CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 PREAMBLE

Modern digital technology has made it possible to manipulate multi-

dimensional signals with systems that range from simple digital circuits to advanced

parallel computers. The goal of this manipulation can be divided into three categories:

 Image Processing

 Image Analysis

 Image Understanding

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Even though many effective methods have been taken to reduce the effect of

TB, it is a third high rated disease causing death every year since just X-rays are used

for detection process. TB cavities near clavicles will not be visible in X-rays. To

overcome this problem, TB cavities are detected using CT images and to improve the

accuracy in detecting TB. To overcome this problem, TB cavities are detected using

CT images and to improve the accuracy in detecting TB.

1.3 MOTIVATION

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease that usually affects the lungs. Compared

with other diseases caused by a single infectious agent, tuberculosis is the second

biggest killer, globally. In 2015, 1.8 million people died from the disease, with 10.4

million falling ill.

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 In the 18th and 19th centuries, a tuberculosis epidemic rampaged throughout

Europe and North America, before the German microbiologist Robert Koch

discovered the microbial causes of tuberculosis in 1882.

Following Koch's discovery, the development of vaccines and effective drug

treatment led to the belief that the disease was almost defeated. Indeed, at one point,

the United Nations, predicted that tuberculosis (TB) would be eliminated worldwide

by 2025.

However, in the mid-1980s, TB cases began to rise worldwide, so much so,

that in 1993, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that TB was a global

emergency; the first time that a disease had been labeled as such. Currently, there

were 9.6 million cases of active Tuberculosis which resulted in 1.5 million deaths.

Even though several effective methods have been used to reduce the effect of TB, but

it is a third high rated disease causing death every year.

In order to reduce the human death, we have used CT lung image for

automatic detection of tuberculosis. A CT scan produces detailed images of organs,

bones, and blood vessels. It can be used to diagnose the cancer, heart disease,

Tuberculosis, appendicitis, trauma and infectious diseases.

1.4 IMAGE PROCESSING BASICS

a) Digital image

An image is an array, or a matrix, of square pixels (picture elements) arranged

in columns and rows. In a (8-bit) greyscale image each picture element has an

assigned intensity that ranges from 0 to 255. A grey scale image is what people

2
normally call a black and white image, but the name emphasizes that such an image

will also include many shades of grey.

A normal greyscale image has 8 bit colour depth = 256 greyscales. A “true

colour” image has 24 bit colour depth = 8 x 8 x 8 bits = 256 x 256 x 256 colours =

~16 million colours.

Some greyscale images have more greyscales, for instance 16 bit = 65536

greyscales. In principle three greyscale images can be combined to form an image

with 281,474,976,710,656 greyscales.

There are two general groups of ‘images’: vector graphics (or line art) and

bitmaps (pixel-based or ‘images’). Some of the most common file formats are:

 GIF — an 8-bit (256 colour), non-destructively compressed bitmap

format. Mostly used for web. Has several sub-standards one of which

is the animated GIF.

 JPEG — a very efficient (i.e. much information per byte) destructively

compressed 24 bit (16 million colours) bitmap format. Widely used,

especially for web and Internet (bandwidth-limited).

 TIFF — the standard 24 bit publication bitmap format. Compresses

non-destructively with, for instance, Lempel-Ziv-Welch (LZW)

compression.

 PS — Postscript, a standard vector format. Has numerous sub-

standards and can be difficult to transport across platforms and

operating systems.

 PSD – a dedicated Photoshop format that keeps all the information in

an image including all the layers.

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1.5 OBJECTIVES OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

1. Human can solve the problem in improving the quality of images such as

enhancement, restoration, segmentation and so on.

2. In machine perception, processing the digital images and extract some content

of information such as image analysis, image recognition, image retrieval,

image segmentation and so on [5].

1.6 PURPOSE OF IMAGE PROCESSING

1. Visualization- The objects are observed that are not visible.

2. Image Sharpening and restoration- To create a good quality image.

3. Image retrieval- Retrieval of images from large database.

4. Measurement of pattern- The various objects are measured in an image.

5. Image recognition- The objects are differentiated in an image [1].

1.7 THREE LEVEL PROCESSES FOR A DIGITAL IMAGE

There are three level of process in a digital image namely; Low- level

processes, Mid- level processes and High-level processes [6].

a) Low-level processes

Low-level processes are the techniques used for the mathematical or logical

operator that performs simple processing tasks. To improve the quality of an image

and reduces noises, contrast enhancement and so on.

b) Mid-Level processes

Mid-Level processes are used to perform feature extraction and pattern recognition

function but it combines simple low-level operator. It extracts some content of

attributes from an image; extracts object contour in an image and segment an image.

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c) High-level processes

High level processes are used for the combination of mid-level functions to

perform interpretation. It is used to recognize the objects in an image for analysis.

1.8 IMAGE TYPES

There are three types of images based on the intensity value namely; Binary

image, Gray scale image and Color image.

a) Binary image

Binary image is the simplest type of image but it has two pixel values, typically

black and white, or 0s and 1s.

b) Gray scale image

Gray scale image is a data matrix whose values represent gray-level of information.

The elements of a gray scale image are integer values [0-255] of class uint8.

c) Color image

Color image can be represented as red, green and blue (RGB images). It has 24-

bits/pixel where each color represents a pixel value ranges from 0 to 255. Figure 1.1

shows that a) Binary image b) Gray scale image and c) Color image

a) Binary Image b) Gray scale Image c) Color Image

Figure 1.1 (a-c ) Types of image

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1.9 IMAGE FILE FORMATS

There are some of the important file format are Joint photographic Expert

Group (JPEG), Tagged Image File Format (TIFF), Bitmap (BMP), Graphics

Interchange File Format (GIF), Portable Network Graphics (PNG), Scalable Vector

Graphics (SVG) and Photoshop Document (PSD) [7].

a) Joint Photographic Expert Group

Joint Photographic Expert Group (.jpg) is a popular format which can be used to

adjust in smaller file size for compression. It is designed by Joint Photographic Expert

Group in August 1990.

b) Tagged Image File Format

Tagged Image File Format (.tiff) is a standard file format which can be used for

image distribution in word processing, scanning, faxing, etc. It is designed by Aldus

in the year 1985.

c) Bitmap

Bitmap (.bmp) is a raster image files ranging from high quality large files to lesser

quality small files. It was designed by International Business Machines and Microsoft

in the year 1988.

d) Graphics Interchange Format

Graphics Interchange Format (.gif) is used for the replacement of black and white

Run Length Encoding format.

e) Portable Network Graphics

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 Portable Network Graphics (.png) is used to replace the GIF format. It is smaller

than GIF files. It was developed by Portable Network Graphics Development Group

of World Wide Web Consortium in the year October 1996.

f) Scalable Vector Graphics

Scalable Vector Graphics (.svg) is an open standard Extensible Markup Language

(XML) format for 2D graphics by World Wide Web Consortium in the year 1999.

g) Photoshop Document

Photoshop Document (.psd) is a raster image format and can be used for color

information, masks and incorporates image layers, etc.

