Bioresource Technology 184 (2015) 280–285

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Energy evaluation of algal cell disruption by high pressure

homogenisation
Benjamin H.J. Yap a, Geoff J. Dumsday b, Peter J. Scales a, Gregory J.O. Martin a,⇑
a
Algal Processing Group, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
b
CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, Bayview Avenue, Clayton, Victoria 3168, Australia

h i g h l i g h t s

 Energy required for high pressure homogenisation of microalgae was analysed.

 Solids content, TAG content, and homogenisation pressure were considered.
 Processing of concentrated microalgal paste is not only possible but also required.
 Between 6% and 110-times of the energy density of the biodiesel was required.
 HPH is feasible for concentrated pastes of relatively weak microalgae.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The energy consumption of high pressure homogenisation (HPH) was analysed to determine the feasibil-
Received 31 August 2014 ity of rupturing algal cells for biodiesel production. Experimentally, the processing capacity (i.e. flow
Received in revised form 10 November 2014 rate), power draw and cell disruption efficiency of HPH were independent of feed concentration (for Nan-
Accepted 11 November 2014
nochloropsis sp. up to 25% w/w solids). Depending on the homogenisation pressure (60–150 MPa), the sol-
Available online 18 November 2014
ids concentration (0.25–25% w/w), and triacylglyceride (TAG) content of the harvested algal biomass (10–
30%), the energy consumed by HPH represented between 6% and 110-times the energy density of the
Keywords:
resulting biodiesel. Provided the right species (weak cell wall and high TAG content) is selected and
Cell disruption
High pressure homogenisation
the biomass is processed at a sufficiently high solids concentration, HPH can consume a small fraction
Nannochloropsis sp. of the energy content of the biodiesel produced. This study demonstrates the feasibility of process-scale
Biodiesel algal cell disruption by HPH based on its energy requirement.
Energy analysis Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Despite the vast potential for the commercialisation of algal-
derived products ranging from fuel, food and feed, (Becker, 2007;
Pulz and Gross, 2004; Scott et al., 2010), accessing the intracellular
components in a cost-effective manner remains a major challenge
in process-scale operations. Economic analyses of current process
designs show that they remain prohibitively expensive despite
generally favourable factors such as areal productivity and envi-
ronmental impact (Sun et al., 2011). Limitations of current dewa-
tering technologies (Uduman et al., 2010) and the prohibitively
high cost of thermal drying (Cooney et al., 2011) indicate that
recovery and extraction processes need to be focussed on biomass
with a high water content of up to 80% w/w (in the form of concen-
trated paste). In addition, these processes must have the ability to
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 3 8344 6613; fax: +61 3 8344 4153.
E-mail address: gjmartin@unimelb.edu.au (G.J.O. Martin).
effectively deal with a rigid algal cell wall that encapsulates the
components of commercial interest such as lipids and proteins.
The complete disruption of the algal cell wall prior to product
recovery has been shown to be critical for successful process-scale
lipid extraction from wet algal biomass (Olmstead et al., 2013b),
with cell disruption overcoming the mass transfer barriers result-
ing from the presence of water and the cell wall (Yap et al.,
2014). A range of cell rupture techniques including high pressure
homogenisation (Halim et al., 2012; Olmstead et al., 2013b;
Samarasinghe et al., 2012), ultrasonication (Halim et al., 2012;
Keris-Sen et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2010), microwave heating
(Balasubramanian et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2010), bead-beating
(Halim et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2010), ball-milling (Balasundaram
et al., 2012) and osmotic shock (Lee et al., 2010) have been tested
on algal suspensions and all have generally been shown to have a
positive effect on recovery yield. Even though cell disruption can
clearly be achieved by these various techniques, only a limited
range of methods are feasible for process-scale implementation

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2014.11.049
0960-8524/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 B.H.J. Yap et al. / Bioresource Technology 184 (2015) 280–285
(Middelberg, 1995). Innovative low-energy process routes are still
highly sought after as some of the most industrially promising
algae such as Chlorella sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. are highly resis-
tant to mechanical breakage (Spiden et al., 2013).
