Springs

Politecnico di Torino Massimiliano Avalle
Dipartimento di Meccanica Massimo Rossetto
Springs
Outline
• Spring characteristic
• Types of spring (Italian: molla, German: feder)
– Torsion bar (or torsion spring, barra di torsione)
– Helical spring (or coil spring, molla ad elica cilindrica)
– Leaf spring (or laminated spring, molla a lamina & molla a balestra)
– Belleville spring (or spring washer, molla a tazza or molla Belleville)
– Spiral torsion spring (or hairspring or balance spring, molla a spirale)
– Compression spring and other types
• Spring systems
• Usage of springs
Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 1

Main Types of Springs
Helical spring for Helical spring for

Torsion bar Spiral torsion spring
compression tension
Belleville
Leaf spring Compression spring Volute spring
spring
Examples of Spring Applications

Suspension Systems
Helical spring (in a multilink Leaf spring (in a heavy

car suspension) vehicle suspension)

What are Springs?
• Springs are elastic members that exert forces or torques and

absorb energy (elastic potential energy) which is usually
stored and later released
• Springs are characterized by their capacity to be subjected to
very large elastic deformations under the action of external
loads
• Applications are various:
– Absorb shocks and impact, and instantaneous overloads
– Store (elastic) energy
– Connect parts
– Used as the sensing element in transducers of forces (load cells),
acceleration (accelerometers) and other quantities
Spring Rate
• It is the relation between force and displacement (or moment-

rotation)
• The characteristic parameter is the elastic constant or spring
stiffness k:
F=k×f M = kT × ϑ
– F (M) Force (Moment) (N) (N m)
– f (ϑ) Displacement (or deflection) (Rotation) (m) (rad)
– k (kT) Stiffness (Stiffness) (N/m) (N m/rad)
• For the case of linear characteristic, the stored energy is:
W = ½ F × f = ½ k f² = ½ F² / k
• (it is the area under the characteristic, F
stress-strain curve)

Spring Rate
Different Characteristics
• The characteristic can be of type:

– Linear
– Hardening
– Softening hardening
F (M)
linear
softening
f (θ )
Torsion Springs
Torsion Bar
Support, to
remove
Mt Fr bending clamp
τ max = = 3 d
wt πd 16
M tl Frl
θ= =
GI p G πd 4 32 r
32 Fr l
f = θr =
2
θ F
πd 4G l
Mt
F πGd 4 E
k= = , G= rigid
f 32r l2
2(1 + ν ) arm
f

Torsion Springs
Torsion Bar
• Torsion load (torque) is applied by means of a spline

• A wide fillet radius is necessary to avoid stress concentration
in the diameter variation
Torsion bar with splines at

the ends (type used in
automotive suspensions)
Spline
Wide fillet radius
Spline Citroën Traction Avant

(1935)
Torsion Springs
Torsion Bar
• Other solutions for the ends of torsion bars
• Typical configuration of a torsion bar

• Length AB works in torsion but
is also subjected to bending
• The supports make the system
hyperstatic reducing deflection

Helical Springs
Definitions
• They can be considered as torsion bars

helically wound around a cylinder of
diameter D = 2 r
• According to the direction of the load, α
p
they are improperly called:
– Tension Helical Springs
– Compression Helical Springs L0
• Spring deformation is mainly due to

torsion of the wire (like in torsion bar)
r
• Transverse shear and wire curvature are
taken into account by means of correction
coefficients applied to formulas
equivalent to the torsion bar
Helical Springs
Loads Acting on the Wire
• Load on the
V wire
D D
N M T = F cos α ≈F
N
2 2
V = F cos α ≈ F
F V
D
M = F sin α ≈ 0
• Definitions 2
N = F sin α ≈ 0
πD
Leq = N ≈ πDN equivalent length
cos α
D
C= spring index (typically 6 - 12)
d
N number of effective coils (excluding inactive ones)

Helical Springs
Formulas
• Corrections to the torsion bar formulas:
Fr 8 FD 8 FC
τ max = KW = KW = KW
πd 16
3
πd 3
πd 2
Fr 2 Leq 8 FD 3 N 8 FC 3 N
f = KW ' = KW ' = KW '
πd G 32
4
Gd 4
Gd
• For 6 ≤ C ≤ 12:
4c − 1 0.615
KW =
+ (Wahl factor) KW ' = 1
4c − 4 C
• For C < 6 the spring is too rigid and the material overstressed
• For C > 12 the spring is too compliant and the material poorly
used
Helical Springs
Formulas
4c − 1 0.615
KW = + (Wahl factor) KW ' = 1
4c − 4 C
1.8
1.7
1.6
Kw
1.5
Kw’
Kw, Kw’
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
0.9
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Renato Giovannozzi “Costruzione
di Macchine”, Vol. 1
C=D/d

