Music Notation in the ‘Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONEMusic Notation in the Twentieth Century A Practical Guidebook by KURT STONE W. W. NORTON & COMPANY New York LondonContents ———_ Preface sili Introduction w Acknowledgments a Part One: Basic Procedures 1 1. General Conventions 2 Apneevicrons AND srMpots 3 worn unes 20 areca 3 Nore-eabs 30 annicuiaTion 4 [MACEMENT OF DYNAMICS AND OTHER nanuines 6 VemmaL INDICATIONS 37 teas 9 events 3 vamics 16 aunninc-neaos 38 cuissanoos 19 stuns AND TEs ace Nove 20 rmunasincisownnclaaeatnino 35 wonizonraL times 22 SPACINGS, FOSIFIONS, AND SIZES nsrsvctONs 26 (uiscrL taneous) 4 IRREGULAR NOTE DIVISIONS sews 47 2 CGRAPING CHARACTERISTICS 26 UL Pitch 32 scewertais 53 mucrorones 67 curs 56 "aanstostrios cues 57 ‘rmtlragmovolvinesto 74 OUstaxpos 63 ‘TLLS AND TAILL TREMOLOS 75 ocanmonics 63. vntsons | 78 iMcnestiowest wore(s) 65 tunercneD NoveS: PLACEMENT 79 INDRTERMINATE.OR APPROXIMATE winexrolvon viaeato 80 nircnes 66viii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY IIL. Duration and Rhythm: Preliminary Survey 81 ranvaromy nove 81 seamine 10 suvrunic teens 1 PRACTICAL ExaMerES IIS NOTATIONAL CONSEQUENCES 2 TV. Duration and Rhythm: Individual Items Ra BeAMED ACCELERANOO AND vests 13 ITARDANDO 124 SPATIAL 08 PROPORTIONAL porten wares. 125 Novanios 116 DURATIONAL EQUIVALENTS 127 rome moicanions 145 FEAMATAS, COMMAS, AND DOUILE mes 46 srHOKES 28 TIME SIGNATURES QMETER) 146 ewota 29 neworos 47 IRREGULAR NOTE DIVisONS 129, YV. Indeterminate Events 192 ALTERNATIVE EVENTS 152 Inperemanate events: 154 coices 151 VL. Scores and Parts 158 conuctor’s sins 158 EIVEARSAL LETTERSREMEARSAL curs 160 NUMBERMEASURE NUMBERS 168 rovr stems. 162 Scone sevurs 170 PARTS MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS 162 sSoLO/TUTTH INDICATIONS 175 PARTS DHVI (TWO OR MORE PARTS ON A TIME SIONATURES PLACEMENT 177 sont stare) 164 Part Two: Specific Notation 185 VIL. Wind Instruments: General Topics 186 AURSOUND OR BREATH SOUND 186 juan Witte PLAYING 188 enoine tHe rrrcn 187 Toncune 188 FLUTTER TONGUE 188 LUvrarcneD sounps 190 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix (is) worn a “him pressure 191 OCTAVE SKN 195. oo! 1K Brass 17 receune 8 wee creas 98 Sacto soi oes" 209 om 19 wana my/908,) MALE VALVE 199 ‘TONGUE PostTio#6 Tron CHANGES IN a von) 200 X. Percussion 205 icrocans. 205 AND MINED ENSEMBLES 2/5 STICK, MALLET, AND BEATER eveaL reacrices. 219 rictocraMs” 210 ‘rrects AND Tecnntoves 221 WH pesnsre wren 217 eee (ayttarp 226 ~Feeunvany neMAanns 228 murine 240 Aarecilvow aaron 228 eon noise 242 senowe rie ren 229 prow sume 207 wsmctinneo (anism) 29 reoat nt 2407 ceosrens 237 rons 244 onwrniworruno (rourses) 237 puacenenr or avin rca ee 238 Inoncarons 26 Fvcenvut nveame 233 acta 246 sussaos 296 rence 46 rats roa 239 SconDATURA (atmos TONING) 2465 suapnzzicato 247 (CN): LET vinRATE 240 SOUNDING BOARD. 2484X) MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY wos 248 sumnine rie srencs 249 stauwine 250 10° (UPVER ENDS OF seaINCS) 250 sewoi0s 250 smuts 251 {RILLING (vaRATING) AETWEEN WO srancs 257 XII. Piano ~unices AND aanunes. 257 cuustens 259 nosSING OF HANDS 260 k manmonacs 267 se Tie Pano 262 TTUNING-AEY SLIDES. 251 staincs. 252 wunesro. 25 sceares 253 [WHISTLING SUNOS: HAND shines. 255 257 reas 269 SILENT DEPRESSION OF KEYS. 272 STACCATO REVERAERATIONS 272 ‘omen 277, XII. Organ 24 BRACES AND MaRLines 274 reoats 278 cuustens 274 ecisteation 278 EYS (HELD AND RELEASED) 274 stors 279 Manuats 277 XIV. Keyboard Reductions 281 ‘CHORAL Scones 281 locusts scones 289 XV. Voice 292 Asrination 292 ‘AMS VERSUS FLAGS. 292 ratserro 297 Fuurrex Tonove 202 iciest NorElowsst nore 294 wnuausfexnate 295 IDCTERPRETIVE MARKINGS (ARTICULATION, DYNAMICS, EXPRESSION MARKS) 295, MouTH Fostrions 295 NASAL voice 296 Pwowenics 206 roRTaMeNTO. 296 suums 296 oxen 297 ‘TENT PLACEMENT UNDER THE MUSIC 209 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi ext parserarion 300 vineaTolNon vinnato. 304 wsso.08 301 unseen 304 Levotee VOCAL errEcts 30 a XVI. Bowed String Instruments 306 rndinonany worn 306 roan warioursowa tt tenet 307 erm ee 3 corarecttiaaun 307 penn seas Ate a2 cro 08 mune 32 ewe ieroren) 310 Starve anes. 3 Povmr srr 38 unece8 XVI Taped (Prerecorded) Sound 16 nuacriome eranon 316 | Seiad ay aie) Appendix 1: Neumatic Notation (Plainchant or Gregorian Chant) ‘and Later Developments 321 Appendix Il: The History and Operation of the Index of New ‘Musical Notation and the International Conference on New ‘Musical Notation 332 Appendix II: Facsimile Reproductions aI Bibliography 33 Index HSPreface ‘When composers of serious music, inthe early 1950s, began to explore areas far beyond all traditional concepts, conventional notation soon proved insufficient for dealing adequately with the new musical echniques and philosophies. The invention of new notational signs and procedures thus became imperative ‘As the musical experiments and innovations continued and spread, new note ‘ional devices proliferated. Moreover, experiments conducted simultaneously in diferent pars of