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Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
DOI 10.1007/s12572-017-0187-4
Analytical procedures for design of strain softening and hardening
cement composites
Yiming Yao1 • Xinmeng Wang2 • Karan Aswani3 • Barzin Mobasher1
 Indian Institute of Technology Madras 2017
Abstract Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) can be designed
to exhibit pronounced ductility, energy absorption capac-
ity, post-cracking strength depending on the fiber type and
volume fraction. FRC have been classified into two cate-
gories, namely, strain softening and strain hardening
cement composites (SSCC and SHCC). SSCC and SHCC
are ultra-ductile class of materials developed for applica-
tions in the large material volume usage in the cost sensi-
tive construction industry. Strain hardening behavior can
be obtained by adding relatively low volume (typically
\2%) of randomly distributed fibers and demonstrates a
well formed distributed crack system. Mechanical proper-
ties under uniaxial tensile, flexural, and shear tests indicate
superior performance such as tensile strength as high as
25 MPa, and strain capacity of 1–8%. Development of
proper design and analysis tools are very essential to fully
utilize these materials. Several approaches are presented in
this paper for analysis, simulation, back-calculation, and
design of strain softening and strain hardening cement
composite systems, and are applicable to all classes of
SSCC and SHCC such as steel fiber reinforced concrete,
& Barzin Mobasher
barzin@asu.edu
Yiming Yao
yiming.yao@asu.edu
Xinmeng Wang
xinmeng.wang@asu.edu
Karan Aswani
kaswani1@asu.edu
1
School of Sustainable Engineering and Built Environment,
Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-8706, USA
2
DiGioia Gray & Associates, Tempe, AZ 85282, USA
3
PK Associates, Scottsdale, AZ 85250, USA
IIT, Madras
textile reinforced concrete, and ultra-high performance
fiber reinforced concrete.
Keywords Cementitious composites 
Distributed cracking  Textile reinforced concrete 
Strain hardening  Fiber-reinforced concrete  Toughness 
Design
1 Introduction
The high level of strength, ductility, and versatility attained
in the general field of strain hardening cement composites
(SHCC) has been observed for a broad range of composites
such as: textile reinforced concrete (TRC), high perfor-
mance fiber reinforced concrete (HPFRC), and ultra-high
performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC). This
strain hardening behavior improves the durability of con-
crete structures due to the ability to limit the width of
cracks and carry tensile stresses due to bridging effect of
fibers [1]. A variety of fiber and fabric systems such as
Alkali resistant (AR) glass fibers, polypropylene (PP),
polyethylene (PE), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) have been
utilized for the manufacture of SHCC [2–4]. While these
composites are manufactured differently, their mechanical
responses are under the general category of strain harden-
ing or deflection hardening.
The general strain hardening behavior of cement com-
posites is illustrated in Fig. 1, representing the tensile stress–
strain and crack spacing-strain responses. The initial
response is linear elastic up to about 3 MPa when the first of a
series of parallel cracks takes place. The mechanism of
multiple cracking is due to load transfer to the fibers or fabric
layers across the crack [5]. As multiple cracking takes place,
the stiffness of the sample significantly drops while the crack
123

Fig. 1 Tensile stress–strain and crack spacing-strain responses of
AR-Glass and PE fabric composites [7]
spacing continuously decreases to a saturation level. Similar
behavior is obtained from a range of fiber, fabric, and cement
composites. The post crack stiffness and the ultimate strain
capacity are functions of fiber type, stiffness, and bonding
characteristics. The reduced stiffness in the post crack region
is used in the analytical formulation [6].
2 Strain-softening and hardening composite model
The general behavior of strain softening cement compos-
ites (SSCC, SHCC, and UHPFRC) systems have be sim-
ulated by a tri-linear model representing a generalized
elastic-quasi-plastic parametric tensile and compression
responses as shown in Fig. 2 [8]. Tensile response is
defined by tensile stiffness (Young’s Modulus) E, first
crack tensile strain ecr, transition strain etrn, and post crack
Fig. 2 Material models for
SHCC and SSCC:
a compression model, and
b tension model
123
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
modulus Ecr. Note that by normalizing all parameters by
minimum number of independent and dimensionless vari-
ables, tensile response uses only two intrinsic material
parameters E and ecr, therefore the softening or residual
range is defined by a constant stress level lEecr, and the
compressive strength rcy = xcEecr (Table 1).
Material parameters required for the SSCC and SHCC
are summarized as follows: a, l, g, x are defined respec-
tively as normalized tensile strain at peak strength, residual
tensile strength, post-crack modulus, and compressive yield
strength. Material parameters required for the simplified
models are summarized in Table 1.
The independent variable is defined in terms of the
applied tensile strain at the extreme fiber b or the com-
pressive strains at extreme fiber k as a multiplier of the first
cracking strain. Both these variables are linearly related
through the depth of neutral axis and compared with the
parameterized material property, which verify the status of
stress and strain in various formulations. Since the com-
pressive strength in a typical SHCC is much higher than
tensile strength, the flexural capacity is easier defined by
means of the tensile variable. Subsequently, the cross
sectional analysis can be conducted following the sequence
of stress profiles, integration of normal stress to obtain
force terms and summation of moment terms contributed
by compressive and tensile forces [8]. Closed-form solu-
tions of moment–curvature responses are explicitly derived
and summarized in Table 2, which address the interactions
among different stages in tension and compression models.
The normalized curvature j is related to normalized tensile
strain b and neutral axis depth ratio k, which is calculated
as ji ¼ b=½2ð1  ki Þ. The detailed derivations for strain
softening, strain hardening FRC as well as hybrid rein-
forced concrete (HRC) section containing both rebar and
fibers can be found in [8–11]. These equations can be
further simplified using polynomial or power curve fitting
with detailed applications for individual cases presented in
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math