Helical Springs
Meaning of Correction Factors
Torsion
Torsion bar,
bar, with
with straight
straight axis
axis
• Corrections due to curvature:

4c − 1 F ( D / 2 ) Torsion bar, with curvilinear axis
τ max,tors =
4c − 4 πd 3 16
F 0.615 F (D / 2 )
τ max,tors = 1.23 =
πd 4
2
C πd 3 16
Helical Springs
Effective Coils Number
• For a given value of the stiffness k the required effective

number of coils N can be obtained from the force-deflection
relation:
8 FC 3 N F Gd
f = KW ' = → k=
Gd k 8 KW ' C 3 N
• Since for 6 ≤ C ≤ 12 the Wahl factor KW’ for deflection is

negligible (≈1):
Gd Gd
k= → N=
8C 3 N 8C 3 k

Helical Springs
Spring Lengths
Helical Springs
Spring Lengths
• The (linear) elastic spring action must hold even at the

maximum design load
• To this aim, it is necessary not to bring the spring to its solid
height when all coils are packed together
• This is obtained by assuring that a minimum clearance
remains between each couple of coils:
LF max ≥ LS + g res i
d Residual clearance
g res ≈
4 between active coils
• Notice that when the length at maximum load LFmax and the
deflection fmax are defined, the free length L0 is determined
and, consequently, the pitch p

Helical Springs
Length under the Action of the External Load
Fmin
i gres Fs Fmax
Δf
L0
LFmin
Ls LFmax
Given d, i & k
Materials for Springs

Static Verification: Cold Formed Springs
d (mm) Rm (MPa)
High-strength Tempered Valve spring
non alloy steel spring steels steels
1 2266 1766 1668
8 FD 2 2021 1619 1521
τ nom = KW ≤ τ adm
πd 3 3 1825 1521 1432
4 1697 1481 1403
τ adm = 0.5 Rm 5 1599 1403 1344
6 1521 1403 1344
7 1452 1364 1305
8 1403 1295 -
9 1354 1295 -
Data from DIN 17223 10 1324 1256 -
Tempered Steels


Static Verification: Hot Formed Springs
Material Rm (MPa) Rp0.2 (MPa) A%

C40 1200-1550 1050 8
C60 1250-1550 1050 6
C70 1300-1600 1050 5
8 FD C75 1350-1600 1050 5
τ nom = KW ≤ τ adm
πd 3 C90 1350-1650 1100 4
R p 0.2 C100 1350-1650 1100 4
τ adm = 0.9 50Si7 1300-1600 1150 7
3
55Si8 1400-1700 1250 5
60SiCr8 1500-1750 1350 5
50CrV4 1400-1700 1250 6
52SiCrNi8 1600-1850 1350 5
Data from DIN 2076

High-carbon and Alloy Spring Steels
Table 10-4
Constants A and m of Sut = A / dm for estimating minimum tensile strength of common spring wires
Source: Design Handbook, 1987, p. 19, Associated Spring.
ASTM Exponent Diameter (mm) A, Relative Cost of

Material m
No. m minimum maximum MPa mm wire
Music wire A228 0.145 0.1 6.5 2211 2.6

OQ&T wire A229 0.187 0.5 12.7 1855 1.3
Hard-drawn wire A227 0.190 0.7 12.7 1783 1.0
Chrome-vanadium wire A232 0.168 0.8 11.1 2005 3.1
Chrome-silicon wire A401 0.108 1.6 9.5 1974 4.0
302 Stainless Wire A313 0.146 0.3 2.5 1867
0.263 2.5 5 2065 7.6-11.0
0.478 5 10 2911
Phosphor-bronze wire B159 0 0.1 0.6 926
0.028 0.6 2 913 8.0
0.064 2 7.5 932


Table 10.4
Graphical representation of data from the previous table
3500
3000
Minimum Tensile Strength (MPa)
2500
A228
2000 A229
A227
1500 A232
A401
1000 A313
B159
500
0
0 5 10 15
Wire diameter, d (mm)

From DIN 17223:1984
3000
2500
Tensile Strength (MPa)
2000
1500 Grade A
Grade B
1000 Grades C & D
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Wire diameter, d (mm)


