1 History of Roma people in context of Slovakia

The reason why the Roma issue ever arose was as a result of several factors. These
factors act in time and space, therefore it is necessary to consider the Roma history as the first.
If we want to analyze the Roma issue thoroughly, we must take its historical development and
important milestones into account. They serve as a starting point and so they help to objectify
our view. In the first chapter, I offer an outline of historical development in various
approaches towards Roma minority. Moreover, sorting facts based on approaches (but
respecting the date sequencing) facilitates general orientation in this issue and so provides a
complex unit of information relevant in contribution to the Roma issue.

1.1 Political and geographical aspects of Roma history in Slovakia

Till the end of the 18th century, the origin of Roma was covered by mystery. On the
basis of simple analysis comparison, the Transylvanian preacher Valyi Istvan from Szathmar
declared the Indian origin of the Roma around the year 1763. While studying in Leiden in
Netherland, he met three Indian students. Their speech strongly reminded him of the language
of Gypsies living near his birthplace. Thanks to reports from this event, the linguists analyzed
Roma language and compared it to the development of Indian languages. The resulting
conclusion was that Roma motherland is in India. (Botík, 2007)

1.1.1 Middle ages

In the course of the 3rd to the 5th and the 9th to the 10th century the ancestors of today’s
Roma left India in several migratory ways. Probably because of favorable natural conditions,
market and services, tribes wandered through Persia, Armenia, Asia Minor to European
continent. One of these impulses could also be an expansion of rival tribes (Mongolian,
Arabic) into India. (Korim, 2006)
Within the 12th and the 13th century, Roma gradually penetrated from the Balkans
along the Danube River into central Europe. In the area of today’s Slovakia it is proved by
Mayor Ján. He is the author of the first written mention about Romans in Spiš region, coming
from 1233. (Mann, 2000)
Initially, Europe accepted the nomad groups of the Roma with concern, surprise and
lack of understanding. They presented themselves as pilgrims of Minor Egypt, who as sinners
in penance have to wander around the world. In 1417, Sigmund, the German czar gave gypsy
duke Ladislav a letter of protection, guaranteeing hospitality and friendly reception in cities
and villages of the empire. Despite the inhabitants’ initial affinity of Roma, attitudes towards
them latter changed. (Liegeois,1997)
Christian authorities warned against vagrant lifestyle, because it was not compatible
with the perception of Christian penitence. The decisive moment that changed attitudes in
Europe was Romany excommunication by Parisian bishop in 1427. The reasons for that was
the violation of Christian moral, break of the fast, palmistry and small thefts. For Romas it
started a spell of cruel persecutions, in many European countries it stood out of law, they were
expelled from everywhere. In Eastern Europe this attitude remained the same until the earlier
half of the 18th century; better conditions were in central and south western Europe. However,
during the years of war in Osman Empire the help of Romany blacksmiths was highly necessa
ry. (Mann, 2000)

1.1.2 Period of modern times

After a cruel period of persecution, the political attitude toward the settled and vagrant
Romans had changed positively during the enlightened reign of Maria Theresa and Joseph II..
For the first time in history, the Roma were not to be expelled, but counted among citizens.
Although some proceeding may seem inhuman and discriminating nowadays, their
regulations were progressive and became a prototype for other European countries. The
pursuit to assimilate, emancipate and force them to settle was on an extremely high level. It is
proved by plenty proceedings, according to those of 1761 and 1773, they were supposed to
become peasants. By the end of the 19th century there came to the area that is now Slovakia a
group of nomadic Roma, coming from Valašsko (today part of Romania), known as Vlachika
Roma. (Jurová,2002)