the world often brought forth identical signs for diferent ef- fects, and vice versa ‘After two decades ofthis disconcerting and ever-increasing deluge of new no- tation, invariably accompanied by endless explanations and more or ess idiosyn- cratic instructions, communications from composer to performer had become seriously impaired. It seemed the right time to take stock, examine the new in ventions for clarity and efficiency in practical use, select the devices that sp- peared most universally satisfactory, eliminate duplications, and codify the results ina practical guidebook. In 1970, I proposed this plan toa number of individuals and organizations. AS result, the Indes of New Musical Notation was established, under my direction, in the Music Division of the Library of the Performing Arts at Lincoln Center, New York. (For details, see the Introduction and Appendix 2.) ‘The Index project was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation (with the New ‘York Public Library as sponsoring organization) and later also by the Ford Foun- ation (withthe Music Library Association as sponsor) ‘The resulting efforts culminated in an Intemational Conference on New Musi cal Notation, organized jointly by the Index project and the University of Ghent, Belgium. At the conference, which was held in Ghent in 1974, eighty profes- sional musicians, composers, music editors, and musicologist from seventeen Countries scrutinized and discussed close to 400 selected notational signs and procedures presented by the Index project, and then voted on them, The present ‘book contains, as its nucleus, all those devices endorsed or recommended at that conference, along with a comprehensive, integrated presentation of traditional ‘notation, based on more than thity years of editorial experience in the field. ‘Thos, virtually the entie arsenal of notation, old and new, of serious music in the twentieth century is covered by this guidebook. aiiIntroduction SS New Music and New Notation "New notation has never been generated exclusively by new musical ideas. New ideas are an integral part of composed music, at last in Wester civilization, and notational procedures have generally been sufficiently adaptable to cope with them, ‘Only a fundamental break with established musical aesthetics and philosophies can bring about a commensurate notational change, and such profound upheavals. Ihave occurred extremely rarely. In fact, there have been only three inal of West erm music history ‘The first of these basic reoriemtations was the momentous shift from monody ‘o polyphony around a.D, 900. The notational consequences were epochal: the vagueness of neumatic pitch notation was rendered obsolete and was replaced with te intervallic precision of staff notation. And perhaps even more important, the specificity of durations was introduced: mensural notation. Both of these in. ‘ovations have remained indispensable elements of music notation ever since Centuries went by during which the linear predominance of early polyphony eradually saw itself challenged by emerging vertical phenomena: chords and ‘chord progressions. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a perfect bal- ance of the horizontal and vertical forces was achieved; but around the year 1600, chordal harmony took on a life ofits own by becoming an independent functional force capable of dominating the linear elements that had previously reigned supreme. Now the traditional parthooks, being purely linear, were no longer appropri= ate, since they failed to capture the essence ofthe new music, the harmonic func- tions. Thus the second major notational change came about: partbooks were ‘superseded by score notation because a score, showing all pars underneath each other, enables the reader to follow not only the horizontal (melodic, linear) aspects of a given composition, but also the vertical (harmonic) ones. Inthe 1950s the third stylistic upheaval began to erupt, an upheaval which de- veloped in two sharply contrasting diections. One of these was characterized by tan unprecedented increase in precision of every conceivable component of a ‘usical texture, with particular emphasis on formerly subsidiary elements such as dynamics, timbre, pitch inflections (microtones), location of sound sources,Avi MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH. CENTURY and so forth, This trend also went far beyond the traditional note values, often superseding the conventional geometric progression of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 With the arithmetical 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... Needless to say, traditional notation Could not cope with these new demands, and a host of new symbols and proce dures had to be devise 10 accomodate the new musical concepts The other stylistic rend rejected precision. Instead, it inealuced deliberate ambiguity, varying degrees of indeterminacy, choices between alternatives, provisation, and the uilization of extraneous, unpredictable sounds and circurn- stances, All these required radically new notation, even