Steels and other Materials
Table 10-5 Elastic Limit,
Percent of Sut Diameter
Material Properties of Material
(mm)
E (GPa) G (GPa)
some Spring Wires Tension Torsion
<0.8 203.4 82.7
0.8-1.6 200 81.7
Music wire A228 65-75 45-60
1.61-3 196.5 81
>3 193 80
<0.8 198.6 80.7
0.8-1.6 197.9 80
Hard-drawn wire A227 60-70 45-55
1.61-3 197.2 79.3
>3 196.5 78.6
Oil Tempered A239 196.5 77.2
85-90 45-50
Valve spring steel A230 203.4 77.2
Chrome-vanadium wire A231 203.4 77.2
88-93 65-75
Chrome-vanadium wire A232 203.4 77.2
Chrome-silicon wire A401 85-93 65-75 203.4 77.2
Stainless Steels
A313 65-75 45-55 193 69
17-7PH 75-80 55-60 208.4 75.8
414 65-70 42-55 200 77.2
420 65-75 45-55 200 77.2
431 72-76 50-55 206 79.3
Phosphor-bronze wire B159 75-180 45-50 103.4 41.4
Beryllium-copper B197 70 50 117.2 44.8
75 50-55 131 50.3
Inconel alloy X-750 65-70 40-45 213.7 77.2

Steels and other Materials
Table 10-6
Maximum Allowable Torsional Stresses for Helical
Compression Springs in Static Applications
Maximum Percent of Tensile Strength

Material Before Set Removed After Set Removed
(includes KW or KB) (includes KS)
Music wire and cold-
45 60–70
drawn carbon steel
Hardened and tempered
50 65–75
carbon and low-alloy steel
Austenitic stainless steel 35 55–65
Nonferrous alloys 35 55–65


Fatigue Verifications
• Fatigue verification follows general procedures
0.8
0.72 Estimated Haigh Diagram
0.7
0.6
0.54 Cycles
0.5
103
τa / Rm
0.4 0.39
104
0.3 105
0.29 106
0.2
0.1
0
Please note that: 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
τD-1 ≈ 0.58 σD-1 (σD-1 ≈ 0.5 Rm ) = 0.29… τm / Rm

Fatigue Behavior: Effect of Surface Treatments
• Fatigue strength depends strongly on the production process and surface

treatments
• Shot-peening strongly 800
affects fatigue strength
600
τa (MPa)
400 (345, 345)

Infinite life with
(255,255) shot-peening
200
Infinite life without
shot-peening 965
862
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
τm (MPa)

Fatigue Verification according to DIN 17223:2010

Cold Formed Helical Springs
• The verification is on the basis of an admissible stress amplitude:

8D
Δτ nom = KW ΔF ≤ Δτ adm
• With: πd 3
Δτ adm = bd Δτ 0 − btτ min
ΔF = Fmax − Fmin
8Fmin D
τ min = K s
πd 3
4C − 1 0.615
KW = + Wahl factor
4C − 4 C
Δτ 0 Tabulated limit value
bd , bt Tabulated coefficients
0.5 2C + 1
KS = 1+ = Shear - stress correction factor (10 - 4) Shigley
C 2C

Cold Formed Helical Springs
8D
Δτ nom = KW ΔF ≤ Δτ adm Δτ adm = bd Δτ 0 − bττ min
πd 3
High-strength Tempered spring Valve spring
non alloy steel steels steels
shot shot shot
peened peened peened
Δτ₀ (MPa) 390 490 315 410 450 570
bτ 0.22 0.2 0.2 0.18 0.27 0.26
d (mm) bd
1-5 1 1 1
6 0.95 1 1
7 0.91 0.97 0.97
8 0.88 0.92 -
10 0.83 0.89 -
12 0.78 1.89 -
14 0.75 2.89 -
17 0.69 - -


Hot Formed Helical Springs
8D
Δτ nom = K w ΔF ≤ Δτ adm
πd 3
Δτ adm Tabulated limit value for pulsating fatigue (Fmin = 0)
ΔF = Fmax − Fmin
4C − 1 0.615
KW = + Wahl factor
4C − 4 C
Shot-peened
Laminated steel Rectified steel
rectified steel
d (mm) Δτadm (MPa)
10 120 320 380
20 110 290 345
30 100 260 310
40 90 230 275
50 80 200 240
Cylindrical Helical Springs

Instability (ingobbamento)
• In helical springs in compression without lateral support

there is a critical load giving instability, equal to:

' C2' 
Fcrit = kycr = kL0C1 1 − 1 − 2 = kL0 K L
 λeff 

(10-10)
Fcrit 
' C2' 
ycr = = L0C1 1 − 1 − 2 = L0 K L
k  λeff 
• Where is: 
L
λeff = α 0 effective slenderness ratio
D
E 1 +ν
C1' = =
2(E − G ) 1 + 2ν (10-11)
2π (E − G )
2
1 + 2ν
C2' = =π2
2G + E 2 +ν