For a process-scale cell disruption technology to be feasible, it
must have the ability to continuously process high solids biomass
(i.e. high viscosities), be highly energetically efficient, of short res-
idence time, and cause minimal product degradation. The high
pressure homogeniser, a unit operation adapted from the dairy
industry, offers the aforementioned advantages and is the most
widely used method for process-scale cell disruption for recovering
recombinant proteins from Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cere-
visiae (Diels and Michiels, 2006). Most homogenisers operate
under the same basic principle whereby cell suspensions are circu-
lated and forced by a positive displacement pump through an ori-
fice within an assembly of specially designed valves at pressure.
The flow velocity increases rapidly and the pressure decreases to
atmospheric over a short distance as the suspension exits the unit.
The mechanisms of cell disruption through the homogeniser is still
not fully understood, but has been attributed variously to fluid
shear stress (Clarke et al., 2010), inertial forces (Kleinig and
Middelberg, 1998), impingement (Keshavarz Moore et al., 1990),
turbulence (Doulah et al., 1975) and cavitation (Shirgaonkar
et al., 1998). Even less is understood about the mechanism of rup-
ture when high pressure homogenisation is performed at high
solids.
Even though high pressure homogenisation can rupture even
the most mechanically resilient algae such as Nannochloropsis sp.
(Spiden et al., 2013) and can be used to process pre-treated con-
centrated paste (Olmstead et al., 2013b), it can only be practically
applied to large scale processing of algal biomass provided the
energy requirements are sufficiently low. A number of recent stud-
ies have evaluated the performance of high pressure homogenisa-
tion in the context of algal processing, with largely negative
conclusions (Coons et al., 2014). However, a major limitation of
these studies is that they have all been performed on the basis of
processing dilute algal suspensions of <5% w/w solids, which as
we will show, greatly overestimates the associated energy con-
sumption. As an example, the studies by Lee et al. (2012), Halim
et al. (2012) and Balasundaram and Pandit (2001) all concluded
that current cell disruption technologies including high pressure
homogenisation consume significantly more energy than the
potential energy output of algal-derived biodiesel. However, these
conclusions were all based on studies using dilute suspensions
(<1% w/w solids) of algae (Halim et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2012) or
yeast (Balasundaram and Pandit, 2001). To properly evaluate the
potential of high pressure homogenisation for algal processing,
analysis of the associate energy requirements and processing
effectiveness must be performed across a range of solids
concentrations.
In this study, a detailed examination of the energy requirement
of rupturing algal cells by high pressure homogenisation is under-
taken. Nannochloropsis sp., one of the most industrially promising
yet difficult to mechanically rupture species of algae, was chosen
as the target organism. It is a fast growing and highly robust spe-
cies with a fatty acid profile suitable for biodiesel and omega-3
production, having an abundance of saturated, monounsaturated,
and eicosapentaeoic fatty acids (Olmstead et al., 2013a). The
energy consumption and rupture performance of a bench-scale
homogeniser were investigated as a function of solids concentra-
tion (0.25–25% w/w). Subsequently, an analysis to identify key
processing criteria to ensure feasibility upon scale-up was under-
taken according to the equipment manufacturer specifications
and realistic process assumptions. Commentary is also provided
for issues concerning scale-up in an algal biodiesel production
facility.
281
2. Methods
2.1. Algal biomass
Biomass slurries of Nannochloropsis sp. (20–25% w/w solids)
were sourced from an outdoor growth facility in Karratha, Western
Australia. Total solids in the biomass were determined by a method
developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL
(Sluiter et al., 2008). Biomass was stored in a freezer at 20 °C
and thawed prior to experimentation, which was conducted 2–
4 months later. Prior to commencing experimental work using
freeze–thawed paste, it was confirmed that the extent of cell rup-
ture resulting from high pressure homogenisation (as measured by
cell counting) was minimally affected by the freeze–thawing pro-
cess. Freshly harvested and freeze–thawed biomass samples were
homogenised at the same processing conditions (solids concentra-
tion, homogenisation pressure, number of passes and feed temper-
ature) and subsequently quantified by cell counting. A deviation of
less than 10% was observed over five homogenisation passes.