to the abandonment of conventional symbols and procedures altogether, in favor of “implicit raphies,"" because such graphics assur the greatest possibie interpretive free- {dom by draving heavily on the performers’ conttibutive imagination and ingens ity. Naturally, this trend not only called for new notational sign, but for an en- tirely new attitude toward notation as such, Considering that composers throughout Europe and America, as well as in several countries of Asia, embraced the new musical tends and aesthetics, it is ‘ot surprising that new notation, 100, was invented everywhere with great aban: don. Asa result, musicians were soon engulfed ina chaotic deluge of notational duplications, contradictions, and general confusion, ‘After about a decade of this anarchic proliferation, atlempts were made to un ‘avel the notational maze by collecting, describing, and categorizing the new signs.* The most comprehensive of these effons was Ethard Karkoschka's Das Schrifbild der newen Musik (Celle, 1966; English translation—WNoraion in New ‘Music—London and New York, 1972). Here we find the frst major attempt to classify not only the new signs, but also the underlying aesthetic approaches. In addition there are evaluations of the various signs as to appropriateness, clarity (or deliberate vagueness), and efficiency, and each sign is meticulously docu mented as tits source of origin ‘ther collections followed. The most extensive American one is Howard Risatti's New Music Vocabulary (1975, University of Ilinois Press) and the ‘monumental, as yet unpublished, 201k Century Notation by Gardner Read {All of these collections differ from one another in many ways, but they all have one thing in common: whatever recommendations they contain represent the personal opinions of their respective authors ‘The present book—Music Notation in the Twentieth Century—is unique in three crucial ways: 1 itis not a collection, but a compendium of selections; 2. these selections do not represent one person's preferences, but are the results of research done by the Index of New Musical Notation (a four-year + Oe sch tee wa th suho's owe “Probleme and Met of Noun, writen in 1952 (see Biogen. INTRODUCTION xvii [moject) followed by the deliberations and decisions of the International Conference on New Musical Notation (Ghent, Belgium, 1974) 3. it does not treat new notation as @ phenomenon apart from traltional Procedures, but integrates i into the total notational vocabulary ofall ser- ‘ous musie writen in the twentieth century The Index of New Musical Notation and the International Conference on New Musical Notation Inthe early 1950, when the frst published examples of new musical notation ar Fived from Europe, the author was chief editor of Associated Music Publishers, Inc... New York, then the foremost American importer of European music. The names of the new composers were still quite unfamiliar, but soon they were to {dominate the field: for example, Luciano Berio, Pierre Boulez, Sylvano Bussot Roman Haubenstock-Ramati, Kartheina Stockhausen, Shorty thereaft ‘American efforts appeared, mainly in the works of Earle Brown* and Joh» Cage ‘The author became interested in these unprecedented manifestations, studied and compared them, attended countless rehearsals and performances to find out how they worked in actual practice, and eventually began to lecture and write about new notational developments Writing and lecturing, however, were only one side of the coin, A much less entertaining aspect was that the new notational deluge proved tobe serious hin drance to good performances. Many musicians who had been greatly interested in new music began to resent the ever increasing profusion of notational ambigh tis, identical notation for different effects in diferent compositions, and totally Unexplained signs and procedures. Rehearsal time, being expensive, was lim- ited, and performances were (and sill are) all too often under-rehearsed and fat from what they should have been. Something had to be done. In the author's view, the most appropriate position in the musical spectrum from which to effect practical improvements is that of the music editor. An editor Serves as the mediator between the composer who invents new notation and the performer who must interpret it properly. A conscientious editor, one who in- volves himself in the musical aspects ofthe scores under his care, can bring the Performers” need for greater notational clarity to the attention of the composer and collaborate with him toward this goal. Conversely, he can elucidate to the performer some of the composers intentions and visions which may not be fully realized in the notation. Musical notation, after all is not an ideal method of communication, utilizing, as it does, visual devices to express aural concepts, But itis all we have. + Aculy, Fate Brown's effons a his ection receded Stckhasens eventhough he ater eer ree wih being the oat af mew moat peed,vill MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY An editor's scope, however, is limited, since he deals primarily