• For the validity of the equation (1) it is necessary that

the argument is positive:
F  C' 
ycr = crit = L0C1' 1 − 1 − 22  = L0 K L (10-10)
k  λ 
 eff 
• Absolute stability occurs when C2’ / λ2eff is greater than
unity. This means that the condition for absolute stability
is that:
L0 π (E − G ) π 1 + 2ν
< = (10-12)
D α 2G + E α 2 + ν
Table 10-2
End condition Constant α
End condition
constant α for helical Spring supported between flat parallel surfaces (fixed ends) 0.5
compression springs One end supported by flat surface perpendicular to spring axis
0.707
(fixed), other end pivoted (hinged)
Both ends pivoted (hinged) 1
One end clamped, other end free 2

• Critical load giving instability, equal to:
Fcrit = kL0 K L
• Practical values
Free ends (pivoted,

Clamped ends
or hinged)
L0 / D KL
1 0.72 0.72
2 0.63 0.71
3 0.38 0.68
4 0.20 0.63
5 0.11 0.53
6 0.07 0.38
7 0.05 0.26
8 0.04 0.19


Resonance (sfarfallamento)
• It occurs when a spring is subjected to alternate loads at a

frequency near the resonance frequency (frequenza propria)
of the spring itself:
gk m gk
ωm,spring = mπ f m,spring = m = 1,2,3...
W 2 W
• We are interested in the first frequency (Hz = 1/s):
1 gk d G
f1,spring = = (10-25)
2 W πD N 8 ρ2
• To avoid this problem, the spring resonance frequency must

be more than 15-20 times the frequency of the load
f1,spring ≥ (15 − 20 ) f load
• Note: the angular frequency ω (rad/s) is: ω = 2 π f = 2 π / T
(with T period, in seconds; f frequency in hertz, Hz = 1/s)
Helical Springs
Design Procedure
• It is an iterative process Tentative

• Usually, these data are known: choice
– Size of the seat ≈ D
– Deflection fmax and maximum load Fmax
– Sometimes maximum length LF,max modifications verification
No
ΔF Fmax Ok
1) Compute the Stiffness: k = =
Δf f max Stop
2) Chose a standard wire diameter (D / 12 < d < D / 7),

a material (Rm, Rp0.2), and a forming method
3) Compute C = D / d
4) Compute the maximum static stress:
8 Fmax D 8F C
τ max = KW = KW max2
πd 3
πd

Helical Springs
Design Procedure
5) Perform static check: Tentative

– If negative change d or the material choice
and come back to 3)
6) Perform fatigue check (if necessary):
– If negative change d or the material modifications
No
verification
and come back to 3)
Gd Ok
7) Compute the effective number of coils: N =
8C 3 k Stop
8) Compute the solid length Ls
9) Compute the length under maximum load (or the residual clearance):
LF max ≥ Ls + Ng res
10) Compute the free length (F = 0): L0 = LF max + f max
11) Check resonance frequency (if necessary)
12) Check instability (if necessary)
Spring Systems
Springs in Parallel
• Springs in parallel have the same deflection:
F1 = k1 f1 , F2 = k 2 f 2 F
f = f1 = f 2 , F = F1 + F2
F = (k1 + k 2 ) f = kf f
k = k1 + k 2 Equivalent stiffness
spring 1
spring 2
• The stiffness of a system of m
springs in parallel is given by:
m
k =  ki
i =1

Spring Systems
Springs in Series
• Springs in series have the same applied load:

F
F1 = k1 f1 , F2 = k 2 f 2
f = f1 + f 2 , F = F1 = F2
f
F F 1 1 F
f = 1 + 2 =  +  F =
k1 k1  k1 k 2  k spring 1
1 1 1
= + Equivalent stiffness
k k1 k 2
• The stiffness of a system of m spring 2

springs in parallel is given by:
1 m 1
=
k i =1 ki
Helical Springs
Extension Springs
• The critical point is the hook (bending+torsion)

• Small curvature radii bring high stress concentrations
Figure 10-6
Types of ends used
on extension springs
Figure 10-7
Ends for extension springs. (a) Usual design; stress at A is due to the
combined axial force and bending moment. (b) side view of part a, stress is
mostly torsion at B; (c) improved design; stress at A is due to combined axial
force and bending moment. (d) Side view of part c; stress at B is mostly torsion