Table 1.1 Applications of Digital Image processing

S.No Fields Examples

Automation and
1  Vision systems for automatic part recognition, quality
Robotics
inspection and process monitoring.

2 Material research  Automatic counting and classification of components

and impurities using features such as texture.

 Image enhancement and pattern recognition for

automatic interpretation images, e.g. missile
3 Defense/Military deployments, Tracking targets for missile-guidance
systems, troop movements and Bomb damage
assessment.

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  Land covers analysis of multispectral images to
4 Remote sensing analyze crop yields and assess environmental damage.
 Weather prediction and observation images are taken
in the visible and infrared bands of the spectrum.
 Analysis, classification and matching of 3-D genome
topology
 Automatic counting and classification of cell types
Biological
5 and morphology
imaging
 Growth rate measurements using time lapse image
sequences
 Motility assay for motion analysis of motor proteins.

Medical  Projection radiography, X-ray, Computed tomography

6 diagnostic (CT), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron
imaging emission tomography (PET), Single Photon positron
emission Tomography (SPECT) and Ultrasound.
The application of digital image processing such as Robotics, Material

Research, Military, Remote sensing, Biological imaging and Medical diagnostic

imaging [8]. From the Table 1.1, It is clearly observed that application of digital

image processing.

1.10 IMAGE RETRIEVAL

Since 1970s, image retrieval is an effective research area. Image retrieval is a

technique used for browsing, retrieving, and searching images from a huge database.

Due to the advanced technologies in the internet and digital imaging devices has been

explosive growth of digital images. So, image retrieval technique is an efficient and

effective for maintaining large database.

There are two image retrieval schemes namely;

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  Text Based Image Retrieval (TBIR)

 Content Based Image Retrieval (CBIR)

1.10.1 Text Based Image Retrieval

Text-based image retrieval can be outlined back to the late 1970s. Through

text descriptions, images can be organized by semantic topics to facilitate easy

navigation and browsing. However, since automatically generating texts descriptive

for a vast spectrum of images is not suitable.

Text-based image retrieval systems need manual annotation of images that is

tedious and expensive task for huge databases, making the traditional text-based

techniques not scalable. Moreover, as manual annotation is typically subjectivity,

imprecise, and incomplete. So, the text-based technique is an inaccurate and

mismatched result [9].

1.10.2 Content Based Image Retrieval

In the early 1990s, a huge number of digital images increased by using various

digital devices and commercial applications. The difficulties faced by text based

retrieval became increasing more severe. To overcome these difficulties, CBIR was

introduced to index and retrieval images based on their visual content, such as texture,

color, and shape. This naturally avoids the problems of manual annotations which are

usually subjective and incomplete.

This new research direction has attracted researchers from the communities of

computer vision, databases management, human computer interface, and information

retrieval. As a result, many researchers have focused to develop new techniques such

as visual information extraction, browsing, user query and interaction, indexing, large

Query Image Image Database

 Feature extraction Feature extraction

Query Image Features

Similarity matching Feature Database

number of academic and commercial image retrieval systems [9]. Figure 1.2 shows
Retrieved Images
the process of CBIR system.

Figure 1.2 Process of CBIR System

1.10.2.1 Texture

Texture is one of the most vital characteristics utilized for identifying objects

or region of interests in an image. In past decades, pattern recognition and computer

vision are important rich in research results and usefulness.

Texture representations methods can be classified into two types, namely;

 Structural texture and

 Stastistical texture representation.

1. Structural texture representation

Structural textural representation includes morphological operator and adjacency,

describing texture by identifying structural primitives and their placement rules.

2. Statistical texture representation

Statistical texture representation includes Tamura feature, Fourier power spectrum,

co-occurrence matrices; shift-invariant principal component analysis, wold

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decomposition, fractal model, Markov random field, and multi-resolution filtering

method like wavelet transform, and Gabor transform characterizing texture by the

statistical distribution of the image intensity.

The contrast, coarseness, directionality, line-likeness, regularity, and roughness are

the six visual texture properties. These texture properties are visually and make the

Tamura texture representation can provide a more user-friendly interface and very

attractive in image retrieval.

1.10.2.2 Color

Color is one of the most vital factor for identifying the objects in visual

features usingCBIR. Most color features are based on the statistics of color

distribution of an image. Thus, color features are generally quite robust to rotation,

translation, about the viewing axis but, it can change only slowly with the scale,

occlusion, and viewing angle. Color features are extracted in a certain color space. A

color space has consists of a color model which has been used as specific mapping

onto an absolute color space. Each pixel of the image can be represented as a point in

a three dimensional (3D) color space.

Commonly, color space is used in image retrieval include RGB (Red, Green, Blue)

Munsell, International Commission on Illumination (CIE) CIE L*a*b, CIE L*u*V*,

HSV (Hue, Saturation, and Value) or HSL (Hue, Saturation, and Lightness), HSB

(Hue, Saturation, and Brightness) and opponent color space. Some commonly used

color features are

 color moment,

 color histogram, and

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  color correlogram.

1.10.2.3 Shape

Shape plays a vital role for identifying object in human visual perception. It

has been used for a variety of computer vision tasks and some representations. A good

shape feature representation should be invariant with an object to rotation, translation,

and scaling. There are two categories of shape description namely;

 Boundary based representation

 Region based representation.

1. Boundary based representation

A boundary-based representation utilized only the outer boundary of the shape then

it uses the entire shape region. It has two types of representation, namely; fourier

descriptor and moment invariants. The fourier descriptor used for fourier transformed

boundary as the shape features, whereas moment invariants are invariant to

transformations but, it is used for region-based moments.

2. Region based representation

The region-based representation is the descriptors of this class include moment

invariants, Zernike moments, the morphological descriptor, and pseudo-Zernike

moments [10].

1.11 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN CBIR

The issues and challenges in CBIR are discussed below [11].

1.11.1 Issues

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 1. In training and testing, relevance feedback should be done on on-line and time

consuming.

2. Results should require more accurate to search and retrieve process for long

queries.

3. It should minimize the efficiency of the retrieval system with small training

sets in learning.

4. The minimum number of iterations the system can give the most similar image

set using relevance feedback.

5. The retrieval system should give proper identification of the test samples as

relevant and irrelevant images. More number of iterations can mislead the

retrieval results.

1.11.2 Challenges

1. Huge amount of images to search among.

2. Maintaining and searching through huge database.

3. Semantic gap.

1.12 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

In this chapter, Introduction, Preamble, Problem of Statement, Movitation,

Definition of image processing basics, Objectives of digital image processing, Need

for digital image processing, Three level processes for a digital image, Image types,

Image file formats, Applications of digital image processing, Image retrieval, Issues

and Challenges in CBIR. In this next chapter, Introduction to medical imaging is

discussed.