with the works af composers who happen to be in the catalogue of his panicular publishing rouse, To overcome this proscription, the author initiated the Index of New Musical Notation and located it in the Music Division of the Library of the Per. iorming Arts at New York's Lincoln Center, a context independent of any pubs ishing interests, This enabied the staff of dhe Index project to exarnine any score onsidered pertinent ‘Affer conducting detailed notational analyses ofa large variety of music con ining graphic innovations, and after categorizing and otherwise ordering the indings, about 400 signs and procedures, chosen by statistical and evaluative nethoul, were submitted for discussion to the active participants of an Interna {onal Conference on New Musical Notation, organized jointly by the Index proj vot and the Belgian Stale University at Ghent, and held there in October of 974+ ‘All new notational devices and procedures endorsed or recommended by the hent Conference are included in the present volume, along with many others hich could not be discussed in Ghent, but were dealt with subsequently in com ulation with professional musicians in the U.S. On the Inclusion of Traditional Nota In spite ofthe new notational signs generated since the early 1950s, a major part four era’s music, whether “serious” or not, has been, sil is, and probably will continue to be written either entirely by means of tational notation or with a ‘mixture of old and new signs and procedures, It is for this eason that traditional ‘otation has been included inthis guidebook, Elementary rules and practices, however, will not be found here. Its assumed that those who wish to use this book ae Familia withthe rudiments of traditional notation. What has been admitted ar the less obvious features: matters of proper teaming, stemming, and spacing, imegular drational divisions, the proper posi- tion of marks of articulation, dynamics, and phrasing, the correct note values for ttemolos, and even a few purely graphic fine points. In the past, such details ‘were rarely ifever taught, but in the music of ur era they have become increas ingly important fortwo quite separate reasons. First, since music during the last few decades has grown to unprecedented complexity, in addition to operating according to many new and radically uncon- ‘ventional gesthetic concepts, notation-—old and new—has been strained to its wt ‘most capability to meet these challenges. Consequently, each and every nota tional symbol must be drawn with greater precision and consistency than used to be necessary, because in present-day music any graphic deviation from conven- tion may constitute not simply an accidental Naw, but a deliberate and meaning. ion Foc eis of be option fhe Index project ade Intemational Conference, see Append 2 INTRODUCTION air ful variant! In other words, awkward or amateurish imperfections—imegularities ‘whieh were hardly noticed in former times—have become serious impediments toa clear and proper interpretation of new compositions. One should never forget hotation is the composer's only means of conveying his ideas to the per: formers it must be as explicit as possible. (Even if ambiguity or total freedom is intended, the signal for it must be explicit.) ‘Second, music publishers, for economic reasons, are increasingly given to is- ‘suing facsimile reproductions of the composer's manuscript, rather than en- ‘raved (or equivalent) editions. Its not at all infrequent, therefore, that a pub- lishe, in determining whether to publish a work or not, willbe influenced by the sraphic quality and notational professionalism of a manuscript rather than exclu- sively by its musical content." Performers, too, 100k more closely now at composers” ways with notation, ‘since any unconventionality is Hikely to divert a performer's attention from in- stant perception and interpretation ofthe notation he sees before him. Even ifhe isnot actully aware of what is wrong with the notation he sees—what the ‘regularities end flaws really consist of—he will react subconsciously to any vis: tal difference from the standards which have conditioned his reflexes through- ‘out his musical life. He is forced to make adjustments and corrections in his mind uring the minute interval between perceiving the symbol and producing the desired effect. It can make him hesitate, even alittle, and can slow down the pro- cess of learning piece, thus quite possibly leading (oa poorer performance than needs be. “To sum up, then, the meticulous observance ofthe rules and conventions of traditional notation (rules often ignored by, oF not even known to many com- ‘posers and performers) will increase the effectiveness of a composer's entire n0- tational repertory, old and new. And thus it will improve his ability to com- ‘municate his intentions to the performer, which will most certainly result in better, more accurate, and more enjoyable performances. “The traditional rules and conventions included here have not been treated sepa rately from the new notational signs and procedures. Most of