Table 1 The normalization of material constitutive parameters

Property Parameter

Cracking tensile strain ecr ¼ rEcr

epeak
Normalized tensile strain at peak strength a¼ ecr
Ec
The ratio of compressive and tensile modulus c¼ E
Normalized post-crack modulus g ¼ EEcr
r r
Normalized yield compressive strain x ¼ Eecycr ¼ rcycr
et
Normalized tensile strain at bottom fiber b ¼ ecr
Normalized compressive strain at top fiber k ¼ eecrc

Table 2 Neutral axis depth ratio k, normalized moment mi and curvature ji for each stage i of normalized tensile strain at bottom fiber (b)
Stage ki mi and ji
2b½ðc1Þk13 þ3k12 3k1 þ1
1 k1 ¼ 12 for c ¼ 1. m1 ¼ 1k1
pffiffi
0\b B 1 1þ c
k1 ¼ 1þc for c \1 or c [ 1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b2 cþD21  c2 b4 þD21 cb2 3
ð2bcþC21 Þk21 2
3C21 k21 þ3C21 k21 C21
2.1 k21 ¼ D21 m21 ¼ 1k21
1\b B a   C21 ¼ 2gb3 þ3gb2 3b2 gþ1
D21 ¼ g b2  2b þ 1 þ 2b  b2 c  1 b2
0\k B x
2.2 k22 ¼ D22 Dþ2xcb
22 2
m22 ¼ ð3xc þ C22 Þk22  2C22 k22 þ C22
 2  3
3gb2 þ3b2 x3 cþg1
1\b B a D22 ¼ g b  2b þ 1 þ 2b þ x2 c  1 C22 ¼ 2gb b2
x \ k B kcu pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
D31  cb2 D31 3
ðC31 2bcÞk31 2
3C31 k31 þ3C31 k31 C31
3.1 k31 ¼ D31 b2 c
m31 ¼ k31 1
2 3ðlb2 la2 ga2 þa2 Þþ2ga3 þg1
a \ b B btu D31 ¼ gða  2a þ 1Þ C31 ¼ b2
0\k B x þ2lðb  aÞ þ 2a  1
3.2 k32 ¼ D32 Dþ2xcb
32
m32 ¼ ðC32 þ 3xcÞk32 2
 2C32 k32 þ C32
2 2 3ðlb2 la2 ga2 þa2 Þþ2ga3 x3 cþg1
a \ b B btu D32 ¼ x c þ ga C32 ¼ b 2

x \ k B kcu þ2ðlb  ga  la þ aÞ þ g  1

[2]. An example of design procedure using simplified (b) cross sectional elastic-softening/hardening analysis, and
solutions is illustrated in this paper. (c) yield line analysis.

3.1 Ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability

3 Limit based LRFD (load and resistance factor
design) design guidelines
An approach is presented for the analysis and design of 1-D
beam and 2-D panel flexural members to address square,
rectangular, or circular slabs with simple-support, free, or
fixed edge boundary conditions. The ductility observed in
the post-crack flexural response of SSCC and SHCC allows
the materials to sustain large deflections after cracking. In
many cases, the ultimate moment capacity can be used as a
limit state design criteria for these materials. The problems
can be defined in the context of three interacting compo-
nents of (a) statically determinate/indeterminate systems,
limit state (SLS) design
The analysis and design of a statically determinate or
indeterminate flexural member can be conducted using the
principals of limit analysis. Several cases are presented to
address three-point and four-point bending, as well as 2-D
plates with distributed load using a plastic analysis
approach [12]. From an LRFD perspective, the reduced
capacity of a section must be greater than the ultimate
moment Mu due to factored loading. The nominal moment
capacity of a flexural member Mn is reduced by parameter
/r as the reduction factor taken as 0.85–0.9, as stipulated
by ACI Sec. C.3.5. [12]:

123

/r Mn  Mu ð1Þ
The development of Yield Line Theory for plates in
concrete structures is attributed to Johansen [13, 14]. One
of the main drawbacks of this approach is lack of specific
guidelines for making accurate deflection calculations,
especially as the load increases to reach the limit state.
Practical publications [15] on yield line analysis of slabs
relate the section properties to the capacity of one-way,
two-way, panels, thin structural members and flat slabs.
Yield line conditions represent an upper bound approach
and are sufficiently conservative such that with full
ultimate state safety factors, failure modes are
predictable and catastrophic modes can be avoided.
Serviceability limits are defined in terms of allowable stress,
strain, curvature or crack width. In order to simplify the prob-
lem, equations using idealized bilinear tension and elastic
compression models as shown in Fig. 3 are employed by dis-
regarding the post-peak ranges in tension and plasticity in the
compression region such that only one set of equations domi-
nates the response. As other modes are allowed, the service-
ability limits will be determined from individual cases and
should be analyzed in terms of the allowable design space.
3.2 Deflection computation using a bilinear
moment–curvature assumption
Various solution strategies are available to obtain closed-
form solutions to the load–deflection responses. Three
components of the problem include the moment–curvature,
equilibrium, and the curvature–displacement relationship.
The moment–curvature relationship can be represented in
various forms of bilinear, tri-linear, or curve fit form
Fig. 3 Serviceability based
strain limits for strain hardening
FRC: a tension, and
b compression
123
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
[2, 10, 16, 17]. Secondly, in order to obtain load–deflection
calculations using the moment-area method, two approa-
ches can be applied to the slope deflection equation: direct
integration and polynomial/piecewise integration of lin-
earized segments as discussed in [8, 10]. Alternatively, one
can use a parameterized moment–curvature relationship for
a generalized solution [16]. The equilibrium solution can
be obtained using the principal of virtual work in the
context of upper bound plasticity approach to compute the
failure mode and the deformation patterns.
Steps of applying the slope deflection method to the
moment–curvature data in the calculation of load–deflection
response were developed in detail for strain hardening [9]
and softening type composites [10]. For a given set of
material properties, normalized tensile strain b is used to
generate the moment–curvature response in Stages 2 and 3 as
given in Table 2, where the condition for compressive stress
k \ x or k [ x is verified in advance. Using the equilibrium
condition of moment across the length of the specimen, the
curvature distribution is obtained. The deflection at mid-span
is calculated by numerical moment-area method applied to
the curvature distribution between the support and mid-span.
This procedure is applied at each load step until a complete
load deflection response is obtained.
Alternatively, if the curvature distribution is represented
as a linear or a polynomial profile, direct integration can be
used for closed-form solutions. The alternative approach
bypasses the strain distribution and uses nonlinear curve
fitting to the entire moment curvature relationship [2].
Parameter based fit equations allow for combining Stages
2.1 and 3.1 by curve fitting the two closed-form deriva-
tions. Results are applicable within 1% accuracy of the
closed-form results [2].
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math

Fig. 4 Simplified parametric

moment–curvature relationship:
a bilinear representation, and
b dimensionless moment–
curvature curve represented as
variables (j, m)

3.3 Parameterized moment–curvature relationship The mid-span deflection is obtained directly using the
double integration of curvature distribution while the
Parametrized bilinear moment–curvature model as a constant terms are evaluated by imposing boundary
simplification of the closed-form solutions has been conditions and ensuring the continuity of displacement
derived and proposed as a practical design tool [18]. fields [16]. Full range deflection distributions along the
Figure 4 presents the idealized parametric moment–cur- beams were derived for various configurations including
vature response as a bilinear function that includes an simply support and cantilever beams and loading types
elastic and a post-cracking stages, which are referred to as such as point load/moment, distributed load etc. In the
Stages 1 and 2. The bilinear model is defined by two present study, the analytical expressions of the mid-span
control points (ucr, Mcr) and (up, Mp). The linear elastic deflections for 3 PB and 4 PB are presented for elastic
range is characterized by the slope of EIg and extends up (Stage 1) and cracked (Stage 2) stages:
to the first flexural cracking (ucr, Mcr), as defined in Eq. 2. j
d1 ¼  u L2
The post-crack region has a reduced stiffness EIcr and 12 cr 
3PB : u L ðj  1ÞL ð2Le  LÞj L2e ðL  2jLe Þ
2
extends to the ultimate flexural capacity (up, Mp), beyond d2 ¼ cr þ þ
which it is modeled using the limit state plastic hinge L  2Le 24 8 6L2
formation. ð5Þ
One can terminate the response at specified maximum,  2 
a L2
curvature, tensile or compressive strain or any limit state d1 ¼ jucr 
criterion. The fully plastic stage is defined by a constant 6 8   