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 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL IMAGING

2.1 MEDICAL IMAGING

Medical imaging is the process of visual representation of the functions of

some organs or tissues for clinical analysis and medical intervention. Medical imaging

seeks to find the hidden interior parts of a body to diagnose and treatment of disease.

The modality, anatomy, and scanning technique are the multitude of formats in a

medical image. The radiologist can perform primary diagnosis of Medical Image

Database Systems (MIDS) are storing, acquiring, and displaying digital images. It is

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used to identify the abnormalities of diseases [7]. Tomography is a medical imaging

which uses to get virtual slices or sections of a scanned object. The various forms of

medical imaging modalities are [12],[13].

 X-Rays imaging,

 Computer-Aided Diagnosis,

 Positron Emission Tomography,

 Positron Emission Tomography-Computed Tomography,

 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography,

 Magnetic Resonance Imaging,

 Ultrasound scan,

 Echocardiography,

 Elastography,

 Tactile imaging,

 Photo-acoustic Imaging,

 Thermography and Molecular imaging.

a) X-rays imaging

The first method of medical imaging in X-rays which uses in the form of

electromagnetic radiation. In X-rays imaging, the different shades of gray images

produced in the parts of the human body. X-ray radiation easily absorbs calcium in

bones and always preferred for imaging bones. It is used to diagnose the

mammograms for identifying breast cancer and also can identify bone structures.

Figure 2.1 shows the X-ray scan of human body.

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 Figure 2.1 X-ray Scan of Human body

b) Computer Aided Diagnosis

Computer Aided Diagnosis (CAD) is a medical imaging modality which uses

slices of specific areas of the human body also known as Computed Tomography.

CAD scan provides the detailed views of the human body soft tissues. It is used for

doctors to identify in a human body such as Blood clots, Internal bleeding, Signs of

heart disease, Cancers and Broken bones, etc. Figure 2.2 shows the CT scan of

human.

Figure 2.2 CT Scan of Human

c) Positron Emission Tomography

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) is a nuclear imaging technique which

produces doctors with information of functional processes in the human body.

Nuclear Medicine Imaging including PET which involves injecting, inhaling or

swallowing a radioactive tracer. The bones and organs are shown in the scanner using

gamma rays. It is used for the purposes of clinical oncology and clinical diagnosis of

brain tumor disease. Figure 2.3 shows the PET scan of human.

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 Figure 2.3 PET Scan of Human

d) Positron Emission Tomography- Computed Tomography

Positron Emission Tomography- Computed Tomography (PET-CT) is a medical

imaging technique which combines PET and CT. PET-CT is a delineation the volume

of tumor, the preparation of patient treatment plans and finding stages. The active

treatment decisions, recurrence monitoring and patient outcomes are used to improve

oncologic care. Figure 2.4 shows the PET-CT scan.

Figure 2.4 PET-CT Scan

e) Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography

Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) is a nuclear medical

imaging technique which uses to scan the organs such as blood tissues, arteries and

17
veins in the brain. It can detect blood flow of brain injury, but it is more sensitive than

either CAD or MRI scanning. There are two types of technologies used in SPECT

scan to view the human body,namely; Computed Tomography and Radioactive

Material (tracer). The tracer which helps the doctors to view the blood flows to tissues

and organs. Figure 2.5 shows the SPECT scan.

Figure 2.5 SPECT Scan

f) Magnetic Resonance Imaging

MRI is a medical imaging technique a powerful magnetic field and radiofrequency

pulses. It is used to scan the detailed view of the internal structures as cross-sectional

images or slices in the human body. MRI scan is used to identify brain tumors,

assessing blood flow, functioning of the heart, inflammation of the spine to slipped

discs. Figure 2.6 shows the MRI scan.

Figure 2.6 MRI Scan

g) Ultrasound scans

Ultrasound scan is a medical imaging technique which uses high-frequency sound

waves to provide visual images of organs, blood flow or tissues inside the human

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body. The sound waves are transmitted to the area and the returning echoes are

captured. It is also otherwise known as Sonography. Figure 2.7 shows the ultrasound

scan.

Figure 2.7 Ultrasound scan

h) Echocardiography

Echocardiography is a medical imaging technique which uses capturing the image

of heart using Ultrasound signals. Figure 2.8 shows the Echocardiography scan.

Figure 2.8 Echocardiography Scan

i) Elastography

Elastography is a new medical imaging modality which uses maps the elastic

properties of soft tissues such as Ultrasound, MRI and Tactile Imaging. Figure 2.9

shows the Elastrography scan.

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 Figure 2.9 Elastography Scan

j) Tactile Imaging

Tactile imaging is a new medical imaging modality which uses convert the sense of

touch into a digital image. It is used for the purpose of prostate, breast and myofascial

trigger points in muscle. Figure 2.10 shows the tactile image.

Figure 2.10 Tactile Image

k) Photo-acoustic Imaging

Photo-acoustic imaging is recently developed a hybrid biomedical imaging

modality based on the principle of Photo-acoustic effect. It has optical absorption

contrast with spatial resolution. It is used for the purpose of blood oxygenation

mapping, functional brain imaging, tumor angiogenesis monitoring, and skin

melanoma detection, etc. Figure 2.11 shows the photo-acousting imaging.

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 Figure 2.11 Photo-acoustic Imaging

l) Thermography

Thermography is a digital an infrared medical imaging modality which uses visible

or near infrared light is scattered across areas where the density of tissues is high. It is

maninly used for the purpose of breast imaging. Figure 2.12 shows the thermography

scan.

Figure 2.12 Thermography Scan

m) Molecular Imaging:

Molecular imaging is a medical imaging modality which uses the detailed

information about the biological process in the human body. The cellular and

molecular levels will help the doctor to identify the disease in their earlier stages.

Figure 2.13 shows the molecular imaging.

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 Figure 2.13 Molecular imaging

2.2 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN MEDICAL IMAGES

The major issues and challenges in medical images are

 Large dataset,

 Multimodality,

 Data heterogeneity,

 Structural and functional contexts,

 Imprecision,

 Temporal dimension,

 Infrastructure support,

 Security and

 Registration.

a) Large dataset

Due to the increasing of medical images in hospitals generates around 1 tetra byte

of digital imaging data per year. A huge amount of medical images is inadequate for

managing data.

b) Multimodality

Multimodal images are diverse and interrelated in complex ways that make

interpretation and correlation is difficult.