them, however, ap- pear within the first section ofthe book, which covers general categories of nota- tion, and only occasionally in the second section, which deals with notation for specific instrument families, the voice, and electronic sounds. + Se Facile Repetucions, Appendix 3.Acknowledgments ood Most of what i contained in the present book cannot be credited to any particular Individual, being the result ofthe efforts of everyone who worked atthe Index project, all the active participants in the Ghent Conference, and the countless composers, arrangers, performers, engravers, autographers,copyists, and fellow editors whom the author has encountered in the course of his long career as a musi editor. ‘A few people, however, who were not connected with the Index, but who helped greaily with the shaping of the present book and with many of its details, ‘must not be overlooked. From among these I would like to single out the follow. ing listed inthe order in which their particular specialties appear in the book: ‘Woodwinds: Nora Post, New York aboist, for her meticulous srutny of many technic etl Percussion: Frank L. MeCany, percussionist, elecronicit, and composer, who helped Peepate the Index's percussion an electronics proposals forthe Ghent Conference, snd ‘who, beyond this, gave the author eminently hepful advice whenever called upon ‘arp: Thanks go to vee harpist: Shisley Blankenship, ofthe University of tine at Ur. tana, for a thorowgh preliminary discussion of modern harp techniques and harp tra. ace (a fed, bythe way, which had no been included inthe Gen discussions), Alyssa IN: Hess, New York harpist and composer, fr her invaluable assistance with every de- tal of the eae harp chapter (it is largely due w he recommendation ha this caper became as comprehensive as it ha turned cat to be); Parca John, bapist fom Hous- ton, Texas, for reading though the completed harp chapler and making many valuable Mitional suggestions. (Organ: Maha Fol specialist in recitals of contemporary organ masic, fr generously Sharing her experiences withthe notational puzles of many Scores of few on Swings: Clifford G. Richer, volisUvolnist, and his violinist wife, Lyme (both Tong time editorial colleagues ofthe autor) for consbuting tothe sting chapter the badly needed practical realism 50 often ignored in mate soloisteviened weatments ‘Teped (Prerecorded) Sound: Barbara English Maris, who specializes in recitals of piano ‘music with elecuonic sounds and sound genertors-many of them lecture recitals for Aiscussing with the author the cuing practices in such music, and for later reading the finished chapter and suggesting many aiitioal practical deals based on her uncom ‘on failiaty with this eisive branch of tew musexxii MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY General Assistance: Sincere thanks and appreciation to Alyssa N. Hess, the hart “mentioned above, for going through the eaize book atthe final stage, unfailingly Spoting remaining flows, as wel as linguistc nwkwardnesses; 1 Professor Leo Kraft AQicens College, New York) for his knowledgeable musical advice, an to Clate Fok and Hida Keller Farber af W_ W. Nexon for thee asusualy perceptive and Understanding editorial work and ast hot fat fom least to my wife, Ese for checking {he manuscript from the important vantage poit of a napprofesional music lover who insists that things ust the sense) mater who the ears ght Be Musical Examples: Melvin Wildberger mist be commended not only for his revureeul work, combining music typewriter, wanfer type, regular ype, and many aditional Treks ofthe trae, bu also foe hs mamecovspetical suggestions many of which have ben incotporated in his book ‘Thanks, finally, are due tothe John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation for its generous fellowship grant, without which tis book might never have been Part One: Basic Procedures the items are dealt with in more than one chapter.1. General Conventions thbreviations and Symbols 3 Glissandos 19 1 Note-t Note and NotestoRest trpergio 3” Ghiwandor ty s-Aepessio Sign 3b Open Fadel Glisandor 20 Direction 4 Curved'or Unialating Glisxandon 20 © Rhythm 4b. Quich, Shorr Sider Wortamento) 20 2. Speed 4 Compound Durations of Now Arpeggio. 4" Guittandos 2 Iticularion 4 Grace Notes 2 Jarlines 6 Horizontal Lines 2 ‘In Masi for Individual 1. Stff-Lines 2 Instruments, 5 8 Gru 2 ‘tn Chamber and Choral Scores 7 € Solid Lines, Brackets, and Arvows 23 © tn Orchestra and Band Scores 70. Domed or Bolen Lines 2 Vertical Alignment of Burnes 8 &. Wavy Lines 25 © Dorted Barlines 5 F Double Barlines 8 Instructions 26 6. Final Barnes 9 Repeat Bars, see page 34 Irregular Note Divisions: Graphic Characteristics 26 Beams 9A Brackets versus SlurrinUnbeomed ‘lean Thickness 9 and Partially Beamed Groups 28 2. Space berween Beams 9 a eamed Groups » © Bear Positions i he Stall 9 C.Invepular Note Divisions within Beams in Two-Siaf Nowion 12 Regular Groups of Notes 2 € Eutended and Bridging Beams 15, lregur Note Divisions within Irregular Groups of Noes cy Durational Equivatences Hortzontal Locations of