4PB : d ¼ 1 3Le 3jLe j

moment level, Mp: 2 þ1  1 þ j  ucr L2
54 L L 8
MðuÞ ¼ EIg u 0u
Mp  Mcr ð2Þ
MðuÞ ¼ ðu  ucr Þ þ Mcr ucr  u ð6Þ
up  ucr
where Le ¼ ma referring to the length of elastic region, and
In order to normalize the parameters as illustrated in a is the shear span of 4 PB beam.
Fig. 4b, Mcr and ucr are used as the first cracking
coordinates (1, 1) at the end of Stage 1 and coordinates
(jp , mp) represent the transition from Stages 2 to 3 (see 4 Application of yield line theory: load deflection
Eq. 3). Stage 2 is defined in Eq. 4 using variables m and j: response for 2D panels
MðuÞ u Mp up
mðjÞ ¼ ; j¼ ; mp ¼ ; jp ¼ ð3Þ Yield line design is based on the application of principal of
Mcr ucr Mcr ucr virtual work on an assumed kinematically admissible failure
mðjÞ ¼ j 0\m  1; 0\j  1 mechanism and allows for determination of failure mecha-
mp  1 nisms and ULS. Among the various potential failure mech-
mðjÞ ¼ ð j  1Þ þ 1 1  m  mp ; 1  j  jp anisms the one with the lowest load factor is chosen as an
jp  1
upper bound estimate of the failure theory. Hence it is also
ð4Þ
referred to as the upper bound limit state. Application of
yield line analysis equates the work of external loads and

123

energy dissipation within the yield lines, both of which are
computed independently. The work done by the internal
moment term causes the localization and rotation of the rigid
sections about the yield lines. Computations are simplified
by making assumptions regarding constant magnitudes of
resisting moment and rotation along the hinge.
The slab is divided into rigid sections that rotate about
their respective axes along the support lines. Energy dissi-
pation is quantified by projecting all the yield lines around a
region onto, and at right angles to, that region’s axis of
rotation. These projected lengths are multiplied by the
moment and the angle of rotation of each length segment.
Given the small angles considered, the angle of rotation is
equated to the tangent of the angle produced by the deflection
of the region. By assigning the maximum deflection a value
of unity, the vertical displacement of any point is thereby
defined. The work done by the external loads is evaluated by
considering the center of gravity of the load applied in each
region and multiplying it by the distance it travels.
Two most common methods of approach based on limit
analysis using upper and lower bound theories of limit
analysis are presented. As seen in the simple case of the
statically determinate beam, results are identical since they
match the exact solution.
4.1 Virtual work method (upper bound approach)
Using the principal of virtual work, the work by the
external forces on the virtual displacement is equal to the
work done by the internal stresses on the virtual strains for
a kinematically admissible virtual displacement, if the
system is in equilibrium. The virtual work expression can
be written as a work balance equation using the virtual and
real parameters for the external and internal work mea-
sures. Owing to its ease of use and applicability to various
situations, the yield line method is highly effective in the
design of 2-D plane members subjected to flexure and can
provide a good estimate of load bearing capacity after the
peak load. The approach proposed by Johansen [13] is
implemented with the objective of fitting the results from
full scale tests.
The moment–load-geometry relationship for basic con-
figurations of square, rectangular, and circular slabs with
different support conditions are used. Only the concen-
trated and uniformly distributed loads are considered in the
present case. It is assumed that moment about each point
on yield line is consistent and sagging moment is equal to
hogging moment. Yield line formation in square and
rectangular slabs is assumed to be at 45 to the edges.
However, other angles and patterns can also be addressed
using a minimization algorithm. General cases for yield
lines not at 45 are also calculated and reported in detail
[16, 19]. Both simple support and clamped edges are
123
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
considered. It is further assumed that the curvature–de-
flection relation is independent of end conditions of the
slab and the fixity of the supports only increases the overall
length of yield lines thus the required load to cause the
collapse mechanism.
Rotations at the hinges and the supports as a function of
imposed deformations were calculated using kinematics and
extended to obtain curvature–deflection relationship by
assuming a linear rotation–curvature relationship using a
constant localization hinge width L*, which defines a nomi-
nal curvature across the localization width. Parametric
analysis of the effect of hinge width have been addressed by
Bakhshi et al. [20]. Case studies are addressed to obtain the
load–deflection of a slab using three complementary proce-
dures of (a) load-internal moment, (b) curvature–deflection
kinematics, and (c) moment–curvature relationship.
4.2 Square slabs
Square slab of edge length ‘L’ subjected to a distributed load
‘q’ is considered. It is assumed that yield lines are at 45 to
the sides and each point on the yield line is consistent in
carrying a fixed moment magnitude. Hogging and sagging
moments about the yield lines and the clamped supports
respectively are also assumed to be equal in magnitude.
The yield pattern is used to define the potential collapse
mechanism. If the panel has fixed boundaries, then the
yielding along the edge is included in the calculations as
well. Energy equilibrium is ensured by equating the work
done by loads and the internal energy dissipated by rota-
tions about yield line which is expressed as:
X X    
L2 dmax dmax
Fd ¼ m0 l h ) 4 q ¼4 mL
4 3 0:5L
ð7Þ
In left hand side of Eq. 7, q is the uniformly distributed
load and L2/4 is the area of each wedge (for an equivalent
point load of qL2/4) and dmax/3 is the deflection of the
centroid of each triangle. On the right-hand side, as the
rotations are projected onto the sides, the rotation angle h is
calculated from geometry of Fig. 5b as dmax/0.5L. Solving
for moment per unit length m0, one obtains:
qL2
m0 ¼ ð8Þ
24
For clamped slabs, the yield line moment will be higher
due to rotation of the corner supports. All the four wedges
have projection of their positive (sagging) yield line of a
value m0 surrounding its axis of rotation with length L.
Sides also have continuous supports (clamped) and
negative (hogging) yield line causing moment of value
m0’, forms along the support. External work due to energy
expended is independent of the support conditions
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math