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c) Data heterogeneity

Medical data are collected, formatted, distributed, and displayed; but it is

heterogeneous.

d) Structural and functional contexts

Medical image has a structural information and essential knowledge of the disease

otherwise it affects the interior parts of a body.

e) Imprecision

The presence of noise, medical images, contrast and limited spatial resolution can

provide the physician imprecise representation of anatomic structures and

physiological functionalities.

f) Temporal dimension

Monitoring and tracking the patient’s disease state progress in long-term follow-up

for diagnostic and therapeutic decisions.

g) Infrastructure support

The major challenge is the technological and administrative barriers make analysis

of a complete body of textual and image information.

h) Security

Medical images and records should ensure integrity and privacy otherwise insecure

information is major issues in medical community.

i) Registration

Medical image registration is required to geometrically align two or more 3D image

data sets so that voxels representing the same anatomic structure be superimposed.

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2. 3 BRAIN

Brain is the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up

of more than 100 billion nerves are connected that communicate in trillions of

connections called synapses. It is divided into three types are cerebrum, cerebellum

and medulla oblongata. It is surrounded by a layer of tissue called meninges. The

skull is used to protect the brain from injury. The average weight of adult human brain

is about 1300- 1400 grams or 2% of total human body weight [14], [15]. Figure 2.14

shows the parts of a brain.

Figure 2.14 Parts of a Brain

2.4 BRAIN TUMOR

Brain tumor is an abnormal growth of mass tissue within the central spinal

canal or the brain. The cerebrospinal fluid, white matter tissues, and gray matter

tissues are the three major components of normal MR brain image. There are two

types of tumor are classified are: benign tumor and malignant tumor, where benign

tumor being non cancerous and malignant tumor is cancerous [16].

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2.4.1 Types of brain tumors

Brain tumor is about 120 different types of tumor. The most common primary

brain tumor occurs in gliomas (50.4%), Meningiomas (20.8%), Pituitary adenomas

(15%) and Nerve sheath tumors (8%) [17].

Table 2.1 Common tumors can be organized according to tissue of origin

S.N
Tissue Children Adult
o

1 Astrocytes Pilocytic Astrocytoma Glioblastoma Multiforme

2 Oligodendrocytes Nil Oligodendroglioma

3 Ependyma Ependymoma Nil

4 Neurons Medulloblastoma Nil

5 Meninges Nil Meningioma

2.4.1.1 Benign Tumor

Benign tumor is homogeneous structures which do not contain cancer cells

and it can be completely removed surgically. It has rarely invaded tissues around

them. They don’t spread to other parts of the body. It can cause serious health

problems and sensitive areas of the brain [16].

2.4.1.2 Malignant Tumor

Malignant tumor is a heterogeneous and it contains cancer cells which can be

treated with radiotherapy otherwise life is threatening. It can grow rapidly and invade

the nearby healthy brain tissue. It can spread to other parts of the brain or spinal cord

[16] [18]. Figure 2.15 shows the growth of cells.

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 Figure 2.15 The growth of Cells

2.4.1.3 High Grade Gliomas

High Grade Gliomas (HGG) is highly vascular tumors and a tendency to

infiltrate. It is incurable with an average life of one year after its revelation. It is

commonly known as recurrent cancer of the brain [19].

2.4.1.4 Low Grade Gliomas

Low Grade Gliomas (LGG) has keep grow slowly for many years and as

slow invaders of brain safety tissue [19].

2.4.2 Symptoms

The symptoms of brain tumor are [20]

 Changes in speech, vision, or hearing,

 Numbness,

 Headaches,

 Muscle jerking or twitching,

 Nausea,

 Vomiting,

 Problems in memory changes in mood,

 Ability to concentrate and Personality

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2.4.3 Treatment

The treatments of brain tumor namely; [20]

 Surgery

 Radiation therapy

 Chemotherapy.

2.5 IMAGING ORIENTATION

There are three types of imaging orientation are

 Axial Type,

 Sagittal Type, and

 Coronal Type

2.5.1 Axial Type

It is an imaginary plane that divides the human body into upper halves and

lower halves. It cuts the perpendicular to the long axis of the human body from neck

to head. It is also known as transverse plane [21]. Figure 2.16 shows the axail type.

Figure 2.16 Axial Type

2.5.2 Sagittal Type

It is an anatomical plane which divides the human body into left and right halves. It

cuts down the middle of the human body from ear to ear. It is also known as lateral

plane [21]. Figure 2.17 shows the sagittal type.

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 Figure 2.17 Sagittal Type

2.5.3 Coronal Type

It is dividing the human body into front and back halves. It cuts across the

shoulders from front to back region. It is also known as frontal plane [22]. Figure 2.18

shows the coronal type.

Figure 2.18 Coronal Type

2.6 TYPES OF MR IMAGE

There are three types of MR image [23], [24] are

 T1 weighted image,

 T2 weighted image, and

 Proton Density

2.6.1 T1-weighted image

It is produced by using short Time to Echo and repetition time. When the

cerebrospinal fluid is dark, then T1-weighted image is used for the purpose of

visualizing normal anatomy. It is also known as longitudinal relaxation time.

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2.6.2 T2 weighted image

It is produced by using longer Time to Echo and repetition time. When

cerebrospinal fluid is light, then T2-weighted image is used for the purpose of

visualizing pathology. It is also known as transverse relaxation time.

2.6.3 Proton density

When cerebrospinal fluid is a relatively high level of protons, then it makes

cerebrospinal fluid appear bright. Gray matter is brighter than white matter is known

as proton density. Figure 2.19 shows the a) T1-weighted image, b) T2-weighted

image and c) Proton density.

a) T1-Weighted Image b) T2-Weighted Image c) Proton Density

Figure 2.19 (a-c) Types of MR Images

2.7 PERFORMANCE METRICS

`Let TP- True Positive, TN- True Negative, FP- False Positive, FN- False

Negative. The analysis of the proposed method is evaluated based on the performance

metrics are [25], [26].

2.7.1 Sensitivity

Sensitivity is used to measure the proportion of positives such as the

percentage of sick people is identified as not having the condition, otherwise called

true positive rate.

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 TP
Sensitivity= ×100
TP+TN (2.1)

2.7.2 Specificity

Specificity is used to measure the proportion of negatives such as the

percentage of healthy people are correctly identified as not having condition,

otherwise called the true negative rate.

TN
Specificity = ×100
FP+TN
(2.2)

2.7.3 Accuracy

Accuracy is used to measure the degree of closeness between the original

value and the extracted value.

TP+TN
Accuracy = ×100
(TP+FP+TN+FN ) (2.3)

2.7.4 Error rate

Error rate is used to compare an estimate value to an exact value.

Error rate=100− Accuracy (2.4)

2.7.5 Jaccard Coefficient

Jaccard Coefficient which is a statistic used to compare the similarity and

diversity of sample sets is known as jaccard index.

