, Hollywood star, etc.), there are of course exceptions to the rule. During the
Chou dynasty in China, court scholars were admired and respected for their contributions in the development of Chinese
civilization; and yet court scholars were considered a liability and even charged of causing instability in the succeeding
Ch'in dynasty that unified China into an empire. Although some statuses are generally recognized as prestigious, prestige
like beauty is certainly relative or subjective (for example, a preschooler may think that being a fireman holds a lot of
prestige; or a comic book fan may see an illustrator with tremendous prestige).

Every person can simultaneously hold various statuses at any point in time. For instance, a person can be a sibling,
student, citizen of a country, and fan of basketball all at the same time. (Kottak, 2000; Newman, 2012). In a specific
situation, when a person's different statuses require him or her to perform different roles, his or her actions will reflect
which status is more important in that certain circumstance at that given time. (Newman, 2012).

However, there are times when people find it difficult to decide which of their different statuses is the most important.
This is especially true when multiple statuses provide numerous benefits to the individual. Thus, role conflict occurs
when two statuses, both applicable to the situation, require distinct and divergent roles from the individual. For
example, being a politician is a prestigious status because it gives recognition to the individual as a public leader, who is
respected and obeyed by his or her constituents. Nonetheless, he or she is also expected to be a public servant who is
willing to share his or her resources to his or her constituents, so he or she could maintain his or her status and power in
society. Balancing the status of a public leader or powerful politician and public servant sometimes create a role conflict.

In some situations, statuses do not have to compete for importance as only one or a few may be relevant to the
situation (Kottak, 2000). For example, a girl in geometry class will not consider her being a member of the school's
swimming team to be of much help in answering her teacher's question about the perimeter of a building. In the same
way, a math geek will not mind being called an introvert or anti-social by his peers every time he prepares for the
school's much anticipated Math Olympiad.

The two types of status are ascribed and achieved. Ascribed status is given at birth or assigned later in life (Kottak, 2000;
Newman, 2012). Some examples of ascribed status include age, sex, ethnicity, and membership in a family, among
others. Meanwhile, achieved status is acquired willfully and consciously through effort, talent, decisions, and
accomplishments (Kottak, 2000; Newman, 2012). Some examples of achieved status include being someone's girlfriend
or boyfriend, being the top student in one's class, and being a black belter in karate.

However, the distinction between ascribed and achieved statuses is not always clear (Newman, 2012). For example,
although winning an election could be considered as an achieved status, those who won because they belonged to a
politically elite family may have won because of their family name, not through their efforts to seek election.

Also, a person's ascribed status may help achieve or hinder one to acquire an achieved status. In earlier times, for
example, being a woman is simply equated with the craft of homemaking; thus, women were deprived of the right to
education. In ancient Greece, women were also prohibited to enter politics and the military.

Lesson 2
Understanding Conformity and Deviance

M any books in sociology define deviance in broad terms, ranging from defiance or violation of societal norms to
breakage of conventions and mores. Mores are one of the components of norms that are often taken very seriously by
society and sometimes codified as laws (Newman, 2012).

Mores are strong norms that are regarded as morally significant and violations of them are considered a serious matter
(Robertson, 1987: 62). The word "mores" originated from a Roman term that means the "most respected and sacred
custom." For instance, an individual who walks down the street wearing nothing is considered violating one of the most
important universal mores-the requirement that people should cover their genitals and buttocks in public. In a way, this
applies to most modern societies where decency is equated with appropriate clothing. But in the pre-modern world
society valued nakedness as a manifestation of beauty and even strength. As a whole, mores are crucial in the
maintenance of a decent and orderly society.

So far, there is no existing list of universal deviant behaviors across cultures because deviance is basically socially
constructed and only determined by members of society (Newman, 2012). In short, deviance is characterized for its
contextualized nature and relativity. Within a particular culture, deviance may be perceived and interpreted according to
circumstances or preconditioned notions. Take sexual intercourse for example. The act is considered deviant in many
cultures in Europe and Asia, especially those which strictly adhere to Judeo-Christian precepts, if it is done outside the
formal rite of matrimony. In contrast, pre-modern societies in Africa and some parts of northern Sahara practice
"deflowering" ceremonies to prospective brides prior to marriage. In the same way, sexual treatises like the famous
Kama Sutra that are legally and religiously read in India can appear pornographic and deviant representations of sex for
other cultures.

The most popular form of deviance is the commitment of crime, which is defined as the violation of norms that have
been formally enacted into criminal law. Criminal deviance itself is varied ranging from minor violation of traffic rules to
serious offenses like murder and rape. In modern societies, juvenile delinquency is also considered a deviant crime being
a violation of legal standards by children or adolescents.