1.1.3 First Czechoslovak Republic and Autonomous Slovakia

After the break up of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, the Czechoslovak Republic
was established (1918, what had an impact on the general situation of settled Roma.
Providing their cheap labour force, they were employed in agricultural factories, on the other
hand, traditional romany proffesions lost their competitiveness, considering the variety and
quality of manufacturing products. However, the growing economic crisis affected the lowest
and poorest classes the most and the Roma minority was part of it. The rising concerns about
this situation were substancial- the rising population, poor hygiene in growing Roma colonies,
enlargement of illegal activities.(Kollárová, 2002)
 In reference to Jurová (2004), the first Czechoslovak Republic, despite its democratic
character, did not hesitate to legalize the everyday methods of Roma segregation, isolation
and criminalization. It was Act No. 117/1927 on travelling Gypsies, which defined the
concept of “wandering Roma”. According to Kollárová (2002), the Romany people were
obligated to come to census that by different ways enabled to check their identity The post-
war state tied up with economic crisis resulted in anti-Romany awareness and rise of various
physical tortures. At the turn of 1926-1927, the relations between Roma and majority became
worse. One of the reasons was “detection of criminal Roma activities” in Moldava nad
Bodvou (Kollárová, 2002). Despite few civil-law shortcomings and discriminating features,
Czechoslovak anti-Roma legislature became the prototype of similar focused legislation in
other European countries. (Korim, 2006)
October 6, 1938 was well-known for Autonomy Declaration of Slovakia, denoted split
into two states. Political regime was under control of Nazi Germany which was in Slovak
state represented by crimes against humanity, anti-Semitism, social demagogy. In spite of
relatively steady economical conditions, the increase of educational, cultural and social
standard of majority, the German anti-Romani legislative was set in motion. (Korim, 2006)

1.1.4 World War II.

The cruelest chapter of nowadays history is definitely represented by the years of
World War II. In this period, it came to hateful notion towards everyone who didn’t fit in
Aryan race, including the Roma. To quote Jurová (2004), Slovak Roma, unlike Roma from
other countries, were not deported to concentration camps1. In spite of this, they were subject
to many discriminating regulations - they had to work in special work camps; they were
forbidden to travel via public means of transportation; they had restricted days and hours for
entering towns and villages; their entrepreneurial activities were restricted; and their houses
were moved to locations specified by the municipalities and distant from these
municipalities. Contact with the majority of the population was restricted.
In 1941, the first working camps were set up in Očová and Most na Ostrove, but they
closed down in the same year. However, permanent working camps came to existence from
1942. In the east of Slovakia there was an erected complex in Hanušovce nad Topľou, Bystré,
Petič, Nižný Hrabovec, where Romans built up railway line Prešov-Strážske. In the Jarabé
village they had to work on the state mountain passage Čertovica. Similarly, Romans worked
1
In Slovakia there was already such a great number of them at that time that it was impossible to kill them off or
drag away without cutting the dash and the more because majority of the Roma were settled and integrated
among the natives. (Horváthová, 1964)
in camp in Ústie nad Oravou to construct Orava reservoir (Horváthová,1964). Jurová (2002)
claims that between 1945-1953 there were up to 9 000-10 000 people in working camps
across Slovakia.
Working camps and centers were interconnected with working units in the Slovak
republic army. Jews and Romans carried out on active service in specially established IV.
Board of labor Battalion of the Ministry of National Defense where Romans formed separated
24th so called Gypsy troop. (Korim, 2006)
After the suppression of Slovak national uprising in 1944 by the German Nazi army,
the persecution of Romans reached alarming proportions. Most reprisals (acts of arresting,
torture and slaughter) were committed between November 1944 and January 1945, mostly by
German occupational units2. The Roma suffered under reprisals mainly in the area of the
middle part of Slovakia. In many cases Roma were deported and murdered in mass place of
execution: Kremnička, Nemecká, Kováčová, Zvolen. Inhuman treatment killed more than
1 000 of innocent individuals. (Horváthová, 1964)