Helical Springs
Extension Springs
• Extension spring are made with the coils in contact and preloaded during
construction. They require an initial force F0 before deformation occurs.
Usually F0 is chosen to have an internal stress of τi ≈ 15 MPa:
πd 2 πd 3
Fi = τi = τi
8C 8D
L0 = ( N + 1)d + 2 × 0.8 × Di Length at the interior of the hooks
• The force F required to have a specific value of displacement f is then:
Gdf
F= + Fi
8C 3 N
Figure 10-7
(a) Geometry of the force F and
extension y curve of an extension
spring; (b) geometry of the
extension spring; and (c) torsional
stresses due to initial tension as a
function of spring index C in
helical extension springs.
Variable Pitch Helical Springs

Tapered Helical Springs
• Are used to obtain non-linear characteristics (hardening or

softening)
p3
p2
p1

Helical Coil Torsion Spring
• The wire in torsion springs is in bending

• Used in clothespins, windows shades, animal traps,
counterbalance mechanisms, ratchets, etc.
Figure 10-9 Table 10-9
Torsion springs torsion springs (for D / d ratios up to and
including 16)
Total Coils Tolerance: ±Degrees*

Up to 3 8
Over 3 to 10 10
Over 10 to 20 15
Over 20 to 30 20
Over 30 25
* Closer tolerances on request
• The bending stress can be obtained from curved-beam theory:

Figure 10-10 32 M 32 Fl
The free-end location angle is β. The rotational σ = Ki / o = Ki / o
coordinate θ is proportional to the product F l. πd 3
πd 3
Its back angle is α. For all positions of the
moving end θ + α = Σ = constant 6M 6 Fl
σ = Ki / o 2 = Ki / o 2
bh bh
4C − C − 1
2
4C 2 + C − 1
Ki = Ko =
4C (C − 1) 4C (C + 1)
• The spring rate is computed by integration of the elastic deformation,

taking into account the number of coils Nb but also the length l1 and l1 of
the loading ends, computing an equivalent number of active turns Na:
Fl M d 4E l1 + l2
k= = = N a = Nb +
ϑt ϑt 64 DN a 3πD


Strength Verification
• Static strength: values in table 10-6 can be divided by 0.577 (from

distortion energy theory) to give:
0.78S ut Music wire and cold - drawn carbon steel

S y = 0.87 Sut OQ & T carbon and low − alloy steel (10-57)
0.61S
 ut Austenitic stainless steel and nonferrous alloys
• Fatigue strength: results using the Gerber fatigue-failure criterion and
results from Associated Spring, give equation 10-61 and data from table
10-10
 Sut 
2  2
Fs =
1 σa
  − 1 + 1 +  2 σ m S e   (10-61)
  S σ  
2 Se σm    ut a  
Table 10-10 Fatigue ASTM A228 and Type 302 ASTM A230 and A232
Maximum recommended life,
cycles Not shot-peened Shot-peened Not shot-peened Shot-peened
bending stresses for
helical torsion springs in 105 53 62 55 64
cyclic applications as
percent of Sut 106 50 60 53 62
Bending Springs
Cantilever Springs
• Used when the elastic element must work in limited space

• They behave as clamped plates, they are subjected to bending
• According to the shape (rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal)
they can have good utilization factors
• Material utilization factor of a spring is the ratio between the
energy stored in the spring and the theoretical (maximum)
amount of energy that can be stored in an equal volume of
material (subject to pure uniform tension)

Utilization Factor of Springs

Case Utilization factor, m
1/3
>1/9
<1/3
1/9
1/2
<1/2
Bending Springs
Rectangular Cantilever Spring
Mf Fx
σ= =
wf b0 h 2 6
Mf Fx l
dα = dx = dx b0
EI EI
F
l
Fx Fl 3 dx
f = x dx = x
0 EI 3EI h
3EI b0 h 3
k= , I=
l3 12

Bending Springs
Increasing Utilization of the Material
• Stress σ is not uniform and equal to the Fl

maximum value σmax: σ max ( x = l ) =
b0 h 2 6
• The spring utilization is not optimal
• It would be convenient to use a spring said to have uniform
strength, that is with constant value of σmax along the axis:
Fx
σ max = 2 = constant
bh 6
• This can be achieved by either:
1) Varying the thickness along the longitudinal axis
(parabolic spring) while maintaining constant width h2 ∝ x
2) Varying the width along the longitudinal axis
b∝ x
(triangular spring) and maintaining constant thickness
• The second option is generally preferred due to simpler manufacturing
Bending Springs
Triangular Cantilever Spring
x
b = b0
l
Fx Fl
σ= = = cost
x 2 b h 2
6
b0 h 6 0 b0
l
Fl 3
f = F
2 EI dx
2 EI b h3 h x
k= 3 , I= 0
l 12
• The utilization factor is much greater l
(1/3)
• The pointed end makes difficult the
load application: the trapezoidal
shape can be used