Even within a culture itself the definition of a deviant behavior may change over time. For example, in Great Britain, the
English mathematician Alan Turing was tried for homosexual acts and even prescribed drugs to possibly "cure" his
homosexuality, considered a disease in Europe then. After his death, however, Turing was bestowed with numerous
laurels for his monumental work in World War II. Years later, the British government even apologized for prosecuting
Turing for being a deviant and esteemed him as role model for the British youth. Likewise, Joan of Arc of France, who
was charged of witchcraft in the 15th century, was canonized as a saint in the 20th century. Also, Oscar Wilde and
Lawrence of Arabia, both condemned for homosexuality, eventually found their niche among the great men in human
history.

Sociologists view deviance as rooted in society, and very evident in three ways. First, it exists only in relation to cultural
norms. Any thought or action cannot be considered deviant unless it is correlated to a particular norm; and a norm
varies from one society to another. For instance, traditional villages in Southern Italy, particularly Sicily, support the use
of physical violence to avenge the insult for the honor of one's family. In this case, vengeance is regarded a norm and
not a deviance. But this is not the case in the US and the rest of Europe. What is honorable in Sicily will result to arrest
and prosecution in other parts of the world.

Second, people become deviant as others define them that way. In short, being deviant is in the eye of the beholder and
largely depends on the perception, pre conditioned notion, and definition of the situation of other people. For instance,
a Korean celebrity like Rain can dress like a female on stage to the praise of adorning fans, but another man doing the
same thing in another place can be branded homosexual or receive a negative response.

Third, both norms and the way events are defined are related to patterns of social power. This idea has been advanced
by Karl Marx who considered cultural norms, especially the laws, are likely to protect and uphold the interest of the
powerful at the expense of the powerless. For example, a theft in a soap factory is frequently blamed by the owner to
workers, whom he looked down as possible perpetrator of a crime. In the same way, displaced and homeless individuals
who marched on streets denouncing government's failure to grant them decent shelters are likely be considered
deviants by those in power charging them of lawlessness and disturbing peace.

Mechanisms of Social Control

Deviance is checked through social control to ensure that norms and conventions are safeguarded and order preserved.
Society controls individual ideas and behaviors through the following mechanisms:

Labeling theory - This theory states how members of society label others, whether they are deviant or not. (Newman,
2012). People label others as deviant when they defy or do not conform to social norms. Non-conformity provides
offensive signals to holders of norms; non-conformity is often tantamount to disagreement and disapproval. Being
labeled a deviant entail numerous consequences throughout an individual's life. After a group of people has labeled an
individual as a deviant, members of a community or society often treat the individual negatively and with feelings of
hate, mistrust, or fear. Moreover, a person's chance of acquiring socially acceptable roles and relationships with other
people becomes limited when he or she is labeled as a deviant.

Gossip - This is often practiced in small-scale communities where people know each other personally. Because small-
scale communities heavily rely on "getting along" with each other, outbursts or confrontational situations are not ideal.
By gossiping or talking behind someone's back and spreading rumors about him or her, society reinforces what norms
should be followed and punishes the deviants by putting them to shame. Lastly, gossip is also used to level the playing
field-especially when the subject of gossips are successful people-by putting achievers to shame or putting them to the
same level as others (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, and McBride, 2008).

Laws - Laws are formal codes of conduct that are met with negative sanctions (i.e. punishment) when. Laws are meant
to guide the daily lives of members of society by providing clear definitions of relationships among individuals, including
expectations on how people should behave in particular contexts. Importantly, the law dictates to whom authority is
given. Only those who exercise authority are recognized by the members of society to practice coercion in the exercise
of sanctions. Lastly, laws change as well. Old laws can be revised or discarded according to the changing needs of a
society. For example, the Hammurabi laws codified for Babylonian citizenry underwent revisions in the succeeding laws
imposed by Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians in the Mesopotamian city-states.

Human Dignity, Rights, and the Common Good

Whether the individual conforms to the norms imposed by the majority of the society or otherwise, he or she should be
given the appropriate space to express himself or herself and possibly participate in democratic processes. Societies
through the years have crafted political or legal mechanisms to protect its members. One of these mechanisms is the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 1948, which states in its Preamble that "the inherent dignity" of all
members of the human family is "the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world. "Thereafter, the idea of
human dignity has been at the heart of the major human rights instruments, beginning with the two international
covenants on human rights adopted in 1966: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICECSR), as well as in most treaties banning torture,
slavery, inhuman and degrading treatments, and discriminations of all sorts (Andorno).