2.2. High pressure homogeniser
A GEA Panda2K NS1001L bench top high pressure homogeniser
(GEA Niro Soavi, Parma, Italy) with a nominal flow rate of 10 L h 1
and equipped with a cell disruption valve (RE+ valve) was used in
this study. A pressurised feeding hopper assembly was fitted to the
homogeniser to process high solids biomass. Power consumption
was measured by a three-phase power metre (ABB Australia).
Slurries of different concentrations were passed through the
homogeniser at pressures ranging from 30 to 150 MPa. Homoge-
nates were recovered and subsequent analyses were performed
within 3 h of homogenisation.
2.3. Quantification of cell disruption
Cell rupture was quantified by cell counting, due to its accuracy
and reproducibility (Spiden et al., 2013). The number of intact cells
remaining after homogenisation was determined by microscopic
observation using a Neubauer improved haemocytometer (Labo-
roptik Ltd., Lancing, United Kingdom) with a 100 lm chamber
depth. ImageJ, a public-domain image processing and analysis soft-
ware (Rasband, 2008), was used to ensure consistency in cell
counting by minimising variability in analysis between samples.
Measurements of the total area occupied by cells were used to ver-
ify the intact cell counts. This was particularly useful for samples
with cell clumping, typically observed in samples that had been
homogenised at higher pressures. All imaging was performed using
an Olympus BX51 light microscope with a DP72 digital camera
attachment (Olympus, Mt. Waverley, VIC, Australia). Cell counts
were normalised between the control sample (unhomogenised cell
count) and zero.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. High pressure homogenisation as a function of feed concentration
Process-scale dewatering techniques, typically consisting of a
pre-concentration flocculation step followed by centrifugation
(Vandamme et al., 2013), produce algal pastes of up to 25% w/w
solids. As the capital and operating costs associated with down-
stream processing of algal biomass are expected to be reduced as
a function of increasing solids volume fraction, the ability to
directly feed dewatered algal paste (at ca. 25% w/w solids) into
the high pressure homogeniser would appear highly desirable.
282 B.H.J. Yap et al. / Bioresource Technology 184 (2015) 280–285
However, the feasibility of processing high solids biomass
through the homogeniser needs to be considered in relation to
the effect of concentration on the processing capacity of the
homogeniser (i.e. homogenate flow rate), the power draw, and cell
rupture efficiency. To test the homogeniser performance, Nanno-
chloropsis sp. suspensions of 25% w/w solids and a control sample
(water i.e. 0% w/w solids) were processed by a single pass at pres-
sures ranging from 25 to 150 MPa. The resulting homogenate flow
rate and power draw were found to be solely dependent on
homogenising pressure and independent of feed concentration
(Fig. 1). While the nominal flow rate was specified to be 10 L h 1
by the manufacturer, a slight decrease in flow rate from 14 to
11 L h 1 was observed with increasing pressure. As discussed
later, the reduction in processing capacity at higher homogenising
pressure becomes more significant as the process is scaled up.
The effectiveness of the homogeniser at rupturing cells in slur-
ries of different concentrations was investigated by passing sus-
pensions of 0.25% w/w, 2.5% w/w and 25% w/w solids at a single
pass through the homogeniser at a range of pressures. Considering
that processing capacity is unaffected by cell concentration up to
25% w/w solids (Fig. 1), the homogeniser will process 100-times
more cells per unit volume at 25% w/w solids than at 0.25% w/w
solids at any given pressure.