Fig. 5 a Yield lines and

loading and rotation conditions
through section A–A for simply
supported square panel, and
b yield lines and loading and
rotation conditions through
section A–A for a clamped
square slab [18, 19]

therefore it is the same as the expression obtained for For plane #1 (DAO), the normal !
n1 is the cross product
! !
simply supported slab: of vectors DA and AO and in plane #3 (ABO), normal ! n2 is
    ! !
L2 dmax dmax dmax obtained from vectors AB and BO . The rotation h and u
0
4 q ¼ 4 m0 L þ m0 L ð9Þ are obtained as:
4 3 0:5L 0:5L
( )  
! ! L2
By assuming the positive and negative moments (equal 1 1 n1  n1  1 1
u ¼  cos ! ¼  cos ð14Þ
sagging and hogging moment) are the same, i.e. m0 = m0’, L n1 !
n2  L 4d2 þ L2
one would obtain:
Deflection–curvature relationship is therefore obtained
qL2
m0 ¼ ð10Þ by solving Eq. 14:
48
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Similarly, the load and moment relationship can be L cos uL ð1  cos uL Þ
d¼ ð15Þ
obtained for the case of concentarted load applied at the 2 cos uL
center:
    4.3 Rectangular slabs
P dmax
Simply supported : 4 dmax ¼ 4 m0 L ; P ¼ 8m0
4 0:5L
    The uniformly loaded slab is divided into rigid regions
P dmax dmax
Clamped : 4 dmax ¼ 4 m0 L þ m00 L ; P ¼ 4m0 that rotate about their respective axes of rotation along
4 0:5L 0:5L
the support lines, as shown in Fig. 7. The work of
ð11Þ external loads is evaluated by multiplying the resultant
Figure 6 shows a square slab with length of L and yield load in each region by the deformation of its center of
lines at 45 to the sides, where the maximum deflection, d gravity. Two groups of triangles and trapezoidal sections
occurs at the center. By defining parameter u as the mean are considered. Following the similar procedure, the
curvature in the yield hings and L* as the hinge width, uL* force–moment and curvature–deflection relationships are
represents the hinge rotation. obtained [18]:
The angle of rotation, h between two adjacent surfaces is qb2 ð3a  bÞ
computed using the unit vectors. The curvature u and angle m0 ¼ ð16Þ
36ða þ bÞ
between the planes h can then be related as: sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uL ¼ h ð12Þ a 1  cos 2uL
d¼ ð17Þ
! ! 2 1 þ cos 2uL
DA ¼ ðL; 0; 0Þ AO ¼ ð0:5L; 0:5L; dÞ
! ! 4.4 Round panels
AB ¼ ð0; L; 0Þ BO ¼ ð0:5L; 0:5L; dÞ
! ! ð13Þ
!n 1 ¼ DA  AO ¼ ðLdÞ^j þ 0:5L2 k^ A round panel of radius R with a point load acting at center
! ! ! is considered and the yield lines are assumed in the form a
n ¼ AB  BO ¼ ðLdÞ^i þ 0:5L2 k^
2
fan shape. Hogging moment along the yield lines and