In the pursuit of understanding human dignity, rights and common good, three main ideas are offered from the
perspective of international law (Andorno, 2009).: Dignity is "inherent... to all members of the human family" (UDHR,
Preamble). The word "inherent" in the UDHR Preamble means "involved in the constitution or essential character of
something," "intrinsic," and "permanent or characteristic attribute of something."

When the term "intrinsic" is accompanied by the word "human," it expresses

the idea that dignity cannot be separated from the human condition. This means

that dignity is a universal quality of people, regardless of their age, race, or skin

color, simply because they are human beings.

All human beings are "free and equal in dignity and rights" (UDHR, Article 1). This means that all people have equal basic
rights. Discrimination, racism, and unjust treatment of different people directly oppose the concept of human dignity
and equality. "These rights derive from the inherent dignity of the human person" (ICCPR

and ICESCR, Preambles). This means that basic human rights are inherent to every person. Thus, basic human rights
cannot be taken away by authorities or governments. In the Philippines, the government has devised various
mechanisms to advance human dignity and protect the rights of every Filipino. In fact, a department has been instituted
to perform its mandate to put forward the common good of every Filipino.
The Commission on Human Rights (CHR) of the Philippines was created in 1987 through Executive Order No. 163. An
independent national human rights institution, the CHR ensures that the human rights of individuals, especially the
marginalized and vulnerable, are protected, promoted, and fulfilled-based on equality and non-discrimination (CHR).

Human dignity is also recognized by the Philippine government as manifested in Section 11 of Article II of the 1987
Constitution. Section 11 notes that the state values the dignity of individuals and guarantees that human rights will be
upheld. Moreover Section 12 of Article III of the Constitution "prohibits the use of torture, force, violence, threat,
intimidation, or any other means which vitiate the free will and mandates the compensation and rehabilitation of victims
of torture or similar practices and their families" (http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/
ra2013/ra_10368_2013.html).

The Philippines also follows international human rights laws and conventions and the UDHR, including the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the Convention Against Torture (CAT) and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment (http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ ra2013/ra_10368_2013.html).

Moreover, the Philippine government has also passed laws that ensure the protection of human rights of people. These
laws include the Expanded Anti Trafficking in Persons Act of 2012 or Republic Act (RA) No. 10364 and Human Rights
Victims Reparation and Recognition Act of 2013 or Republic Act (RA) No. 10368, among others.

On the one hand, RA 10364 aims to eliminate the trafficking of people, especially women and children. It gives
protection and support to victims of trafficking and punishes those who commit the crime. It also aims to protect people
from violence, exploitation, stop involuntary migration and servitude. More importantly, it aims to rehabilitate victims of
illegal trafficking and exploitation (http://www.gov. ph/2013/02/06/republic-act-no-10364/).

RA 10368, on the other hand, "provides for the the reparation and recognition of victims of human rights violations"
during the dictatorship of Ferdinand E. Marcos, from September 21, 1972 to February 25, 1986 (http://www.gov.
ph/2013/02/25/republic-act-no-10368/). This law recognizes the "heroism and sacrifices" of Martial Law victims who
were tortured, summary executed, and experienced enforced or involuntary disappearance, among others. Aiming to
restore the dignity and honor of Martial Law victims, RA 10368 acknowledges the moral and legal duty of the
government to give reparations to the victims and/ or their families "for the deaths, injuries, sufferings, deprivations and
damages they suffered under the Marcos regime" (http://www.gov.ph/2013/02/25/ republic-act-no-10368/).

Strain Theory

Strain Theory is one of the most well-known explanations about deviant behavior. This was advanced by sociologist
Robert Merton who claimed that the operation of society actually encourages crime and other types of deviance,
especially by people in certain situations. This theory states that deviant behavior occurs when people experience strain
or tension when culture imposes goals that individuals should achieve, but the social environment makes it hard or
challenging for individuals to meet such goals through a legitimate manner. Put in another way, when a society's cultural
goals and the socially accepted means to achieve those goals are out of balance, deviant behavior occurs.

RR TO
A good example is the popular notion that "poverty breeds crime." This presupposes that the very existence of poor
people within the social structure leads to deviance. In the Philippines, for instance, lawlessness is always blamed to
poor people because the prevailing social conditions force them to commit crimes in order for them to meet their daily
needs (for example, paying bills and buying food).

Merton's theory was further expanded by the study of Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin who pointed out that the
criminal type of deviance can result not only from the lack of culturally approved means to achieve success but also from
the availability of unconventional means to do so. For instance, a youth who has substantial opportunities to achieve
success through legitimate means can be expected to do so, while those who have relatively more illegitimate
opportunities are likely to use them. Thus, Cloward and Ohlin attempted to explain delinquency in terms of the relative
opportunity structure available to various categories of the youth.