Numerals seepage 127 and Brackets » Dynamics 16 Leger Lines 30 Dynamic BalancelDynamic Levels 16 9. Fluctuating Dynamics 17 Note-Heads 30 Levels of Prominence of Musical ‘Shapes 30 Morerials 17 Uses of Different Shapes an >. Niente 8 ‘ate Size Dynamics Ia Placement of Dynamics and SabitoChangesofDynamic Levels 19 Other Verbal Indications 31 GENERAL CONVENTIONS 3 4. Dynamics 31a. The Different Meanings of Slare 35 2 Temp Fndctions 82M The Nowtion of Slrs and Tes 36 © Phasing Iniractons 2 Placement of Rests Spacings, Positions, and Sizes teenage 118 (Miscellaneous) “ ‘Opening Measures Gin Tradonal Repeats 33" Nownon) “ 2 Rept Araation (Smile) “HY 8 lef Changes % 8. Raped Chor 33 Fine Str Changes & ©: Repaned Mewes 3) bathe End of sine % fRepened Pun ofMeoures Me. Acie ‘ 1 Raped Scions fF Nats amt Res % Running Heads die & stems 7 Stars and Tes Ste Lents ” PhrasinglBowinglBreuthing 35 Siem Diesnons ° Abbreviations and Symbols All abbreviations included in this book appear in the pertinent sections. For other “abbreviations, current musi dictionaries should be consulted (see Bibliography). “Most abbreviations suggested inthis guide were chosen according tothe fot lowing criteria: If possible, the abbreviation should be applicable to several major languages, such a6 n= niente (Italian), nothing (English), or nichis (German), “The abbreviation must not be misleading from language to language. For ex. ample, the abbreviation of an English term must not be similar to the abbre tion of a word with a different meaning in another major language. Thus, the ab- ‘eviations Tromb. of Trb, for Trombone might confuse lalian musics ‘because they could mean Tromba. Less ambiguous choices, therefore, are Tb. and Trbn., which also serve (though perhaps not ideally) to convey the Haan and French terms, Similarly, Cor. for Cornet is too close to the French Cor and the Italian Corno. As a result, Ct. was chosen forthe English term Comet, and while it may not immediately convey Kornett to a German, it wil not indicate a vers For the eater Beam, vec Duan and Rpt, Beard Asean tnd Ried, page neM4 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Heavy lines and arrows are used for pitch durations in spatial nati camer Brackets denote durational indications in spatial notation, including » heavy continuation line with arrowhead SA I rena Brackets show first and second endings: PT $B 2. SOLID LINES, ETC., FOR TIMBRAL INDICATIONS “Thin arrows are used for gradual transitions of mute postions in brass music: te sy eSSq 1nd for mouth positions in vocal music: tion convey variations in “Thin lines with several arrowheads inthe same di he rates of transitions: Trampet: decelerating (from muted to open) GENERAL CONVENTIONS 25, Volee: accelerating (fom nasal (© normal) On eee norm (ot mat = natu 3, MIXED SOLID AND BROKEN LINES Pedaling indications for piano, vibraphone, etc, include a broken line for sradual iting of the pedal: fm Lav Li D. Dotted or Broken Lines ‘These are generally used for transpositions and timbres and forthe instrament ‘manipulations which produce them: ‘Octave transpositions:*_ 8°" basse 2.86 non vibrato ne + ball valve Yura on bestttttessccen hhand temolo (voice): hand over mowth bocca chiusa (voice); b garsessseesseey nasal tome (voice): eves seeeoe See also the mixture of broken and solid lines in pedi piano, etc, above. ing indications for E, Wavy Lines ‘These are generally used for pulsating pitch inflections or quickly alterna pitches ‘an. All wavy lines must appear above the note(s) to which they pertain, except in double-stemmed music: 1. suapen tunes rl pe double tilt; @sseesaeeesaety fluter tongue: fLim———~ oF fw hater Lips: fpr een "The onal ™ aed 15% aria the ree of being replaced by a mere mera or 5,26 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, 2. UNSHADED LINES, REGULAR vibrato: fost WMA slow AN luemolo (wide, fast vibrator: UWL 3. UNSHADED LINES, IRREGULAR. vibrato or tremolo with variations in width andlor speed: malar or after fl? eres) 4. SHADED AND IRREGULAR LINES the same as above, but with dynamics “built in’* (thin soft; heavy = Tod): Mra WW do) taersms ‘With these last graphic devices, the limits of standardizable wavy lines have been reached. The next step would enter the field of ‘implicit graphics," which should not be subjected to standardization (see Notation Suited for Standardiza tion, page 336 f). Instructions ‘Verbal instructions are best placed where they apply, instead of in footnotes, which require the performer to look dowa and possibly lose his place. Irregular Note Divisions: Graphic Characteristics (For durational aspects see Duration and Rhythm, Iregular Note Divisions, page 129 ff.) ‘A. Brackets versus Slurs in Unbeamed and Partially Beamed Groups Square brackets, rather than slurs, should be used for unbeamed triplets, etc, to.void ambiguities, Slurs will thus ony indicate phrasing or refer to other typi- cal slur functions such as bowing ‘The numerals and brackets should be placed at the stem-side ofthe respective groups so thatthe space tthe note-heads willbe free for