TP
Jaccard Coefficient= × 100
TP+FP+FN (2.5)

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2.7.6 Dice Coefficient

Dice Coefficient is a harmonic mean of precision and recall.

2 TP
Dice Coefficient= × 100
(2TP+FP+FN )
(2.6)

2.7.7 False Positive Rate

False Positive rate is the ratio of all negatives to give positive test outcomes.

FP
False Positive Rate= ×100
( FP+TN ) (2.7)

2.7.8 False Negative Rate

False negative rate is the ratio of all positives which gives negative test

outcomes.

TP
False Negative Rate= ×100
(TP+ FN ) (2.8)

2.8 BRAIN TUMOR STAGE FINDING PARAMETERS

The analysis of the proposed method is evaluated based on the tumor finding

parameters are [27]

 Area,

 Longest diameter,

 Shortest diameter,

 Roundness,

31
  Perimeter and

 Elongation.

2.8.1 Brain Tumor Area (BTA)

Brain Tumor Area can be represented by brain region containing the total

number of pixels.

n m
BTA =∑ ∑ B (i , j)
i =1 j =1 (2.9)

Where B may be a segmented image of i rows and j columns.

2.8.2 Brain Tumor Longest Diameter (BTLD)

The largest circle diameter circumscribing the brain region is known as the

brain tumor longest diameter.

BTLD= √(x 1 −x 2 )2 +( y 1 − y 2 )2
(2.10)

Where
x 1 , x 2 , y 1 , y 2 are major axis of the end points.

2.8.3 Brain Tumor Shortest Diameter (BTSD)

The smallest circle diameter circumscribing the brain region is known as the

brain tumor longest diameter.

√
BTSD= ( x2 −x 2 +( y 2 − y 1 )2
1) (2.11)

Where
x 1 , x 2 , y 1 , y 2 are minor axis of the end points.

2.8.4 Brain Tumor Elongation (BTE)

32
 It is calculated by the quantitative ratio of the shortest diameter of the brain

region to the longest diameter of the brain tumor region.

BTLD
BTE=
Perimeter

(2.12)

2.8.5 Brain Tumor Perimeter (P)

The length of the perimeter of the tumor region is represented using formula.

P=Even count+ √2( odd count ) unit (2.13)

2.8.6 Brain Tumor Roundness ( γ )

It is calculated as the ratio of the brain tumor area to the area of the circle

corresponding to the brain tumor longest diameter.

4 π ×Area
γ=
P2 (2.14)

2.9 IMAGE DATABASES

There are two types of image databases used for experimental analysis,

namely;

 Real Time Dataset

 BRATS2015 Dataset

2.9.1 Real Time Dataset

The dataset for experimental analysis is taken from Aarthi Scans Hospital,

Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India. Testing can be done on various brain MR image

33
datasets having a tumor. T1 and T2 weighted MR brain tumor images are used. The

original real time dataset is the brain tumor image that is sagittal and axial kind but

our dataset does not have coronal slices from all different modalities. The MR brain

tumor image database contains 1000 MR brain tumor images of training phase and

testing phase of 1000 MR brain tumor images. The original dataset has taken from 10

patients in Digital Imaging Communication Medicine (DICOM) images. Brain images

contain 5 categories and every category has 200 images. The resolution of every

image is 256 x 256. Figure2.20 shows the real time aarthi scan hostipal dataset.

Figure 2.20 Real time Aarthi scan Hospital Dataset

2.9.2 BRATS2015 Dataset

The dataset is publicly available MICCAI BRATS2015 dataset is utilized for

evaluation. For every patient in BRATS2015 dataset, there are four MRI sequences

available: T1-weighted (T1), T1 with gadolinium enhancing contrast (T1c), T2-

Weighted (T2) and FLAIR. Tests are executed on various brain MR image datasets

having a tumor. Since our dataset does not have sagittal or coronal slices from all

different modalities, most of the tumor slices are based on axial slices only. Each

dataset of MR brain tumor image database contains 1000 images. Brain tumor images

contain 5 categories and every category has 200 images are taken. The resolution of

every image is 256 x 256. In BRATS2015 dataset, the training set comprises 220 and

34
54 acquisitions of High Grade Gliomas and Low Grade Gliomas, respectively. For

evaluation, High Grade Glioma (HGG) type of images is taken for training and

testing. It contains 4000 MR brain tumor images of training phase and testing phase

800 MR brain tumor images [28]. Figure 2.21 shows the BRATS2015 dataset.

Figure 2.21 BRATS2015 Dataset

2.10 IMPLEMENTATION ENVIRONMENT

a) Hardware Requirements

The implementation can be done using MATLAB image processing tools and

statistical tools. During the implementation, we use a platform of Intel Core 2 Due

Processing power of 2.4 GHz CPU with 4 GB RAM.

b) Software Requirements

Software requirements deal with defining software resource requirements and pre-

requisites that need to be installed on a computer to provide optimal functioning of an

application.

 Operating System - Windows 7

 Simulation Tool - MATLAB R2013a

c) MATLAB

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 The name MATLAB stands Matrix Laboratory. MATLAB could be a high

performance language which used to perform technical computing. It integrates

Programming, Computation and Visualization in an easy to use environment where

issues and solution are expressed in familiar mathematical notation [29].

It is mainly used for the purpose of

 Math and Calculation

 Application Development including Graphical user interface building

 Algorithms Development

 Scientific and Engineering Graphics

 Exploration, Data analysis, and Visualization

 Simulation, Modeling, and Prototyping.

MATLAB has evolved over a period of time with input from several users.

MATLAB features are used for the purpose of application specific solutions called

Tool Boxes. MATLAB environment used to solve particular classes of problems that

Tool Boxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-Files). Areas in

which toolboxes are available include Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, Wavelets,

Signal Processing, Control systems, Simulation and so on [30].

2.11 CONTRIBUTION OF THE THESIS

In this thesis, a new combination of texture and shape descriptor called

Efficient Contourlet Transform Zernike Moments (ECTZM) is proposed and

successfully applied for content-based image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor

Images. ECTZM technique is used for identification of brain tumor stages and

automatic retrieval of brain tumor images. Fuzzy Feature Representation is found to

36
an appropriate feature selection for the proposed technique. Extreme Learning

Machine (ELM) method is found to be best classifier for the proposed technique.

2.12 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS

The thesis is organized as follows. Chapter 1 provides background

information. Chapter 2 represents introduction to medical imaging. Chapter 3

describes the literature survey in the field of content-based image retrieval. Chapter 4

presents the performance analysis of best texture feature extraction and classifier for

content-based image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor images. Chapter 5 represents

the performance analysis of best shape feature extraction and classifier for content-

based image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor images. Chapter 6 describes the fusion

of Contourlet Transform Zernike moments (CTZM) technique for content-based

image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor images. Chapter 7 presents Efficient

Contourlet Transform (ECT) technique for identification of stages for content-based

image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor images. Chapter 8 describes the Efficient

Zernike moments (EZM) technique for identification of stages for content-based

image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor images. Chapter 9 represents the new

Efficient Contourlet Transform Zernike Moments (ECTZM) technique for

identification of stages for content-based image retrieval using MR Brain Tumor

images. Chapter 10 represents conclusion and future scope.