Bending Springs
Triangular Cantilever Spring (constructed)
b( x ) h 3 x
I ( x) = b( x ) = b0 Radius of curvature is
12 l constant: deformed
1 M Fx 12 Fl shape follows an arc of
= = = = constant
r EI Eb x h 3 12 Eb0 h 3 circumference
0
l
Bending Springs
Trapezoidal Cantilever Spring
3 3b0
α= =
2 + b0 ' b0 2b0 + b0 '
Fx Fl
σ= , σ max =
bh 6
2
b0 h 2 6 b0
Fl 3
f =α
3EI
dx F
3EI b h3
k= 3 , I= 0 h x
αl 12
l b0′
• The utilization factor is:
2αb0
9(b0 + b0 ')
• And tends to the value of (1/3) for b’0 → 0

Bending Springs
The Leaf Spring
• Can be considered deriving from a

couple of trapezoidal spring f/2
e/2
• It reduces the transverse space h d/2
with respect to the simple c/2
trapezoidal shape b/2
a
• It is made of overlapping leafs of
f
different length and with the same e b0 ′ b0 ′
width b’0 d
c 2
• Each leaf can be seen as two joined b
f
half-leafs symmetrical with respect e
a
to the middle d
c
• Originally called laminated or b b0 ′
carriage spring (balestra = 2l
crossbow) a
Bending Springs
The Leaf Spring
Elliptic shackle
tie hole or eye
axle
Semi-elliptic
rebound clip
¾ - elliptic
¼ - elliptic
Transverse

Bending Springs
Leaf Spring Analysis
• In a triangular cantilever spring the deformed shape is an arc of

circumference
• in the leaf spring it is reasonable to assume that the leafs maintain the
same behavior, and same deformation
• The total clamping moment is:
M = FL
• In each leaf, the applied moment is:
M
M leaf = n, number of leafs
n
• The stress in each leaf is then:
M leaf 6( M n) 6 FL
σ= = =
b0 / n
Wleaf (b0 n)h 2 b0 h 2

• The stress in each leaf is the same as the
equivalent trapezoidal equivalent
Bending Springs
Leaf Spring Design
• As a first approximation the evaluation of the maximum

stress and deflection can be referred to the equivalent
trapezoidal spring (n, number of leafs):
3 b0 ' 1 b0 h 3
α= , = → b0 = nb0 ' , I =
2 + b0 ' b0 b0 n 12
Fl 3 Fl 3EI
f =α , σ max = , k= 3
3EI b0 h 6
2
αl
• The error which is made is towards safety because both

deflection and maximum stress are overestimated

Bending Springs
Leaf Spring Design
• Correction for reduction of stress and deflection due to the non-linearity
% reduction of σ % reduction of f
14 20
b0' b0'
12 =0 18 =0
Triangular b0 b0
16 Triangular
shape shape = 0.2
10 = 0.2 = 0.4
14
= 0.4 12 = 0.6
8
= 0.6 10 = 0.8
6 = 0.8
8 b0'
b0' =1
4 =1 6 b0
b0
4
2 Rectangular Rectangular
2 shape
shape
Fl 2
0 Fl 2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 EI 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 EI
Belleville Springs
(molle a tazza or molle Belleville)
• Also known as coned-disc spring, conical spring washer, disc

spring, Belleville washers or cupped spring washer
d 2.0
h/s 0.00 0.50
1.00 1.41
1.8
t 1.6 2.00 2.50
2.83 3.50
h 1.4
1.2
F / F0
D 1.0
0.8
0.6
• Stiffness vary with displacement: 0.4

0.2
they are typical non-linear springs 0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
• Stiffness value is taken as the value f/h
at zero force
• Since a single disc spring is often too stiff, it is possible to have
more compliance by linking springs in series or in parallel

Belleville Springs
Usage in Series and in Parallel
Mixed = adaptive
Parallel = stiffer
Series = more compliant
Progressive
Coned-disc Springs
Clutch Discs and Other Applications

Miscellaneous Springs
Spiral Springs
• Loaded in bending; they are used in measurement devices