To investigate the effect of concentration on the ability of the
homogeniser to rupture the cells, the extent of cell rupture in sam-
ples of different concentrations was determined by quantifying the
intact cells remaining. In triplicate experiments performed
between 30 and 150 MPa, indistinguishable difference in rupture
was observed between samples at concentrations of 0.25% w/w,
2.5% w/w and 25% w/w solids (data not shown), revealing that
the rupture of algal cells was independent of feed concentration
through the homogeniser. There is obviously a concentration and
rheological limit to this observation but it aligns with previous
work performed on Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and
Alcaligenes eutrophus suspensions (Agerkvist and Enfors, 1990;
Brookman, 1974; Harrison et al., 1991). They found cell concentra-
tion had no discernable effect on the efficiency of cell disruption
over a wide range of cell concentrations (5–30% w/w solids) and
operating pressures (55–170 MPa). A cell disrupting unit that is
insensitive to feed concentration translates to an overall reduction
in energy requirements with increasing concentration, as the oper-
ation can be performed at a higher capacity without increasing
energy consumption or compromising the extent of cell rupture.
Fig. 1. Comparison of flow rate and power draw from a laboratory-scale high
pressure homogeniser processing water and 25% w/w algal suspensions. Error bars
represent the range between the upper and lower bounds of triplicate
measurements.
In other words, because processing biomass at 25% w/w solids
achieves the same extent of cell rupture as processing biomass at
0.25% w/w solids, the total amount of energy consumed is reduced
one hundred fold per ruptured cell (Fig. 2). In addition, the benefit
of performing this upstream operation at high solids will be carried
forward to other downstream recovery and separation processes,
which will provide a concentrated feed thereby reducing the total
required volumes of subsequent downstream equipment.
These observations clearly demonstrate the benefit of perform-
ing high pressure homogenisation at higher solids in terms of
decreasing energy use and increasing cost efficiency. However,
the optimal feed concentration through the high pressure homog-
eniser needs to be the maximum possible concentration that can
be processed without practical handling difficulties. As with sus-
pensions of other microorganisms, the rheology of algal pastes is
highly sensitive to solids concentration. The difference in viscosity
(at low shear) between a 25% w/w solids algal paste and water (or
even dilute suspensions of <5% w/w solids) is more than 4 orders of
magnitude (data not shown). Consequently, feeding a 25% w/w sol-
ids algal paste into a homogeniser required a pressurised hopper
(providing up to 0.1 MPa) whereas dilute suspensions could be
fed direct into the unit by gravitational flow. Given that the power
draw, flow-rate capacity, and cell rupture efficiency of the high
pressure homogeniser were shown to be independent of feed con-
centration, the remaining challenge is to effectively feed highly vis-
cous concentrated suspension into the unit without expending
more energy. Further work involving rheological characterisation
of high solids algal suspensions and potential pre-treatment meth-
ods to lower suspension viscosity is needed to aid further process
optimisation.
3.2. Scaling-up from laboratory to process-scale
High pressure homogenisation is commonly used in many
large-scale commercial applications ranging from the food to phar-
maceutical industries. However, its potential in relation to the algal
industry remains poorly understood. The ability to optimise this
unit operation for algal processing is particularly important given
that it has the potential to be used at large scale. The suitability
of high pressure homogenisation to scale-up has been demon-
strated here by showing that highly effective cell disruption can
be achieved while maintaining high processing capacity. To prop-
erly assess its potential, the energy consumption required to
achieve cell rupture for microalgae was analysed using both, man-
ufacturer’s data for model units of pilot- and process-scale homog-
enisers and data obtained from the laboratory-scale unit.
While high pressure homogenisation is inherently scalable
owing to the maintenance of most performance parameters across
Fig. 2. The resulting energy consumption per unit mass of dry algal solids
processed. Power consumption was calculated using the flow rate and power draw
data (Fig. 1), assuming a density of 1025 kg m 3 for the saline media solution.
 B.H.J. Yap et al. / Bioresource Technology 184 (2015) 280–285 283

Fig. 3. Comparison of the different scale models of GEA Niro Soavi high pressure homogenisers – processing capacity (A) and volumetric power consumption (B) as a function
of operating pressure. Experimental data were obtained for the laboratory-scale homogeniser (NS1001), while manufacturer data were used for the pilot and process-scale
models (NS3030 and NS5355, respectively).