slurs and other atic Bracket notation GENERAL CONVENTIONS 27 The same with stars instead of brackets (incorrect) ‘The difference between non legato (the frst, unslurred triplet) and legato {the second, slurred triplet), which is obvious inthe bracket notation, is impossi- ble to indicate in notation with triplet srs. Ifa group contains both upstems and downstems, it is often best o let the ma- jity of stems determine the position of the numeral and bracket, but much ‘depends onthe amount of articulation, The less interference with articulation and phrasing, the beter. The same applies to groups with an equal number of up- and downstems os within vertical brackets ar less desirable.) Phasing and articulation marks are always placed closer to the note-heads than the numerals and brackets. B, Beamed Groups 1. FOLL-LENGTIE BEAMS No brackets are needed as long asthe numeral is placed atthe beam side: Im weer ch Fm ee ers stemmed groups in vocal music (see Voice, page 297), brackets do become es- sential: 2. FULL-LENGTH BEAMS. WATH SUBDIVISIONS “Multiple beams make it possible to show the individual sub-units of a beamed roup through interruptions of the beam closest to the note-heads. No brackets are needed in such bearing: y28 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, J. EXTENDED REAMS In recent practice, beams are often extended in onder to show complete est luits (see Beams: Extended and Bridging Beams, page 15 1) This style of not tion reduces the need for brackets in ie pula geoups epee fi peniegt 7 4. COMBILIATIONS OF BEAMED AND UNREAMED NOTES (OR RESTS) ‘These require brackets, because there is no full-length beat to show the total roup: . Inegular Note Divisions within Regular Groups of Notes ‘Although itis possible to show such regular units by interruptions of secon. rege TT rel iets Regular and iregular sub-units must not be beamed together if there is only a single beam ome FOF CE ITA wee § COLE TTA D, Imegular Note Divisions within Irregular Groups of Notes The numeral forthe tolal group and the numerals forthe iregular subunits should be placed at opposite sides of the group: st eeeeoerr = errr ff Ltt i pe Single-beam groups (eighth notes): se GENERAL CONVENTIONS 29 Mulipte-beam groups (sitteenths and shorter values) Peres « eereee = {In double-stemmed music (Iwo parts on a staff), all numerals are placed atthe stem sides of the respective parts, along with all other signs, and all aumerals should be bracketed: ——>—— 3 — (This would be clearer on two staves.) E, Horizontal Locations of Numerals and Brackets ‘Traditionally, the numeral for an irregular group of notes was centred on the total group regardless of whether its graphic center happened to coincide with ts rational center. In the ist rwo examples below, the graphic and durational centers coincide (more or les); thereafter, they do not Tn more recent music the numerals of a bracketed group are often placed in the ‘group's durational center, and the bracket extended tothe right to show spatially the group's actual, or at least approximate ("*horizontal") duration: i a In groups with full-length beams and without brackets, the traditional style of placing the numeral in the graphic centr is stil valid (but see below ras tecey cote eeer ft Since the last two methods contradict each other, itis suggested that acompro- mise system be employed for groups with full-length beams, ie., groups which ‘otmally would not require brackets forthe numeral If the graphic center ofthe group coincides reasonably well with its dura tional center, place the numeral a its durational center without brackets:30 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY If the two centers are 100 dissimilar to assure proper execution, brackets and extend them to the right where necessary tipi er FT AT ——— ‘This example isa borderine case and had better be notated with a bracket Exception: The following groups are so short that their duration is clear spite of the off-center position of the numeral and the lack of brackets. 1 is customary, therefore. to place the numerals for such groups in the “wrong position: 2 3 AA Ae Leger Lines Leger lines must maintain the same vertical spacing as staff-ines, since they rp. fesent vertical extensions ofthe staff. intervals of a second are on lege lines, the line(s) between the second(s) and the staff must be twice as wide as ordinary leger lines Note-Heads A. Shapes 1, REGULAR NOTE-HEADS Black note-heads are slightly ova: ‘White note-heads: the heads of & wot tes SS at at ones (EE) mt ey singed by the Aliferentshadings 2. DIAMOND-SHAPED NOTE-MEADS These should have slightly inward-curved sides to distinguish them as much as pews om ay mead J, 3. X-SHAPED NOTE-HEADS ‘These have their stems attached right or left, in the same manner as regular notes: (ot) For half and whole notes the x is eniled (P ®), atiough the whole nt ison rpacd by to ed half tes (Ap) be ed a8 9 note. cause a stemless, encircled x might not be recogn GENERAL CONVENTIONS 31 ‘Traditionally, x and diamond: shaped note-heads were combined: x for quar. ter ores