• Usually with rectangular wire section and archimedean profile
5 turns spring, external 5 turns
5 turns
spring,
spring,
external
external
5 turns spring end hinged endend
hinged
hinged
5 turns spring, external 5 turns spring, external

end hinged end hinged
5 turns spring,
Dimensionless Stifness
external end hinged
Rotation of central pin (rad)
Spiral Springs
• With a high number of turns (n > 4):
M = Pro or M = Pri
6M
σ= external end clamped
bh 2
12 Pro ro
σ= external end hinged
bh 2 ri
M MI a
k= =
ω El h
r2 − r2 h+a
l= o i m=
2m 2π
ro = ri + (h + a )n n=2¼

Friction Springs
• Made of a series of overlying thin rings of two types, alternated:

– Internal, with external tapered surfaces (internal surface cylindrical)
– External, with internal tapered surfaces (external surface cylindrical)
• Rings are in contact on the tapered surfaces
• When an external axial force F is applied, a contact pressure
develops between each couple of rings:
– The pressure expands the inner rings and contract the outer rings
– The rings slide, one with respect to the other
– The small axial slips, added altogether give the total displacement
Friction Springs
• Due to the relative displacements between the ring surfaces, friction

occurs
• The spring, once compressed (OA), does not return to its original shape
unless the force is reduced below a restore force FR (point B)
• The area OAB represent dissipated energy
• These springs are used in heavy duty situations under shock loading
• Parallel and serial arrangements are also possible
A Parallel arrangement Serial arrangement
B
O

Pure Compression Springs
• Exploiting the low elastic modulus of plastics it has been

possible to obtain pure compression springs
• They are usually made of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPUR,
also used for gaskets, O-rings, etc.)
• Advantages:
– High load capacity, long life
– Insulating materials, non-magnetic
– Resistance to wear
– High damping, noise reduction capability
• Disadvantages:
– low temperature range (from -30°C to +90°C)
Pure Compression Springs
• Typical compression spring characteristics

• Data can be obtained from the manufacturers catalogs
600 D.i = 4.3 mm; D.e = 17.5 mm 0.14 D.i = 4.3 mm; D.e = 17.5 mm
500 0.12
0.1
(MPa)
400
Stress (MPa)
(N)
Load (N)
0.08
Tensione
Forza
300
0.06
12.5 mm 12.5 mm
200
19.0 mm 0.04 19.0 mm
25.4 mm 25.4 mm
100 0.02
31.8 mm 31.8 mm
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Stroke(mm)
Corsa (mm) Strain (-) (m/m)
Deformazione

More Miscellaneous Springs
Figure 10-13 Figure 10-14

Constant-force spring A volute spring
• Wide, thin strip, or “flat,” of material

• Made of slightly curved strip steel, wound on the flat so that the coils fit
not flat, so that the force required inside one another. Since the coils
to uncoil it remains constant. This do not stack, the solid height of the
is equivalent to a zero spring rate. spring is the width of the strip
References and UNI (Italian) standards
[1] Bongiovanni, G., Roccati, G. Le molle - tipi e criteri di calcolo, Levrotto &
Bella, Torino, 1994
[2] Niemann, G. Elementi di Macchine, ETS, Milano (Springer, Berlino), 1983
[3] De Paulis, A., Manfredi, E. Costruzione di Macchine, Pearson Milano, 2012
• UNI 7900, Molle ad elica cilindrica di compressionee trazione, 1978-1981
• UNI 8525:1984 Molle ad elica cilindrica di compressione con filo a sezione
circolare. Caratteristiche costruttive e dimensionali
• UNI 8526:1984 Molle ad elica cilindrica di trazione con filo a sezione
circolare. Caratteristiche costruttive e dimensionali
• UNI 9061:1987 Molle ad elica cilindrica di torsione
• UNI 3961:1974 Prodotti finiti di acciaio laminati a caldo. Piatti rigati per
molle a balestra di rotabili di ferrovie, metropolitane e tranvie. Dimensioni
e tolleranze
• UNI 3962: 1974 Prodotti finiti di acciaio laminati a caldo. Piatti lisci per
molle a balestra ed a bovolo per rotabili di ferrovie, metropolitane e
tranvie. Dimensioni e tolleranze
• UNI 8736:1985 Molle a tazza. Tipi, calcolo e collaudo
• UNI 8737:1985 Molle a tazza. Caratteristiche costruttive e dimensionali

References: UNI EN & ISO standards
• UNI EN 10089:2003 Hot-rolled steels for quenched and tempered springs