Table 1
Processing capacities of high pressure homogenisers at each scale of operation in
equivalent area of mass algal culture per unit homogeniser. Flow rates were taken
from representative models of each scale as presented in Fig. 3. Assumptions: pond
productivity = 25 g m 2 d 1; homogeniser feed = 25% w/w solids.
Model unit Homogeniser Homogeniser
pressure = 60 MPa; pressure = 150 MPa;
20–30% cell rupture 70–80% cell rupture
Flow rate Area Flow rate
(L h 1) (ha) (L h 1)
Laboratory- 13 0.3 11
scale
Pilot-scale 1100 26.4 330
Process-scale 15,000 360 5000
a range of scales, one significant difference encountered upon
scale-up is the reduction in processing capacity that occurs as a
function of increasing homogenising pressure (Fig. 3A). Processing
capacities for both pilot- and process-scale models are reduced by
up to one order of magnitude across the pressure range investi-
gated. The volumetric flow rate of the model process-scale unit is
reduced by more than 7-times from 37,000 to 5000 L h 1 as the
homogenising pressure is increased from 25 to 150 MPa. In com-
parison, the reduction in flow rate for a bench top unit across the
same pressure increment is less than 30% (Fig. 1). Presumably this
is due to difference in the efficiency of the positive displacement
pumps used at different scales.
Microalgae with the potential for industrial application, espe-
cially Nannochloropsis sp. used in this study, possess a recalcitrant
and mechanically strong cell wall that require high homogenising
pressure to achieve levels of cell rupture required for subsequent
product recovery to be effective (Spiden et al., 2013; Yap et al.,
2014). Even though high operating pressures result in a reduction
in processing capacity (Fig. 3A), a single large scale high pressure
homogeniser unit is still able to process large amounts of concen-
trated paste at high pressures and therefore able to service large
expanses of algal ponds (Table 1). Assuming a pond productivity
of 25 g m 2 d 1 and a homogeniser feed of 25% w/w solids, a single
process-scale unit used in this study operating continuously at
150 MPa is sufficient to service a facility with 120 ha of mass algal
culture (currently the largest outdoor algal growth facility in the
world). The potential oil production for a 120 ha facility is more
than 3000 t yr 1 assuming yields of 26 t ha 1 yr 1 (Lardon et al.,
2009).
An important consideration for the scale-up of high pressure
homogenisation is the potential issue of equipment ‘clogging’
especially in processing biomass from outdoor growth facilities.
As high pressure homogenisation requires the biomass slurries to
pass through the valve gap, units have to be protected from partic-
ulate debris that may be associated with biomass sourced from
open ponds. This could be achieved by incorporating a low-cost
grit removal operation, such as those used in wastewater treat-
ment, prior to biomass concentration.
3.3. Energy requirements of cell disruption by high pressure
homogenisation (HPH)
Area
(ha)
The analysis to this point indicates that high pressure homoge-
0.3 nisation can be feasibly scaled to levels required for industrial algal
processing. However, the application of high pressure homogenisa-
7.9
120
tion for cell disruption is only practical so long as the energy
requirements are not prohibitively high. This is particularly impor-
tant for situations in which algal biomass are produced as a feed-
stock for biofuel production, as such a process must obviously
produce more energy than it consumes. To better understand this
parameter space, an analysis of energy consumption for high pres-
sure homogenisation was performed in relation to key processing
parameters (solids concentration, homogenisation pressure, and
the triacylglyceride (TAG) content of the harvested algal biomass).
In the first analysis, the energy consumption of high pressure
homogenisation was presented on the basis of MJ kg 1 dry algae
as a function of both homogenisation pressure and solids content
(Fig. 4). These results again clearly show that energy efficiency is
critically dependent on operating at high solids.