123

Fig. 6 Rotation–deflection
relationship for a square slab
Fig. 7 Rotation–deflection relationship for a simply supported rect-
angular slab [18, 19]
sagging moment along the supports are also assumed to be
equal in magnitude although finite element solutions have
shown a range of moment distributed along the length [2].
Two end conditions are considered which consist of simply
supported and clamped support.
Flexural capacity of a simply supported round slab
subjected to a center-point loading is shown in Fig. 8.
Slabs subjected to a large concentrated load may failed as
‘‘fan cracking pattern’’ with positive yield lines radiating
from the load and a negative circular yield line centered
under the point load [15, 21]. On the other hand, the fan-
mechanism formed by fine distributed cracks is also
123
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
dα
R
δ
θ
Section A-A
2R
Fig. 8 Principal of virtual work to determine the ultimate load
carrying capacity of a round panel test simply supported in its contour
and subjected to center point load [18, 19]
observed in experiments of SFRC with relatively high fiber
dosages [22]. By assuming rigid body rotation, yield line
approach may underestimate the strain energy dissipated
due to pronounced plastic deformations. A model param-
eter ‘‘n’’ as the number of yield lines/fan cracks is
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math

Fig. 9 Fan cracking pattern and

geometrical relationships for a
round panel [2]

introduced to account for the changes in internal energy Other cases studies involving square, rectangular, and
dissipation. The round panel with three supports as speci- circular slabs with simple, clamped and mix mode supports
fied by ASTM C1550 were dervied elsewehere where have been dervied for wider design applications [18, 19].
n was asumed to be 3 [18, 19].
The applied load and yield line moment is related as 4.5 Use of nonlinear moment–curvature
[21]: relationship
P
Simply supported : m0 ¼ ð18Þ The algorithm to calculate load–deflection response is
2p
based on merging curvature–deflection relationship with
P
Clamped : m0 ¼ ð19Þ applied load-yield line moment into the moment–curvature
4p
relationship. As shown in Fig. 10 the algorithm is defined
A round slab with radius R and yield lines originating at for a step wise approach in the following manner:
center and extending to the boundary are shown in Fig. 9.
(1) Generate M–u using Table 2 with cross sectional and
With the maximum deflection at center, the angle of
material data. The intersections of discrete interacting
rotation between two adjacent cracked segments OAB and
curves determine the transfer from one mode to
OBC are analyzed for the curvature–deflection
another.
relationship.
(2) The slab is segmented into finite sections and for a
By assuming rigid crack segments and rotations repre-
! ! ! given curvature both the moment and deflection are
sented by vectors OC , OD and OE as shown in Fig. 9. The
calculated using the curvature–deflection relationship
vectors normal to crack segment OAB and OBC are found
as derived in Sects. 4.2 to 4.4. The load is calculated
by cross product of two adjacent normal
! ! from moment using yield line Eqs.
planes. OA ¼ ðR cosðan Þ; R sinðan Þ; dÞ, OB ¼ ðR; 0; dÞ,
! (3) The load and deflection response at each curvature
OC ¼ ðR cosðan Þ; R sinðan Þ; dÞ, an ¼ 2p
n
step.
! ! !
n1 ¼ OA  OB

¼ Rd sinðan Þ; Rdð1  cosðan ÞÞ; R2 sinðan Þ ð20Þ
! ! ! 5 Model simulation
n2 ¼ OB  OC

¼ Rd sinðan Þ; Rdð1  cosðan ÞÞ; R2 sinðan Þ ð21Þ
5.1 Modelling of TRC in 1-D flexure
The angle of curvature u between segments OAB and
OBC is the angle between these two normal vectors, In order to demonstrate the analytical methods for 1-D
determined by the dot product. problem, flexural results of laminated Textile Reinforced
( ) Concrete (TRC) beams studied by Mobasher et al. [4] are
! !
1 1 n1  n2  simulated. Flexural TRC beam samples with a rectangular
u ¼  cos !
L n1 !
n2  cross section of 30 9 9 mm2 and a span of 220 mm were

1 cosðan ÞR2 þ 2 cosðan Þd2 þ R2 tested under three-point bending (3 PB). The experimental
¼  cos1 ð22Þ
L cosðan ÞR2 þ R2 þ 2d2 program covered various textiles including carbon (C),