2.13 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

In this chapter, Introduction to Medical imaging, Issues and challenges in

medical imaging, Brain, Brain tumor, Imaging orientation, Types of MR image,

Performance metrics, Brain Tumor stage finding parameter, Image database,

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MATLAB, Contribution of the thesis, Organization of the thesis and summary of the

chapter. In this next chapter, literature survey is discussed.

CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE SURVEY

3.1 FEATURE EXTRACTION

Feature Extraction is used to analyze the images and objects which can be

extracted from the most prominent features of the various classes of objects. It is used

to reduce time complexity, memory and huge amount of data by measuring certain

properties [31].

3.2 A SURVEY OF TEXTURE METHODS

There are four categories of texture methods are

 Statistical method,

 Geometrical method,

 Model Based method, and

 Signal processing.

3.2.1 Statistical method

It is used to analyze deriving set of statistics from the distribution of local

features and the spatial distribution of gray values. Statistical methods can be

38
categories into three properties are first-order, second-order, and higher-order

statistics. Haralick et at (1973) proposed the co-occurrence features and Weszha et al

(1976) proposed the gray level differences which have inspired a variety of

modifications. Ojala et al (2001) have proposed the signed differences, and Ojala et al

(1996) proposed the Local Binary Pattern (LBP) which has inspired occurrence

statistics of local microstructures. These are the statistical methods mostly used for

texture analysis. Other statistical methods are Kaizer (1995) proposed the

autocorrelation function, which have been used for analyzing of textures in regularity

and coarseness [32].

3.2.2 Geometrical method

It is a texture that describes about the texture primitives and their spatial

organization. Marr (1992), Voorhees & Poggio (1987), Tuceryan & Jain (1990)

proposed the Laplacian-of-Gaussian which have extracted the primitives using edge

detection. Tomita & Tsuji (1990) proposed the adaptive region extraction, Matheron

(1967), Serra (1982) have proposed the mathematical morphology, Zucker (1976) &

Fu (1982) have proposed the statistics of the primitive elements like intensity, area,

elongation and orientation. Ahuja (1982), Tuceryan & Jain (1990) have presented

the structure and organization of the primitives. Davis et al (1979) & (1981) have

proposed the co-occurences matrices which describe second-order statistics of edges.

3.2.3 Model-based methods

It is a texture process that describes about constructing a parametric generative

model, which created the intensity distribution. Besag (1974), Hassner & Sklansky

(1980), Geman & Geman (1984) have developed Gibbs random field is a global

model, used to clique of neighboring pixels as a probability density function.

39
Dobrushin (1968), Woods (1972) have developed the Markov random field model is a

conditional probalility of the intensity of a pixel but it depends on intensity of the

neighborhood pixels. Francos (1990), Francos et al (1993) have developed the

Gaussian Markov random field model of the intensity of a pixel. Mandelbrot (1983)

have proposed describes about images with fractals, a set of similar functions

characterized called fractal dimension. [32].

3.2.4 Signal processing methods

It is used to analyze the frequency content of the image. Rosenfeld & Thurton

(1970) have newly introduced the concept of edge density per unit area: Fine textures

have higher density of edges than coarse textures. Laws (1980) proposed the spatial

domain filters are moments which filtering the image with a set of spatial masks.

Mallat (1989) proposed the wavelet transform which is achieved by using window

function, whose width changes as frequency changes. Reed & Wechsler (1988), Jain

& Farrokhnia (1991) have developed the dimensionality can be reduced by bans

which have high energy [32].

3.3 A SURVEY ON TEXTURE FEATURE EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

USING CBIR

Manjunath et al [33] have proposed an image retrieval method using texture

feature. The gabor is used for extracting the texture feature method. It is used to

measure the similarity of an image. The retrieval performance of the texture is useful

for region based retrieval. Murala et al [34] have developed a new texture image

retrieval algorithm for biomedical image retrieval. The local binary pattern, gabor

local binary pattern, directional binary wavelet patterns, local mesh patterns, gabor

local mesh pattern, intensity histogram, gray level co-occurrence matrix and gaussian

40
filter bank are the texture features utilized for evaluation. It is efficient and achieves

good retrieval accuracy of image retrieval.

Erchan et al [35] developed multiscale texture descriptors for content based

image retrieval. The circular covariance histogram and the rotation-invariant point

triplets are used for extracting the texture feature method. The proposed approach is

the best retrieval performance. Murula et al [36] have proposed a novel image

retrieval algorithm using Local tetra pattern. The Local Binary Pattern (LBP), Local

Ternary Pattern (LTP), Local Derivative Pattern (LDP), and Local Tetra Pattern

(LTrP) are the texture feature extraction techniques are used. It is efficient, effective

and high retrieval accuracy of image retrieval.

Chen et al [37] have proposed the texture feature extraction method for CBIR.

The gabor wavelet transform is used for extracting texture feature extraction method.

It is effective and improved the efficiency of texture retrieval. Lin et al [38] have

proposed a texture feature based on Adaptive Local Binary Patterns (ALBP) for

image retrieval. ALBP is used for extracting the texture feature extraction method.

Support Vector Machine (SVM) is used for classify the proposed method. It gives

higher classification and retrieval accuracy.

Prasad et al [39] have developed a statistical texture feature-based retrieval for

Computed Tomography brain tumor images. Haralick, Co-occurrence matrix and

tamura are the statistical texture methods used in feature extraction. A tamura feature

gives better results for precision and recall in Computed Tomography brain images.

Jisha et al [40] have developed a texture features (variance, correlation, cluster-shade,

intertia) are extracted using Gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) based on

semantic image retrieval. It reduces the semantic gap between low level features and

high level features. It is efficient, effective and improves the retrieval accuracy.

41
 Abbadeni et al [41] have developed a new perceptual texture feature for CBIR.

The tamura features such as coarseness, directionality, contrast, and busyness are used

for extracting texture features. The autocorrelation is used to improve the retrieval

efficiency. Md Monirul et al [42] have developed a texture feature based on CBIR.

The rotation invariant curvelet transform is used for extracting texture feature

extraction method. It can avoid expensive online matching and improves the retrieval

performance.

Khelifi et al [43] have presented iterative method in statistical texture features

using K-NN regression. The Laplacian Kull-back-Leiber distance (KLD), Generalized

Gaussian distribution-KLD, Gaussian-KLD, and Discrete wavelet transform-KLD are

the statistical texture retrieval techniques are evaluated. It improves the retrieval

performance. Yang et al [44] have developed the texture method for CBIR. The

sparse coding is used for extracting texture feature extraction method. It improves the

performance of the retrieval algorithm.

