RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process

A Review of

Brain Function and Adult Learning:

Implications for Practice

Jonathan West

ADLT 603, Spring 2010

Instructional Strategies for Adult Learners

Virginia Commonwealth University

Dr. Gretchen Schmidt

Due: 11 Mar 2010

RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process

Overview of article

The article “Brain function and adult learning: Implications for practice” by Kathleen

Taylor (2006) seeks to connect the functioning of the brain with adult learning methods primarily

associated with meaningful learning. The author defines meaningful learning and then examines

different learning practices and conditions which she suggests contribute towards it. The practices

the author explores in this context are constructivism and experiential learning; narrative, journals,

autobiography, and writing-to-learn; nonveridical learning; and transformational learning and

reflection. The author then reviews the role of emotion and how it can influence learning and

explores the act of teaching as care.

Meaningful Learning

Taylor references neuroscience’s observation that learning at the synaptic level is always about

creating lasting neural connections or memory. She notes that this definition could also apply to

behavioral training involving stimulus and reward as well as learning involving the creation of

meaning through self-reflection. The author chose to focus on meaningful learning, specifically

learning that promotes greater cognitive complexity, “in other words, learning that changes not just

what people know but how they know” (original emphasis, Taylor, 2006, p. 72) Taylor’s interest is

in changes that go beyond the acquisition of specific content for a learner and connect with the

overarching goals of adult learning. Some of these goals are described as the realization that

knowledge is constructed rather than gotten or given; the understanding that development and

learning are valuable life-long aspirations; and the capacity to examine one’s own beliefs. Taylor

suggests that educators that have a developmental interest will be better able to help their learners

comprehend and take effective action to the challenges and conditions of a global world. A key
RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
premise for the article is that recent findings in brain research appear to link best practices in adult

learning to the following practices.

Constructivism and Experiential Learning

Recent brain research (although there are opposing views) confirms the basic premise of

constructivism – that learning is formed in the mind of the learner. While there are many elements

from the outside that contribute such as lectures, books, and media as well as sociocultural

influences, Taylor suggests that if such “data are not connected to neural networks as meaningful

information they are not really learned, in the sense that information is useful for little but recall”

(Taylor, 2006, p. 73). Data that have limited meaning, and therefore limited neural pathways, are

most often only accessible for recall for a short timeframe. There are exceptions to this

generalization found in rote learning like math tables or mnemonics. However, in order for

learning to be meaningful and lasting together, according to how the brain represents images, it

should be experienced.

Taylor then connects neuroscience’s view on the brain’s architecture suggested by James

Zull to David Kolb’s learning cycle. Zull portrays the brain design that supports four cornerstones

of learning which he calls “gathering, reflecting, creating, and testing” (Taylor, 2006, p. 73). Zull’s

four pillars correspond to the four stages in Kolb’s learning cycle, concrete experience, reflective

observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. Zull suggests, “a teacher must

start with the existing networks of neurons in a learner’s brain, because they are the physical form

of her prior knowledge” (in Taylor, 2006, p. 73). This first step corresponds with Kolb’s stage of

concrete experience.

However, most instructors introduce new content to adult learners in a way that seems

more like a literature review – starting with the big picture, placing it in context with the wider
RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
field of their expertise, and then focusing on specifics. They then show the connections to previous

course material and relate it to what will follow. In such cases, rather than concentrating on what

the learner understands, instructors concentrate on what they themselves understand, and assume

that the learner is moving in that direction. In these situations the learner’s concrete experience is

likely just listening to the instructor make meaning. Taylor points out that “if adult learners are not

given the opportunity to create such an experience or encouraged to find existing connections that

they can build on, they may revert to treating the material as something to be memorized rather

than understood” (Taylor, 2006, p. 74).