For biodiesel production, the energy density of the final
biodiesel product must exceed the energy cost of production. To
understand the feasibility of incorporating high pressure homoge-
nisation into an algal biodiesel production process, a range of sce-
narios were examined on the basis of the fraction of total energy
content of biodiesel that would be required for the operation of
homogenisation (Table 2). While the total energy balance of such
a process must include other energy inputs (i.e. associated with
biomass production, lipid extraction, and biodiesel conversion)
and also the energy equivalent value of co-products from the
non-lipid biomass, these were not considered here. Rather, this
assessment gives an indication of the magnitude of the HPH unit
operation, which must remain a relatively small fraction of the
energy content of the biodiesel to be considered feasible.
The scenarios considered here compare the effects of increasing
TAG content in the biomass (between 10% and 30%) resulting in
more biodiesel per biomass produced, increasing homogenisation
pressure (between 60 and 150 MPa) resulting in higher cell disrup-
tion but requiring more energy, and increasing solids content
(between 0.1% w/w and 25% w/w) therefore reducing the energy
required per algal cell ruptured. The results show that within the
ranges of the parameters investigated, high pressure homogenisa-
284 B.H.J. Yap et al. / Bioresource Technology 184 (2015) 280–285

Table 3
Energy requirement of high pressure homogenisation as a function of algal species,
number of passes and TAG content using data from previous studies from our group.
Assumptions: 25% w/w solids, 20% w/w total available TAG and a complete recovery
of TAG from ruptured cells (TAG recovered = fraction of cells ruptured  total
available TAG). Scenarios whereby the energy requirement exceeds the potential
energy output are shaded grey.
Nannochloropsis sp.
Pressure Rupture TAG recovered No. of
Reference MJHPH/MJTAG
(MPa) (N/N0) (%w/w) passes
100 0.92 18.3 13 1.9
Spiden et al. (2013) 120 0.92 18.3 8 1.4
150 0.91 18.1 6 1.3
Olmstead et al. (2013b) 120 1 20.0 1 0.16
Chlorella sp.
Pressure Rupture TAG recovered No. of
Reference MJHPH/MJTAG
(MPa) (N/N0) (%w/w) passes
60 0.91 18.2 16 1.4
100 0.92 18.3 4 0.58
Spiden et al. (2013)
Fig. 4. The effect of solids concentration on the energy consumption per unit mass 120 0.93 18.6 3 0.52
of dry algae through a process-scale high pressure homogeniser. 150 0.91 18.2 2 0.44
Tetraselmis suecica.
Pressure Rupture TAG recovered No. of
Reference MJHPH/MJTAG
(MPa) (N/N0) (%w/w) passes
Table 2
The impact of solids concentration (0.1–25%) and TAG content (10–30%) on the 10 0.92 18.4 8 0.12
energy requirement of high pressure homogenisation (single pass, 60–150 MPa) as a Spiden et al. (2013) 20 0.96 19.1 3 0.08
fraction of the effective energy density of TAG as biodiesel. Scenarios whereby the
40 0.91 18.3 1 0.06
energy requirement exceeds the potential energy output (>1) are shaded grey.

Homogenisation Solids concentration

TAG content
pressure 0.1% 1% 5% 10% 25%
(MPa) (% w/w) MJHPH/MJTAG
10 44 4.4 0.9 0.44 0.18 ters. To assess the likelihood of a feasible operation using current
60 20 22 2.2 0.44 0.22 0.09 knowledge, a further analysis was performed considering data pre-
30 15 1.5 0.29 0.15 0.06 viously obtained in this laboratory to present scenarios based on
10 74 7.4 1.5 0.74 0.29 actual parameter values (homogenising pressure, solids content
100 20 37 3.7 0.74 0.37 0.15 and TAG content). Table 3 shows the amount of energy required
30 25 2.5 0.49 0.25 0.10 for three microalgae considered promising for biodiesel production
10 88 9 1.8 0.9 0.35 – Nannochloropsis sp., Chlorella sp., and Tetraselmis suecica – on the
120 20 44 4.4 0.9 0.44 0.18 basis that 25% w/w solids can be processed (as demonstrated in
30 29 2.9 0.59 0.29 0.12 Olmstead et al., 2013b) and 20% TAG content can be achieved. A
10 110 11 2.2 1.1 0.44 range of homogenisation pressures and number of passes through
150 20 55 5.5 1.1 0.55 0.22 the homogeniser were compared based on previous rupture data of
30 37 3.7 0.74 0.37 0.15 these species as a function of pressure (Olmstead et al., 2013b;
Spiden et al., 2013) with the amount of TAG recovered assumed
Notes/assumptions: to be directly proportional to the extent of rupture achieved (Yap
(1) Algal biodiesel calorific value = 37.5 MJ kg 1.