Members of society react to strains in five different ways: a. Conformity - Individuals still accept cultural goals and try to
achieve

them through culturally approved methods. For instance, many poor people in the Philippines generally accept their fate
although many are still hopeful that sending their children to school will uplift them from impoverishment. This type is
called the hopeful poor.

b. Innovation - Individuals still accept cultural goals but go about in achieving it in a culturally disapproved way. For
example, some poor people resort to illegal activities (like stealing a neighbor's property or encroaching on community
resources like tapping electricity from the barangay hall) in order to survive. This type is called the surviving poor.

c. Ritualism - Individuals still live in society and follow its culturally approved ways, but they no longer try to achieve
cultural goals. For instance, some poor people have already accepted-and content that they are poor. Resigned to their
social condition, they live peacefully with their neighbors and do not pose as threats to the latter. This type is called the
passive poor.

d. Retreat - Individuals no longer desire to achieve cultural goals and have abandoned the culturally approved ways of
achieving those goals. For example, some poor people no longer have the desire to improve their lot. They commit
illegal activities and crimes in order to earn a living. This type is called the retreating poor.

e. Rebellion - Individuals challenge the existing culturally accepted goals by coming up with new ones and also challenge
the prescribed means in achieving cultural goals. For instance, some poor people resists the prevailing notion of poverty.
They use their resourcefulness, ingenuity, and innovation to improve their lives. They also follow decent and legal
means. This type is called the resisting poor.
Lesson 3

How Society is Organized

The famous poet, John Donne, once wrote: "No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a part of the continent, a
part of the main." He was recognizing the most distinctive characteristics of people as social animals, whose behavior
and personalities are shaped by groups. Throughout life, most of the daily activities of people are performed in the
company of others. The need for human contact is both a practical and psychological need. If people are deprived of the
company of others for a prolonged period of time, mental breakdown is the usual result. Even the Geneva Convention,
an international agreement that regulates the treatment of prisoners of war, recognizes this need. It regards solitary
confinement for more than 30 days as a cruel and barbarous form of torture (Robertson, 1987: 167).

A group is a unit of people who interact with some regularity and identify themselves as a unit (Newman, 2012). In a
stricter sense, it is a collection of people interacting together in an orderly way on the basis of shared expectations about
one another's behavior. As a result of this interaction, members feel a common sense of "belonging." A group differs
from an aggregate in the sense that the latter does not interact and do not feel any shared sense of belonging.
Passengers in a bus or a crowd in the street are some examples of aggregates while businessmen in a corporate meeting
or students joining a science club are representations of groups.

A group can be categorized based on number, common interest, purpose and level of interactions.

Types of Groups

According to influence:

Primary groups are small but intimate. Members have direct access and interaction with each other. Emotional bonds
are formed between members, and any loss in members affects the identity and structure of the group. Families and
close friends are often the primary groups people have. (Newman, 2012)

Secondary groups are formed to perform a specific purpose. Members interact with each other to accomplish the goals
of the group. Secondary groups are often formal and impersonal. Because of the impersonal nature of relationships, any
loss or change in membership does totally affect the structure of a secondary group. On another note, members of a
primary group can join a secondary group. For example, a student can become close friends with some of his or her
classmates in school. (Newman, 2012).
According to membership

In-groups provide members a sense of belongingness and loyalty. For example, being part of a basketball team lets an
individual bond with his or her teammates and join pep rallies to support the team.

Out-groups are groups than an individual is not a member. These groups elicit a sense of antagonism from a person
(who maybe be a member of another group) (Newman. 2012). For example, members of the women's basketball team
may have a sense of antagonism toward the men's basketball team because the latter gets more funding despite
performing badly in the last season.

Reference groups

Reference groups provide a person with a set of standards to check against and to know if one is doing well or where he
or she needs improvement. For instance, a neophyte scientist considers his superiors as a reference group in the same
way a budding artist looks up to his or her seasoned colleagues.

Networks

This is the entirety of social connections an individual takes part in for whatever purpose (economic, political, etc.) and
through whatever means (face-to-face interaction, virtual interaction, indirect interaction, etc.). For instance, a
politician's link with civil society organizations and non-government organizations is a good example of a network.

Activity 2. Dos and don’ts

Directions: In this activity, revisit your past experiences and research on the norms and values of your family, community,
municipality, and country. Answers should be limited to the dos and don’ts of their age. Example: Overspending for a fiesta and other
festivities.