an shore ves: dhaonds for half and whole oes (57 *) ‘They continue to be used this way, especially for eymbals in simple percussion contexts (see page 219), but itis preferable to keep them separate thas provi: ing wo ets oF note heads (FF and & BY insteal of only oe. Less frequently used note-heads are included below. B._ Uses of Different Shapes Whenever possible, the following broad rules for correct note heal usage should be observed: repularnose-teads J Jo torensctpiches iamond note-heads J for special playing modes or tone pro- 1) Soe, shaped noteteads Jd ¢ round note-heads ee etl ee ee triangular for triangles (see page 217) noth Jd Placement of Dynamics and Other Verbal Indications Itis important to observe the customary placement of dynamics and other in structions because performers expect them to appea in specific locations. Excep- tions to these routines tend to slow down rehearsals. A. Dynamics 1. INSTRUMENTAL, MUSIC (SCORES ANIVOR PARTS) Single staves (scores): below the music. Single staves (pats): below the music Single staves with two or more polyphonic parts: at the stem side ofthe up- and downstemmed parts Double staves (piano, et.) centered between staves unless polyphonic texture ‘makes it necessary to position dynamics close tothe respective voices, ‘Thee staves (organ): manual staves a5 in other double-staff notation; pedal staf below, to avoid confusion with dynamics appearing below the lower manual staff32 MUSIC NOTATION IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY, Full score, group dynamics: if an entre choir (e.g. all woodwinds or al Strings), or an entte ensemble (c.g., 4 string quartet), have the same dynamic level, a large dynamic marking may be placed below the group or ensemble in stead of under each line. Ifthe group is large (e.g. an entice orchesira, the ‘marking should be repeated higher up. (Separate parts extracted from such a score must of course contain all dynamics pertaining to the 2. VOCAL AND CHORAL MUSIC (OPEN SCORES, PARTS, REDUCTIONS) Single staves: above the music, so as not to interfere with the text, which is always placed below the staff. Single staves with two polyphonic parts should be avoided, but single staves with two parts having the same rhythm, text, and dynamies are common, Al ‘hough the two parts should be notated with double stems, the dynamics should always be placed above, with only the text below. ‘Two-sialf reductions (choral): above and below the staves (text between the saves). Polyphonic textures do not lend themselves easily to reductions, andi is impossible o generalize solutions. (un For a discussion of keyboard reductions for rehearsal—i.e., reductions without text and with a minimum of explicit voice leading—see page 281 (f.) B. Tempo Indications 1. MAIN’ TEMPOS (ALLEGRO, LARGO, ETC.) These are placed above the music. In orchestra scores repeat tempo indications above the string section; in large scores repeat additionally wherever it may seem belpful (above brasses, harps), chorus, et.) In band scores, repeat tempo indications above the brasses. In open choral scores, place tempo indications above the top staf and above the keyboard (if any). In music with frequent tempo changes, itis helpful to repeat the prevailing tempo and/or metronome speed in parentheses atthe beginning ofall left-hand pases. (See also page 143 and top of page 164.) 2. MODIFICATIONS (RIT., ACCEL, FTC) Single staves (parts): preferably above. Double staves (piano, ete.): preferably centered between the staves; if too crowded, above. ‘Three staves (organ): centered between the upper two staves or, if 100 crowded, above the top staf. ‘Choral scores (open): above each staff C. Playing Instructions 1. exeRessive Disecty elated o a dynamic degree (psubito: sempre mf ff marc. ee.) below the staf along with the dynamic ini GENERAL CONVENTIONS 33 Not directly related to the dynamics (gratioso, marcato, heavy, scorrevole, ‘mit Humor, et.) preferably above the staff. 2. Tecwmtcat Indications such as pizz., arco, a2, bocca chiusa, mute, take Pic, dv., 010, tutti, ete: above the staf Nas In vocal and choral music, all such instructions must be placed above the staff or staves Repeats Signs discussed in sections», c, and p below are chiefly used in pats rather than in Scores A. Repeated Articulation (Simile) The indication simile must always be preceded by at least one written-out measure, and each new line of music must also begin with one written-out Beginning of next tine pear rip B. Repeated Chords If the chords coincide with beats, they are indicated with heavy slanted strokes. Otherwise, they are indicated with headless stems. (This notation is rarely used for single noes.) Quarter noes (Beas) Other rhythms Sansa w—— F. of im, P [Note that, as wit simile, each new line must begin with the wrtten-out chord Wis not necessary, however, to write out an entire measure, as shown in both ex- amples. Dynamic indications may be added without repeating the chord, . Repeated Measures, ‘These are shown by a heavy slanted stroke centered and flanked by two dots oe SSIS eee a> mat