1.1.5 Period of communist regime

Czechoslovakia’s post-war political regime was based on communist ideology. In a
standpoint towards the Roma, the principles of this ideology declared historical and cultural
non-acceptance of Romans, referred to notion that the problem of social backwardness may
be caused by capitalism. (Djorgov, 2003)
On the other hand, these years are also characterized by significant forced migration
from Slovakia to Czech Republic, in order to create unqualified labor force and find living.
According to Djorgov (2003), early 60ties projects oriented to assimilate Roma (settlement of
Olach Romanies forced by law in 1958) continued in general measures of social engineering.
It contained of multiple dispersion in order to blend them with the rest of the population. In
addition, more than 15 000 people had to move from permanent residencies they inhabited, in
the most visible parts of the towns out to the suburbs.
Although prohibition of nomadic way of life brought many negatives (violation of
human rights and civil law, which lead to psychic trauma), there were also positives that
started the development of sedentarization and contributed to find solutions of an employment
task, housing, hygiene and medical care, school attendance and others. (Korim, 2006)
Later on, Korim (2006) describes the years of 1965-1968 as a period of dispersion and
conception of displacement. It is mostly characterized by 3 main spheres:
2
The most frequent cloak was mostly suspicion that there is a cooperation with partisans. (Mann, 2000)
 1. Liquidation of Romany shacks and colonies, connected to resolution of
housing issues,
2. Youth education and provision of compulsory schooling (hereby reprisal in
case of disobedience enacted by Law no. 117/1966 Code of law, e.g. taking
family allowances, placing children in children’s homes and others),
3. Integration of employable men into working process.
The effort of segregation in solving the Romany issue, in the period between 1968 and
1969, was according to Korim (2006) characterized by inovative approach. It lies in conscious
conviction that Roma should solve their problems acording to their own point of view, not in
insight of majority, as it was before. In Bratislava, in 1969 the The Union of Gypsies - Roma
was founded (and sequentially canceled in 1973). Romany activists associated under this
institution demanded :
• legal recognition of Romany minority in Czechoslovak Socialistic Republic,
• foundation of cultural organization Románo jekbetaniben (Union of Gypsies in
Czech-Slovak socialistic republic),
• magazine in Romany, Slovak and Hungarian language with educational focus,
• electoral law providing Romany representatives.
However, none of these requirements were filled, but this period played significant role in the
clearance of ethnical, cultural and national resorts.
The years of 1969/70 till 1989 are according to Korim (2006) represented by the
concept of versatile integration of Roma into the mainstream of a society. Generally, we talk
about pursuit to build a prototype of a so called socialist man, demanding qualitative
breakthrough in thinking and acting. On this basis the Roma should come to social and
cultural integration. In order to fulfill the conception, it was necessary to create a field of
social workers and Commissioner of Slovak Socialistic Republic for the issues of Romany
residents.
Prior to 1989 many arrangements oriented on Roma issue were assumed, which all
party organs, executive agency, social organizations were liable to. They pertained to the
removal of inadequacies in employment, health care, education, living and hygiene
conditions.
Roma labor force was directly integrated to working in mills. Many families received
state housing. Thousands of families were allowed individual housing built-up. Roma students
were supported by scholarships and financial help. School attendance was controlled and pre-
school attendance was compulsory. (Jurová, 2003)
Extremely generous measures in the field of social politics became widely considered by the
majority as positive discrimination and unfair benefit.
After 1989 the situation deteriorated, in some settlements there was a deepening
of poverty, mainly due to loss of work. Neither governments formed after the revolution
could sufficiently develope and maintain active efforts that would help solve the position of
the Roma. However, the situation had gotten better just before Slovakia joined the EU,
because one of the criteria for Slovakia to become a member was to solve the Roma
issue. Despite all the international incentives no strategic solution in all its complexity would
lead to satisfactory results.
It is not an easy task and in fact a challenge for the government appointed in 2010 to show a
genuine interest and effort to institutionally secure the Roma issue.

v oblasti politiky sa romom venovalo viac priestoru

1.2 Social and cultural aspects of development

The Roma had met with the social exclusion already in their motherland, in India.
The traditional caste system established in Indian society detached Romans from privileges
and put them into a bunch of low society group of sweepers, laundrywomen but also
headsmen, strollers or horse thieves. They were neither peasants nor shepherds, nor craftsmen
among them so they were wholly dependent on dwellers, in fact providing all needs of daily
livelihood. Forced by their way of subsistence, comparable to tertiary sphere, they
permanently dispersed into great areas and merged with surroundings, almost agricultural
habitants. (Korim, 2006)

1.2.1 Middle ages

Nor arrival to Europe changed their non-agricultural way of life, whereas they were
again dependent on majority. Roma came to Europe in the early middle ages that was the
time, when Europe was already inhabited by different individual ethnical communities. The
Roma mostly offered their services to the majority of the society in exchange for basic food.
(Mann, 1999)
The multiple Romany differences were unable to hide. They tried to turn it into the
advantage it into their advantage, referring to their Egyptian roots and repentant story. On the
basis of various decrees, the gentry were compulsory to offer a shelter to nomads, as well as
bread, fish, beer and money. However, initially sympathetic population latter revealed their
intention and labeled them as pagans, thieves, spies, wicked and sinful aliens. (Jurová, 2001)
The change in the behavior of the majority was appreciable and significant in almost
all spheres of life. By the end of the middle ages, laws and regulations were almost the same
in all European countries. The Roma, who didn’t leave the land were beaten, when recaptured,
their bodies were disfigured. The worst penalty came after third catch - the death by hanging,
staking or drowning.
The coexistence of different cultures is also evident in language. Depending on the
land they passed and inhabited, the Roma language adopted vocabulary from over 13
languages (mostly from Greek language) of those nations they lived in. Even first written
mention as well as first allusion of their name (Adsincani) comes from a monastery on Athos
Island in Greece from a year 1068. Different access in denomination is caused by two
opinions. First opinion considers the misleading Egyptian origin – Egyptyanos - Gypsies,
Gitanos and the other one refers to the sect of Athiganoi - Atsinganos from which the
name atsiganoi came to be associated with the Romani people, later transformed to Latin
Cingerus, Italien Zingaro, German and Dutch Zigeuner, Hungarian Czigány and Slavic
Cigán, Cikán, Cygan. (Horváthová, 1964)