• UNI EN 10270:2011 Filo di acciaio per molle meccaniche (parts 1-3)
• UNI EN 15800:2009 Molle ad elica cilindrica fabbricate con filo a sezione
circolare – Prescrizioni di qualità per molle di compressione con
avvolgimento a freddo
• UNI EN 13906:2003 Molle ad elica cilindrica fabbricate con filo a sezione
circolare e barra – Calcolo e progetto – Parte 1 Molle di compressione;
Parte 2 Molle di trazione; Parte 3 Molle di torsione
• UNI EN ISO 2162:1998 Documentazione tecnica di prodotto – Molle. Parte
1 Rappresentazione semplificata; Parte 2 Presentazione dei dati per le
molle ad elica cilindrica di compressione
References: DIN and other standards
• ISO 11891:2012 Hot formed helical compression springs – Technical

specifications
• ISO 26909:2009 Springs – Vocabulary
• ISO 26910-1:2009 Springs – Shot peening – Part 1: General procedures
• ISO/DIS 16249 Springs – Symbols (under development)
• ISO/CD 18137-1 Leaf springs – Part 1: Technical requirements and test
methods (under development)
• ISO 8458:2002 Steel wire for mechanical springs (parts 1-3)
• DIN 17221:1988 Hot rolled steels for springs suitable for quenching and
tempering - Technical delivery conditions (replaced by EN 10089:2003)
• DIN 17223:1984 Round steel wire for springs – Patented cold drawn,
carbon steel wire for springs
• DIN 2092 Disc springs - Calculation
• DIN 2093 Disc springs - Quality specifications - Dimensions
• DIN 6796 Conical spring washers for bolted connections

References: retired UNI standards
• UNI 3545:1980 Prodotti finiti laminati a caldo in barre e vergella di acciaio

legato speciale per molle bonificate. Qualità, prescrizioni e prove (ritirata,
sostituita da UNI EN 10089:2006)
• UNI 3823:1975 Prodotti finiti in acciaio non legato trafilati - fili per molle
(ritirata, sostituita da UNI EN 10270-1:2003)
• UNI 3871:1984, Prodotti finiti di acciaio laminatia caldo. Tondi e vergella
per molle. Dimensioni e tolleranze, 1984 (ritirata senza sostituzione)
• UNI 3960:1974 Prodotti finiti di acciaio laminati a caldo. Piatti lisci per
molle a balestra ed a bovolo (ritirata, sostituita da UNI EN 10092-1:2004)
• UNI 7064:1982, Prodotti finiti piatti laminati a freddo di acciaio speciale
non legato e legato. Nastri per molle. Qualità, prescrizioni e prove (ritirata,
sostituita da UNI EN 10132-4:2002 & UNI EN 10132-1:2002)

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Politecnico di Torino Massimiliano Avalle

Dipartimento di Meccanica Massimo Rossetto

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 1

Main Types of Springs

Helical spring for Helical spring for

Examples of Spring Applications

Helical spring (in a multilink Leaf spring (in a heavy

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 2

What are Springs?

• Springs are elastic members that exert forces or torques and

• It is the relation between force and displacement (or moment-

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 3

• The characteristic can be of type:

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 4

• Torsion load (torque) is applied by means of a spline

Torsion bar with splines at

Spline Citroën Traction Avant

• Other solutions for the ends of torsion bars

• Typical configuration of a torsion bar

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 5

• They can be considered as torsion bars

• Spring deformation is mainly due to

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 6

• Corrections to the torsion bar formulas:

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 7

• Corrections due to curvature:

• For a given value of the stiffness k the required effective

• Since for 6 ≤ C ≤ 12 the Wahl factor KW’ for deflection is

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 8

• The (linear) elastic spring action must hold even at the

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 9

Materials for Springs

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 10

Materials for Springs

Material Rm (MPa) Rp0.2 (MPa) A%

Materials for Springs

ASTM Exponent Diameter (mm) A, Relative Cost of

Music wire A228 0.145 0.1 6.5 2211 2.6

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 11

Materials for Springs

Materials for Springs

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 12

Materials for Springs

Materials for Springs

Maximum Percent of Tensile Strength

Austenitic stainless steel 35 55–65

Nonferrous alloys 35 55–65

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 13

Materials for Springs

• Fatigue verification follows general procedures

Materials for Springs

• Fatigue strength depends strongly on the production process and surface

400 (345, 345)

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 14

Fatigue Verification according to DIN 17223:2010

• The verification is on the basis of an admissible stress amplitude:

Fatigue Verification according to DIN 17223:2010

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 15

Fatigue Verification according to DIN 17221:1988

Cylindrical Helical Springs

• In helical springs in compression without lateral support

Fundamentals of Machine Design and Drawing 16

Cylindrical Helical Springs