123

aramid (A), glass (G), polypropylene (PP), as well as
hybrid reinforcements. Results of a hybrid (25G:75PP)
with 25:75 composition of glass and polypropylene textile
yarn ratios are used. Load–deflection responses of five
replicate 3 PB specimens per batch were used.
Bilinear moment–curvature model is used to simulate
the results and the normalized model is constructed using
the two values of mp = 3.8 and jp = 37.5, see Fig. 11a. A
cracking strength of rcr = 2.0 MPa, and modulus of
Fig. 10 Flow chart for load–deflection responses by integrating
moment–load, curvature–deflection into moment–curvature relation-
ship [19]
(a)
Fig. 11 a Normalized moment–curvature model, and b comparison between model simulation and experimental results of TRC beam specimens
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Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
E = 20 MPa result in cracking moment and curvature of
Mcr = 810 N-mm and ucr = 22.2(10-6) m-1. The
dimensionless moment–curvature in Fig. 11a is applied to
construct the model for the deflection equations. The
applied load is obtained from static equilibrium of a 3 PB
beam while the mid-span deflections are obtained from
curvature used in Eq. 5. The simulated load–deflection
response is compared with experimental results in Fig. 11b.
Due to distributed cracking, TRC samples exhibit pro-
nounced deflection hardening behavior. The analytical
model agrees well with the experimental data up to max-
imum load.
5.2 Design example of SFRC square slabs
The next case study demonstrates the design procedure of
square SFRC slabs tested by Khaloo and Afshari [23] as a
2-D model application. The span of the slab was
680 mm 9 680 mm with thickness of 80 mm. Concen-
trated load was applied at the center of slab until failure.
Steel fibers were added at two different dosages of 1 and
1.5% by volume. The hinge length was assumed as 71 mm
for all samples using the empirical estimation by Sawyer
[24]. The responses of point load–deflection of center were
simulated by the proposed algorithm. Figure 12 compares
the tensile stress–strain models and the simulated load–
deflection responses for two fiber volume fractions.
Moment–curvature responses were calculated using the
closed-form equations summarized in Table 2, while load
and deflection were determined from the moment and
curvature at each loading step using Eqs. 11 and 14,
respectively.
(b)
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math

(a) (b)
Fig. 12 a Tension models, and b comparison of experimental results with the simulations for SFRC square slabs with volume fractions of 1.0
and 1.5%

The simulated parameters used in the model show that obtained for the polynomial curve fit approach. By sub-
as the fiber volume fraction vf increases from 1.0 to 1.5%, stituting the model parameters into the equations for the
both maximum flexural loads and residual loads increase. three stages in Table 2, normalized moment (m) and nor-
The improvement in flexural properties are addressed by malized curvature (j) can be obtained:
increasing tensile strength rcr and residual strength lrcr,
which have been shown to positively affect the moment Stage 1 : m ¼ j
1:882
capacity in parametric studies [8]. On the other hand, the Stage 2:1 : m ¼ 2:805  pffiffiffi ðascendingÞ
deflection and crack opening observed in flexural slabs are j
generally higher than those obtained in beam tests. This m ¼ ð104 Þj2  7:966ð103 Þj þ 2:45 ðdescendingÞ
3949
may be attributed to the failure mechanism pattern in slab Stage 3:1 : m ¼ 0:592 þ 2
j
specimens with larger number of major cracks (3 or 4)
ð23Þ
compared to the beam specimens. Moreover, if the fibers
are well distributed both in beam and slab specimens, the Step 2 The equations obtained in Step 1 represent the
contribution of fibers that are oriented parallel to the numerical values of moment–curvature by factoring in
cracked plane is negligible. However, in the slab specimens the cracking moment and curvature and cross section
subjected to biaxial tensile stress and cracking in multiple sizes:
directions which results in extra load required to impose
rcr bh2
the kinematic deformation, more fibers are involved in M ¼ mMcr ¼ ½m
6 ð24Þ
toughening and bridging processes [22]. Therefore, to 2ecr
accommodate the large crack opening and deflection of the u ¼ jucr ¼ ½j
d
slabs, large tensile strain capacity up to 6% in post-
cracking stages are used, see Fig. 12a. For clear span of 680 mm, thickness 80 mm, cracking
Alternatively, direct use of the nonlinear curve fitting to stress as 1.5 MPa, moment–curvature relationship of Stage
the entire moment curvature relationship in the calculations 2.1 can be shown as:
!
(Eqs. 17 and 21) is also demonstrated, which may be more
1:882 1:5  1  802
applicable in the practical design. The design procedure is M ¼ 2:806  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u=ð1:5  106 Þ 6
illustrated in the following steps:  
Step 1 Determine the full range moment–curvature 3:570
¼ 4489:6  pffiffiffiffi N  mm ðascendingÞ ð25Þ
relationship using the closed-form equations summarized u
in Table 2. Figure 13 shows the moment–curvature  
M ¼ 7:111ð107 Þu2  8497:1u þ 3:920 ð103 Þ
responses generated using the same model parameters
N  mm ðdescendingÞ
shown in Fig. 12a. The following simplified relations are