et al., 2014).
(2) TAG-to-biodiesel conversion = 90%.
(3) Energy density of TAG as biodiesel = (1)/(2) = 41.7 MJ kg 1. The analysis shows that the energy load for HPH for a given
(4) Combustion efficiency = 35%. microalgae is minimised by operation at higher pressure for fewer
1
(5) Effective energy density of TAG as biodiesel = (3)  (4) = 14.6 MJ kg . passes (c.f. Chlorella sp. at 120 vs 150 MPa). The results also indi-
cate that high pressure homogenisation can be used to rupture
Nannochloropsis sp. with a parasitic energy load of only 16% of
the energy content of the biodiesel if the process previously
tion could represent between 6% (60 MPa, 25% solids, 30% TAG) and described by Olmstead et al. (2013b) is employed. The analysis also
110 times (150 MPa, 0.1% solids, 10% TAG) the energy content of shows that a weak organism such as T. suecica (provided it can be
the resulting biodiesel. These results can be considered against a grown with a high TAG content) would require much less energy
framework presented in a recently published study which con- for HPH (6–12% of the biodiesel energy content) owing to the
cluded that high pressure homogenisation is not energetically via- reduced pressure required to rupture the cells. Conversely, micro-
ble (Coons et al., 2014). This conclusion was drawn because the algae that are highly resistant to mechanical rupture such as Chlo-
highest processing concentration considered was 4% w/w solids rella sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. require a considerable fraction of
(see Table 2). We have in shown here that it is in fact possible to the energy output (44–190%) unless cell weakening can be
process high solids algal slurries at 25% w/w solids, which greatly achieved (see Olmstead et al., 2013b). Although the energy
reduces the energy demand of high pressure homogenisation, requirements for the entire process still need to be considered, this
thereby altering the conclusion from the Coons et al. (2014) analysis suggests that HPH could indeed be feasible from a scala-
analysis. bility and energy standpoint, provided the right species (weak cell
This analysis clearly illustrates both the feasibility of HPH and wall and high TAG content) is grown and the biomass is processed
the key limitations, depending on the specified process parame- at high solids.
 B.H.J. Yap et al. / Bioresource Technology 184 (2015) 280–285
4. Conclusion
The processing of high solids Nannochloropsis sp. of up to
25% w/w through the high pressure homogeniser has been suc-
cessfully demonstrated in this study. The processing capacity,
power draw and cell disruption efficiency of HPH were shown to
be independent of homogeniser feed concentration and solely
dependent on homogenising pressure. Analysis indicates that high
pressure homogenisation is feasible for process-scale algal cell dis-
ruption from both a scalability and energy standpoint. Future work
should be focused on rheological characterisation of high solids
algal biomass and pre-treatment methods to increase the ruptura-
bility of cells to aid further process optimisation.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of an Austra-
lian Postgraduate Award and a Melbourne Materials Institute
(MMI)-CSIRO Material Science PhD Scholarship. We are also grate-
ful to Aurora Algae for provision of the microalgal paste and to Dr.
Ronald Halim for his useful discussions and contributions to the
project. The financial and in-kind laboratory support of the Partic-
ulate Fluids Processing Centre, a Special Research Centre of the
Australian Research Council, is also acknowledged.
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