Research suggests that the brain symbolizes experience and that doing comes before

understanding, especially in the development of thought. Interactions with the world through our

biological, psychological, and social systems do not entail direct transmission of information. First

we much make meaning of the information before it develops into our own. Taylor suggests that

based on the findings of brain functioning, it would be more effective to start with an experience

than starting with the instructor’s ‘big picture’. This would allow the adult learner to ‘back into’

new material rather than confront it head-on with very little context (Taylor, 2006).

A thoughtfully structured activity facilitated by the educator could allow the learners to

draw out a framework from their common experience that informs an assignment to read relevant

theories on a subject. The course texts or materials would then become an expansion of the

learning already embodied, first from their own experience and then from the shared experience of

the facilitated class activity. Such and experience that anticipates connections between what adult

learners know already – that is, what they have experienced through their bodies and minds – and

new material is more probable to help them move from passive to active readers. In a sense, their

synapses have been primed so further study is more than just a task, but rather likely to be of

interest (Taylor, 2006).

RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
People who already have an expertise of a specific subject would have extensive neural

networks based on prior experiences and it could be just as effective to connect to new information

through listening to a lecture, reading, or even just thinking as having a more concrete experience.

As a result of this the author proposes that experienced-based learning strategies are not confined

to introducing new material. Learning can be enhanced by activities that utilize tacit or prior

knowledge. One category of such activities is founded on personal narrative and writing-to-learn

(Taylor, 2006).

Narrative, Journals, Autobiography, and Writing-to-Learn

Taylor looks at the four teaching and learning tools of narrative, journals, autobiography,

and writing-to-learn a group because they all are characterized by learning through articulation.

These four approaches are considered forms of the narrative process. The article links these

approaches to how the brain changes and learns. The focus in this section points out how narrative

based learning methods build and rebuild neural networks integrating thoughts, feelings,

sensations, and behaviors. One feature of these approaches is to increase self awareness through

making explicit aspects of the self that were previously implicit or hidden. As a result more

inclusive and flexible ways of knowing are developed. Another feature of using one of the forms of

narrative is that by telling and retelling our stories there is the possibility of editing our narratives

and potentially finding new ways of experiencing ourselves and our lives. By telling a different

story there is the possibility of changing perceptions of the self. This can be a powerful influence

on the way we are and who we become (Taylor, 2006).

Nonveridical Learning

The author points out that most teaching concentrates on veridical learning or getting the

correct answers to problems which have been designed for that purpose. Brain research suggests

that getting precise answers uses a different part of the brain than choices involving interpretation,
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approximation, and comparison. Looking for exact answers uses the part of the brain associated

with memory and the concrete past. Whereas exploring open-ended problems with many possible

solutions – the kinds of problems likely to occur in the real world – requires reflection and uses a

part of the brain that makes choices, plans, and decisions and looks imaginatively towards the

future which. Using approaches such as case studies and problem-based learning that include

reflection on learning as a process are likely to increase neural network development (Taylor,

2006).

Transformational Learning and Reflection

Neuroscience assumes that optimal health and functioning are linked with the

communication and integration of neural systems dedicated to sensation, cognition, behavior, and

emotion. Psychology considers that integration is the capacity to experience life using a minimum

of defensiveness. According to Mezirow, transformational learning can lead to points of view that

are increasingly, “inclusive, discriminating, and integrative of experience [as well as open] to

alternative perspectives” (Mezirow in Taylor, 2006, p. 79).

Transformational learning focuses on practices that make meaning based on discourse and

critical reflection. A significant aspect of such reflective learning is to discover and challenge one’s

own and others assumptions as a stage in developing new meaning perspectives. New meaning

perspectives can lead to more complex ways of knowing and understanding. Neuroscience

suggests that the process of developing new meaning most likely occurs in the ‘executive brain’

where it can manipulate and transform models of the world it has created. The work of questioning

assumptions is different than simply acquiring knowledge or modifying behavior. It can ultimately

lead to more compelling choices for a learner. However, developing different perspectives is often

in contrast to the continuity that is prized by communities, cultures, and families.

RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
A key factor in transformational learning that develops more complex neural functioning

and thinking is to reflect on and question presuppositions. Taylor suggests that learning situations

must be constructed to include such premise reflection. In today’s world of constant change and

challenge learning that is meaningful, substantive, and lasting and can alter how people understand

themselves and their world. This type of learning can be a transformative catalyst, bringing a

learner into greater self-awareness and greater awareness of their relation to the wider world

(Taylor, 2006).

The Role of Emotion and Teaching as Care

Brain research suggests that emotions are integrally connected with learning. If the brain is

activated in a positive way, emotions can enhance learning. However, if there is perceived threat

then emotions will be activated that will cause the brain to be less available for learning. Long-

term memory is especially influenced by emotions. Memory is the representation of emotion

connected with experience. If negative emotions such as anxiety or defensiveness are present, the

neural networks connected with the higher brain functions will not perform effectively. If higher

brain functions are not working the possibility for changes in our ways of knowing are limited. “A

safe and empathic relationship establishes emotional and neurobiological context conducive to the

work of neural reorganization. It serves as a buffer and scaffolding within which [an adult] can

better tolerate the stress required for neural reorganization” (Cozolino in Taylor, 2006, original

emphasis, p. 82).

Larry Daloz characterizes the relationship of learner and teacher in the following account:

“When we no longer consider learning to be primarily the acquisition of knowledge, we can no

longer view teaching as the bestowal of it. If learning is about growth and growth requires trust,

then teaching is about engendering trust, about nurturance – caring for growth. Teaching is thus

preeminently an act of care” (Daloz in Taylor, 2006, p. 82). However, this nurturance and care
RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process
needs to involve adequate challenge. The nurturing atmosphere is also described as a ‘holding

environment,’ the environment on which all development relies (Taylor, 2006).

My reaction to the article

I found the article to be fascinating in that it helped to connect some different areas of

interest and experiences that I have had. I have had an ongoing interest in experiential and

transformative learning as well as the reflective process and the importance of positive climate.

While the literature has espoused the value of these practices and there has been research to

support these ideas, neuroscience seems to give more substance to the relevance of and

interrelatedness of each.

For example, I have used a modified Kolb cycle in the design of some experiential learning

activities. The piece mentioned in the article about having learner’s connect with their prior

experience before introducing new material or concepts confirmed some of my own experiences. I

have found that creating an activity that connects an individual learner with their own prior

experience as well as the experiences of others in the group, helps to engage learners in an active

way and prepare them for exploring new material. I have also seen that creating an atmosphere of

respect and trust seems to allow learners to be more open to alternate perspectives and even

question their own assumptions. While adult learning theory and literature proposes some of the

points made in the article, I often had intuitive evidence based on my own experience of the value.

While it is encouraging to find the research in neurobiology to support key principles of

adult learning relating to deeper meaning making, I do have a little hesitancy in fully accepting the

articles conclusions, despite my own interest. I think this questioning encourages my interest to

read some the recently published findings on the neurobiology of learning and also see if there are

any opposing views.

RUNNING HEAD: Review of Developing Authenticity as a Transformative Process

How I can use the information in my teaching

There are several ways I can use the information in Taylor’s article in my teaching. The

first would to consider how to include more experiential activities in curriculum design. A second

point that I will take from this article is to incorporate the questioning of premises, discussion, and

critical reflection into learning events. Another key idea that I will explore how to utilize is the use

of various forms of narrative. The last main point is to consider further how to put into practice

teaching as an act of care. A important aspect to see that any of the above interests actually come to

some fruition is for me to engage in critical self-reflection.

I know that I have interests in putting into action the practices mentioned above, however, I

realize that there may be some of my own assumptions or presuppositions that could hinder this

interest. The continued practice of discussion, critical reflection, and critical self-reflection will

help to ensure the possibility of incorporating some of the practices from Taylor’s article in the

portfolio of curriculum design options.

References

Taylor, K. (2006). Brain Function and Adult Learning: Implications for Practice. New Directions

for Adult and Continuing Education,110, p.71-85. DOI: 10.1002/ace.221