Lasmar et al [45] have proposed texture image retrieval for new multivariate

modeling using Gaussian copula and wavelet transform. It is flexibility for a wide

variety of multidimensional data. It is efficient for indexing and improves the retrieval

performance. Mosleh et al [46] have developed the texture image retrieval based on

contourlet transform. The texture features are gabor filter, wavelet transform, and

contourlet transform are used for evaluation. It is effective and efficient retrieval

performance. Gonde et al [47] have developed a new algorithm for texture feature

based on image indexing and retrieval. Multiscale ridgelet transform is used for

extracting the texture feature method. It gives good retrieval accuracy of this method.

42
3.4 A SURVEY ON SHAPE FEATURE EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

USING CBIR

Rong et al [48] have proposed shape feature model using pyramid matching

with orientation features for the edge and angle of a shape. It is a rotation, scaling,

symmetric transform, invariant to translation and robustness. It is effective and

increases the retrieval performance. Amanatiadis et al [49] have studied that scale,

rotation and invariant translation descriptors for shape retrieval and representation.

The four shape representations are fourier, curvature scale; angular radial transform

and image moment descriptors are evaluated. It is small well suitable for a low order

of computational complexity and fast retrieval.

Esther et al [50] have presented to retrieve brain image using soft computing

technique. The shape features are extracted using 2-D Zernike moment. The soft

computing technique of ELM is used with different distance metric measures like

Euclidean, Quasi Euclidean, City Block, Hamming distance. The fuzzy expectation

maximization algorithm is used to remove the non-brain portion of the MR Brain

image. Rajalakshmi et al [51] a relevance feedback method using a diverse density

algorithm is used to improve the performance of content-based medical image

retrieval. The Haralick features, Zernike moments, histogram intensity features and

run -length features are the texture features utilized. The classification is performed

using fuzzy-based relevance vector machine to form groups of relevant image

features.

Chahooki et al [52] have demonstrated a novel supervised shape retrieval by

manifold learning for shape classification. It can be used in multiple feature spaces to

learn multi shape manifold spaces. It is effective and improves the accuracy in

43
manifold space. Li et al [53] have proposed a new shape based image retrieval on

Invariant Zernike Moments Descriptor (IZMD). The geometric moments are

translation invariance and scale of IZMD can be obtained. It is more accurate and

robust than a Zernike moment descriptor.

Fesharaki et al [54] have developed a shape features based on Bayesian rule

for medical X-ray image. The fourier descriptor, Invariant moments and Zernike

moments are the shape features extracted from an image. Fu et al [55] have developed

a morphological shape feature based on medical image retrieval. The shape histogram

and density histogram are the shape features extracted using SVM classifier. It

improves the recall, precision rate and classification accuracy. Khatabi et al [56] have

developed shape descriptor based on MPEG-7 using content based shape retrieval.

The angular radial transform and curvature scale space are the shape descriptors used

in this method. It is robust and rotation invariance.

Wang et al [57] have proposed a fast shape retrieval using hierarchical string

cuts. The rotation, scaling, and mirror invariant shape descriptor are used in

hierarchical string cut descriptor. It is efficient, fast and accurate for large database

retrieval. Murugan et al [58] have developed a shape feature based on an active model

with Speeded Up Robust Feature (SURF) algorithm for the 3D object model using

CBIR. It is efficient, efficiency, robustness, and good retrieval performance.

Sharma et al [59] have developed a shape feature based on SURF using CBIR.

It is robust, fast and improves the retrieval accuracy. Zhang et al [60] have proposed a

new method for local invariant shape features based on cartoon image retrieval.

Harris-Laplace corner is used for shape feature extraction technique. It is more

efficient and effective method. Li et al [61] have studied the shape feature extraction

44
based on Scale invariant feature transform for medical image retrieval. It reduces

clustering time and improves the retrieval accuracy.

3.5 A SURVEY ON BOTH TEXTURE AND SHAPE FEATURE

EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES USING CBIR

Choras et al [62] a novel method that integrates texture, color and shape

information using CBIR. The gabor is used for texture feature extraction method.

Color feature based on histograms, color moments in YUV space. Zernike moments is

used for shape feature extraction method are calculated. It is used for the application

of CBIR such as postal services. Iqbal et al [63] have proposed a texture, color and

shape features a new CBIR approach for biometrics based on controlled fuzzy

heuristics. Gabor filter is used for texture feature extraction method. Color histogram

is used for color feature extraction method. The Hu moment invariant is used for

shape feature extraction method. It is efficient and effective image retrieval in the area

of the biometric security.

Pujari et al [64] a novel method based on texture, color and shape features

within a multigrid framework using CBIR. Conditional co-occurrence histogram and

RGB color space are the combination of texture and color descriptor is performed.

Gradient vector flow is used for shape feature extraction method. It achieves higher

retrieval efficiency for content-based image retrieval system.

Ganar et al [65] have developed an enhancement of color, texture and shape

feature using CBIR. Color histogram is used for color feature extraction method. Co-

occurrence matrix is the texture feature method utilized. The gradient method is used

for shape feature extraction method. It is more robust and efficiency of content-based

image retrieval system. Gode et al [66] have developed an enhancement of color,

45
texture and shape feature method for CBIR. Co-occurrence matrix is used for texture

feature method calculated. Color histogram is used for color feature extraction

method. The Canny algorithm is used for edge detection to calculate the shape feature

method. It is efficient and achieves a high retrieval accuracy of CBIR.

Anantharatnasamy et al [67] have investigated that the fusion of texture, color

and shape feature method using CBIR. GLCM and Laws texture features are used for

texture feature extraction methods. Color space selection, quantization of color space

and color descriptor selection are the color feature extraction method utilized. Chain

codes method, area of an object, horizontal and vertical distances are the shape feature

extraction methods. It achieves high retrieval accuracy in content-based image

retrieval. The disadvantage of the method is used to improve the consistency using

relevance feedback.

Shrivastava et al [68] have presented an optimization method of HSV color

space, Zernike moments and DWT methods for CBIR. Gabor filter is used for

extracting the texture feature method. Color histogram and color correlogram are used

for extracting color feature methods. Zernike moment is used for extracting shape

feature method. SVM is the classification technique used to classify of an images. It

gives good accuracy of image retrieval. Wang et al [69] have presented a combination

of color, texture and shape for effective CBIR. Color quantization is used for

extracting the color feature method. Steerable filter decomposition is used for

extracting the texture feature method. The pseudo-Zernike moments is used for

extracting the shape feature method. It is efficient, more accurate and achieves high

retrieval rate.