1.2.2 Modern time period

The ideas of following enlightenment period truly came from enlightened mind.
Although, many concepts of Maria Theresa and her son didn’t turn out well, they included
plenty of modern features, for instance to put emphasis on school attendance, upbringing,
compulsory holy mass attendance and hygiene conditions improvement. (Mann, 1999)
However, the main aim of regulations was to assimilate them with the majority. In order to
achieve it, first of all, the Roma had to abandon their nomadic way of life. They were given
land, they had to make living as craftsmen, and they couldn’t marry between themselves, but
should marry major society individuals; the children were raised by peasants. The bargain and
possesion of horses were prohibited. Regulations also attempted to prohibit their own
language and way of dress. (Tkáčová, 2002; Horváthová, 1964)
The main aim of these steps was to settle the Roma permanently and to involve them
in economic production. Korim (2006, p.41) sees the shortcoming in “virtually absolute
ignorance of culture, customs, traditions and lifestyle of Roma”.
 The regulations issued in the 19th century and directed against the Roma vagrancy were
not efficient. For this reason, in Austro-Hungary was the complex Ugrian invoice (1893)
established. It should provide the necessary data and information for compilation of proposal
provisions against nomadic way of life. According to complex Ugrian invoice, there were
274 940 Roma living in Hungarian Empire and 36 237 Roman altogether in the area which is
Slovakia today. The complex Ugrian invoice contains valuable information: the majority of
Roma in Hungary (as well as in the area what is Slovakia today) lived settled and separated
from communal society or expelled from local community. The invoice states also
dissimilarities in raising up, partnership, early beginnings of being sexually active connected
with young birth age. Field of language use is remarkable as well. According to data, more
than half of Romany population doesn’t speak any of Roma languages, but regards the
language of local community as mother tongue. The feeling of Roma language as mother
tongue was noted mostly by nomadic Roma. (Tkáčová, 2002)

1.2.3 The First Czechoslovak Republic and autonomous Slovakia

In the First Czechoslovak Republic, the repressive standpoint is again in use.
Specifically, the Act No. 127/1927 on travelling Gypsies legalized compulsory Gypsy
identification cards3, fingerprinting and the introduction of a special register. It allowed for
the issue and permanent control of travelers letters, sanctions in the form of withdrawals of
trade licenses, control of residential registration, and the subsequent deportation to the village
or town of residence, or simply out of the region. It also allowed for the denial of residential
registration and citizenship.” In the opinion of Mann (1999), in spite of a repressive approach
of state, the Roma lived with the majority in some sort of symbiosis, which was profitable for
both sides. The Roma were helpful for peasants, offering a variety of services, which
positively formed good non-formal relationships. Later on, as Mann claims, that mutual work
relationships were closely connected to the living standard. In other words, as the living
standard of majority in particular area accrued so did the living standard of the local Roma.
In the period between the two world wars, also the mass media played a significant
role in the change of attitude towards the Roma. The mass media The relations between the
minority and majority worsened noticeably. A case in point is considered a pogrom against the
Roma in the village of Pobedím in 1928, where 6 people including children, died. The world’s
attention was attracted in 1929 by a monstrous process in Košice regarding alleged Romany

3
The Roma identifications were issued not only to the nomadic people and wandering ones but also to those who
were settled. That was an obvious discrimination of the whole Roma ethnicity. (Jurová, 2001)
cannibals (from the village Moldava nad Bodvou). Both cases were made up. Arisen anti-
Roma campaign and hysteria resulted in other segregation and isolation expressions. (Jurová,
2000)
Among positives of this time ranks cultural act of the League for a cultural revolution
of Roma (1929) in Košice, which organized medical examinations, first Roma schools
establishments, theatre and music companies. (Kollárová, 2002)

1.2.4 World War II.

In a course of World war II. Romany people were placed in working camps. Even in
such happenings, the quality of human relations became clear. The Non-Roma having good
relationships with the Roma defended their human rights. On the contrary, in places, where
the relations weren’t functioning, the Non-Roma called the Roma to army units. (Mann,1999)
In this atmosphere, the ”civilizing” Romany development of communities was slowed down.