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 Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math

Similar expression can also be calculated for Stage 3.1: and given by Eq. 14. While the load and deflection
  responses are directly related using elastic solutions of
1:422ð105 Þ
M ¼ 946:72 þ N  mm ð26Þ plate theory based on Kirchoff’s assumptions and
u2
derivations by Lagrange in 1811. For a homogeneous and
Step 3 The boundary conditions are simply supported on an isotropic plate, the bending stiffness, D will be given as
all sides. From Sect. 4.2, the moment–load relationship for EI/(1-t2) and the deflection is computed as [18]:
a point load for (Case 1.1) is as follows: 0:00406PL2 Et3
Elastic stage : d ¼ ; D¼
P ¼ 8m0 ð27Þ D 12ð1  t2 Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð28Þ
Step 4 The curvature–deflection relationship for a square L cos uL ð1  cos uL Þ
Cracked stage : d ¼
slab in cracked stages (2.1 and 3.1) are derived in Sect. 4.2 2 cos uL
Step 5 Calculate the load–deflection result using the
results from Steps 3 and 4. The comparison between
experimental results and simulations of different stages are
shown in Fig. 14. It is noted that the curve fitting approach
is not limited to the present case. Mobasher [2] obtained
the simplified relations of moment–curvature, moment-
natural axis depth, as well as moment-tensile strain for
varying a and g values that may apply to common SHCC
materials. The curve fitting approach can be extended to
even wider range of material properties in terms of design
charts and tables for flexural design of SFRC, HPFRC,
TRC, and UHPC.

5.3 Modelling of SFRC round panel

The proposed approach is verified with round panels results

of de Montaignac et al. [25] who studied the effects of fiber
type and dosage on the flexural behavior of SFRC round
Fig. 13 Normalzied moment–curvature response and the curve fitting panels according to the ASTM C1550. The dimensions of
of each stage the plates were 750 mm in diameter and 80 mm in

(a) (b)
Fig. 14 Model simulations using nonlinear curve fitting equations for square slabs with different fiber volume fractions a vf = 1.0%, and
b vf = 1.5%

123
Int J Adv Eng Sci Appl Math
thickness. The specimens were supported by three supports
at 120 and subjected to the point load at the center. The
responses of load–deflection for each specimen were sim-
ulated by the proposed model. The hinge length was
assumed as 65 mm for all samples. Figure 15 shows the
effect of number of cracks n, on the simulation results. It is
clearly seen that as the number of cracks increases, the
deflection after peak increases for the same level of load,
indicating higher energy dissipated during the test. The
simulated load–deflection curve fits well with the experi-
mental responses when n = 24. Figure 16a illustrates the
tension models used for different fiber volume fractions of
Fig. 15 Effects of n in post cracking load–deflection behavior
(a)
Fig. 16 a Tension models, and b comparison of experimental results with the simulations for SFRC round panels with volume fractions of 1.0
and 1.25%
1.0% and 1.25%. Figure 16b compares the experimental
and predicted load–deflection curves. Similar to the pre-
vious case study, as the fiber dosage increases, tensile
strength increases from 2.5 to 3.0 MPa, and the normalized
residual strength increases from 0.2 to 0.25.
6 Conclusions
Serviceability limits based analytical procedures for anal-
ysis and design of SSCC and SHCC were presented in this
paper. Several different approaches were proposed to
address the flexural behaviour of 1-D (beam) and 2-D (slab
and panel) structural members. The methods cover typical
softening and hardening cement composites such as ECC,
FRC, SFRC, TRC, and UHPFRC. Linearized compression
and tension materials models were used to represent the
constitutive behaviour of SSCC and SHCC materials. The
softening/hardening branch was addressed by the post-
cracking stiffness parameter that is either negative (soft-
ening) or positive (hardening). Closed-form solutions for
moment–curvature responses were subsequently derived
through cross sectional analysis that connects the load and
deflection responses.
In order to obtain closed-form solutions to the load–
deflection, various strategies were presented including
moment-area method, parameterized moment–curvature
relationship and principle of virtual work or Yield Line
Theory. In addition, nonlinear curve fitting of moment–
curvature responses in different stages were obtained for
varying hardening/softening parameters. The fitted
(b)
123

equations can be extended to generate a design chart and
table for practical design purposes. The proposed models
were verified by several experimental studies including
TRC beams, SFRC square slabs and round panels from
literature. The tension softening/hardening and multiple
cracking behavior were addressed by the models to account
for the deflection hardening mechanisms and energy dis-
sipation in flexural members under 1-D and 2-D loading
conditions.
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