Bagri et al [70] have developed a texture and shape feature extraction method

for CBIR. Tamura features and GLCM features are used for extracting texture feature

46
method. Hu-moment is used for extracting the shape feature method. K-Nearest

Neighbor classifier is the classification technique used to classify the images. It is

efficient and improves the retrieval time. Priya et al [71] presented fusion of texture,

color and shape feature extraction based on CBIR . Discrete wavelet transform is used

for extracting texture feature method. Enhanced HSV-based histogram is used for

extracting color feature method. Active contour model is used for extracting shape

feature method. It is more efficient and fast in image retrieval.

3.6 FEATURE SELECTION

Feature Selection is a process mainly used for the purpose of the machine

learning, which contains best subset the least number of dimensions that contributes

to get high accuracy. It is used to reduce the irrelevant image and unwanted

dimensions of an image [31].

3.6.1 A Survey on Feature Selection techniques using CBIR

Ibrahim et al [72] have studied the brain segmentation using Particle Swarm

Optimization (PSO) feature selection algorithm. It is used to solve the problem for

detecting abnormalities in human brain tissue. The disadvantage of the method that

the results in poor performance for dark abnormalities and produces low correlation

values. Jose et al [73] have developed bi-orthogonal wavelet filters based on content

based mammogram retrieval. Genetic algorithm and PSO are the feature selection

techniques used. PSO gives better results than genetic algorithm and improves

retrieval performance.

Syam et al [74] have presented an efficient approach based on genetic

algorithm using content based medical image retrieval. Genetic algorithm is used for

feature selection purpose. It is efficient and produces less computational time.

47
Yonekawa et al [75] have studied an image matching feature selection method based

on pulse coupled neural network using CBIR. Yuan et al [76] have proposed a

modified intersecting cortical model based on Pulse Coupled Neural Network

(PCNN) using CBIR. It is more linear and steady better than the intersecting cortical

model.

Benloucif et al [77] have studied feature selection for image search which is

based on CBIR. The greedy heuristic, genetic algorithm and tabu search are the three

feature selection technique used in this method. Wang image database is used for

evaluation of this approach. Chen et al [78] have presented feature selection based on

computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) using CBIR. The genetic algorithm is used for

feature selection method. The large number of features is extracted to solve the

problem of efficient image analysis.

Rashedi et al [79] have presented a feature selection method based on binary

gravitational search using CBIR. It solves the problem of irrelevant features and

reducing the semantic gap. It is efficient, higher retrieval accuracy and increases

precision rate. Zdziarski et al [80] have presented the feature selection method based

on content based image retrieval using visual saliency. SVM is used to classify the

SURF features. It is fast, efficient and good retrieval performance. Sun et al [81] have

presented a feature selection method and relevance feedback based on CBIR using

measure of inconsistency. It improves the retrieval performances and feedback.

3.7 CLASSIFICATION

Classification is the testing sample which can be assigned as a class of

knowledge gained by the classifier during training. The input pattern represented by a

vector to assign a specific task form one of many pre-specified classes.

48
 There are two types of classification namely;

 Supervised classification

 Unsupervised classification

3.7.1 Supervised classification

Supervised learning is machine language task which used to describe a

function from labeled training data. The training data have some set of training

examples. In supervised learning, the learner is provided with two sets of data, a

training set and test set. [82]. The main idea of the supervised learning is used to learn

from a set of labeled examples in the training set so that it can identify unlabeled

examples in the test set with highest possible accuracy. The supervised learning

methods such as decision trees, k-NN, linear regression, naïve bayes, logistic

regression and neural network, etc [83].

3.7.1.1 Supervised classification technique Using CBIR

Md Mahmudur et al [84] have proposed the probabilistic outputs of a

multiclass SVM classifier. SVM classifier is used for prediction of the query and

database images are exploited. The image category information is utilized directly to

filter out irrelevant images and adjust the feature weights in a linear combination of

similarity matching. Chinnasamy et al [85] have developed a medical image retrieval

based on fuzzy-based algorithm using classification techniques. The pruned tree

algorithm, naive bayes, and K-nearest neighbor are the classifier used in this method.

It achieves a good classification and improves the retrieval accuracy.

Shinde et al [86] have developed an efficient image retrieval methods based on

texture, color, and shape feature. SVM is used to classify the images. It is efficient,

49
less time complexity and increased retrieval accuracy. Abdulrazzaq et al [87] have

presented a medical image annotation based on classification techniques using content

based image retrieval. The classification techniques are K-nearest neighbor and SVM

are used to classify the images. It is effective and good classification accuracy.

Li et al [88] have proposed a both texture shape feature based on meticulous

classification using support vector machine for MR brain images. It reduces the

computational load and improves the retrieval accuracy. Cai et al [89] have presented

a new learning based distance metrics for medical image retrieval using regression

and classification technique. The weight learning method is used to classify the

images. It is simple, high effectiveness and efficiency.

Mina et al [90] proposed a medical decision support system. The medical

decision making system has been designed with normal and finding two certain

abnormalities. The techniques used to find images with tumor and image of multiple

sclerosis are the GLCM. The supervised learning methods like principal component

analysis and SVM which help in classifying the normal images and abnormal images.

3.7.2 Unsupervised classification

Unsupervised learning is machine learning task which is used to describe

hidden structure from unlabeled data. Example of unsupervised learning approaches

such as clustering, anomaly detection and neural networks etc [91].

3.7.2.1 Unsupervised classification technique Using CBIR

Thakare et al [92] have developed both color and texture features using Self-

organizing map classification. The Wang’s database is used for evaluation comprising

of total 1000 images including 10 categories. It increases accuracy and retrieval

performance. Yixin et al [93] have introduced new image retrieval scheme for

50
CLUster based rEtrieval (CLUE) of images. CLUE is the unsupervised learning

method used for classify the images. It improves retrieval accuracy and good cluster

quality.

Liu et al [94] have proposed a new relevance feedback method based on CBIR

using extreme learning machine classifier. It solves the problem of large number of

training samples evaluated. It achieves higher classification accuracy and much faster

than SVM classifier. Zakariya et al [95] have developed a combining of texture, color

and shape feature extraction for CBIR. CLUE and universal feature method is the

unsupervised learning algorithm used to classify the images. The COREL database is

used for evaluation comprising of total 1000 images.

3.8 SUMMARY OF THE CHAPTER

In this chapter, literature survey, feature extraction, A survey of texture

methods, A survey on texture feature extraction techniques using CBIR, A survey on

shape feature extraction techniques using CBIR, A survey on both texture and shape

feature extraction techniques using CBIR, feature selection, A survey on feature

selection technique using CBIR, Supervised classification, Supervised classification

technique using CBIR, Unsupervised classification and Unsupervised classification

technique using CBIR are reviewed. In the next chapter, performance of texture image

retrieval for MR Brain tumor images is discussed.

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