1.2.5 Period of communist regime

After 1945, the reprisal access used by communist machinery denied ethnic dimension
of problem and reduced it to the social one. Thereafter, the political philosophy constantly
ignored Romany identity, ethnicity, own language and traditions, different life values and
other. (Djorgov, 2003) Practically, the Roma were not allowed to found Roma organizations,
the press in Romany language was prohibited. The state effort was particularly oriented on
solving housing, employment and school attendance situation. Thereafter, the process of
modernization of Romany community occurred just in “one-dimension – happening solely in
improving of the material level of living standards” (Radičová, 2001, p.57) In their intention,
improvement of social conditions should lead to the overcoming of negative phenomenon in
relation to majority. Measures of social engineering were to help out, mostly reflected in
fields of:
• housing- settlement of nomad Olach Roma (1958)
- moving Roma families to new-built apartments, moving from centers to suburbs
- liquidation of Roma villages
- organized and controlled dispersion of Roma (in area of Slovakia and also to
Bohemia)

• employment and education- extortion of general working duties, under threat of

imprisonment
- construction companies were obligated to fulfill quota in Roma employment
 - traditional Roma professions perished completely
- enforced school attendance
However, the reality insinuated injustice of appointed visions. Consequences of
constituent proceedings were mutually connected. Considering nomadic and non-agrarian
way of life, the Roma were not interested in material possessions, to protect and value it. Poor
Roma families coming from shacks were not able to live in the apartment buildings, so they
destroyed their new homes. They tend to take everything for granted.
The traditional Romany family is not nuclear; there are close relations among many
relatives and they tend to grow big families. The method of dispersion destroyed natural
models of family. Their way of life is oriented on community, where the line between private
and public doesn’t exist. The communist social system increased such awareness.
One of the most significant issues in task of education is (even today) insufficient
knowledge of Slovak language. The Roma living in segrerated conditions of shacks spoke
Romany language, using Slovak dialect. Obviously, with such a barrier, their integration to
educational process was limited. Another problem was systematic school home preparation,
which was unreal in such poor conditions.
The Roma labor force was used mainly for unqualified job positions since Roma
people weren’t adequately educated for other jobs. Actually, forced full employment didn’t
motivate for further education and as example of parents, children considered education as
worthless as well.
On the other hand, the problem strengthened traditional status of mother in family,
who takes care of the household. In addition, considering the number of children in families,
working mother doesn’t make an account. As a result there are families with only paternal
income, and in some cases no income at all.
To conclude with a quotation of Radičová (2001, p.66): “Romas were much more
dependent on income gained from welfare, meaning incomes from social benefits accounted
for a proportionally greater part of incomes, than incomes from work activities”. This way of
life was comfortable and easy to get used to it. In general, despite of few own activities it
could be said that Roma got used to state solutions to their problem, instead of trying to find
solutions self-contained. They became dependent on the state (Mann, 1999). And what is
more, unfair policy and depreciation of Romany identity worsened the relationships between
Roma and majority.
In the social sphere, perhaps in addition to the unemployment rate from the socialist
period until today, we’ve been dealing all the time with the same problems. Each new
government chose different practices to fight the problems, but they did not build any
sustained system. Ever since Slovakia became a member of the EU they were able to draw
financial support from funds provided by the EU. There’s a lack of information provided on
how to use it for the purposes of addressing the problems of Roma living on the margins of
settlements. The public is aggravated by the large amount of funds that has been invested
because it doesn’t correspond with the reality. There is no Roma representative on a political
or cultural level that understands the needs and mentality of their ethnicity. This means lower
effectiveness of the changes that are being made and the gap between the majority and
minority increases constantly.

The whole history of Roma was written in relation to the majority of the population.
When we study Romany history carefully, we notice periods of calm and friendly coexistence,
but also spells of segregation, cruel persecution or racism. Undoubtedly, the Romany people
suffering under adverse historical development, living dispersed and without their own state
or land, are in a struggle for their own identity. In period of socialism, the trap of social
dependence deepened and get out of it is strenuous even today. The Roma minority needs to
gain optimal self-confidence, knowing not only rights but also face the duties. Preservation
and respect of the ethnic peculiarity and at the same time the social equality and harmonic
civil coexistence of the majority and Roma is the basic condition for successful future.
However, it must be based on avoiding mistakes of the past and endeavor to get along so as to
build up balanced harmony. The cooperation of majority in this generation-lasting process is
indispensable.