Physics Internal Assessment

INTRODUCTION
The idea of coefficient of viscosity struck my mind as I was preparing breakfast for myself. It came to
my notice that when I drop a spoon in a bottle full of honey, it sank down slower, as compared to its
drop in a bottle full of water. I pondered upon it for a long time, as to why there is such a difference in
the dropping of the spoon in different viscous liquids.

Additionally, while we were learning the chapter “mechanics”, I found it difficult to understand the
concept of terminal velocity. Terminal velocity is essentially the maximum velocity attained by a
body as it falls down a fluid, and the gravitational force is equivalent to the viscosity. So, one of the
biggest questions in my mind was that, if all the forces acting on the body are balanced out, what
keeps the body moving down?

Upon reading further, it came to my notice that the viscosity of a liquid plays a vital role in
determining the terminal velocity. Terminal velocity also depends upon the radius of the object falling
through the fluid.

In order to answer some of my curiosities, I would like to use this opportunity given by the IB Internal
Assessment to investigate more and find out the above-mentioned phenomena. In my experiment, I
will be using honey, as the medium in which terminal velocity of balls of different radii will be
determined. From the data collected, I will determine the coefficient of viscosity of honey, used in the
experiment.

RESEARCH QUESTION
How does the terminal velocity and coefficient of viscosity vary with the increasing radii of the body
dropped in a viscous fluid?

VARIABLES
Independent variables: the radius of the metallic balls dropped (0.27, 0.45, 0.50, 0.70, 0.80, 0.94,
1.06, 1.16cm)

Dependent variables: The time taken for the metallic balls to cover the equivalent distance of 16.8
cm.

Control Variables:
Variable Effect of the variable
Temperature Viscosity decreases with
increasing temperature
The distance travelled by the A variation in this distance
metallic ball in the viscous travelled may show different
liquid terminal velocity readings
Concentration An increase in concentration
will increase viscosity
Method of control
The experiment was carried out
under same lab conditions and
the data collection process was
completed within 2 days.
It is ensured that the ball
covers equal distance for every
reading of time by tying to
rubber bands at 400ml and 50
ml. This way, it can be ensured
that the ball covers a distance
of 16.8 cm throughout the
experiment.
The concentration of the
viscous liquid is kept constant

1
 by using the same sample of
honey throughout the
experiment.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND THEORY

Viscosity is the measure of a substance's resistance to motion under an applied force 1. The formula
for measuring viscosity is fairly simple: viscosity = shear stress / shear rate. The result is typically
expressed in centipoise (cP), which is the equivalent of 1 mPa s (milli pascal second). Shear stress is
the force per unit area required to move one layer of fluid in relation to another. Shear rate is the
measure of the change in speed at which intermediate layers move with respect to one another.

viscosity = [2(ps-pl)ga2]/9v where ps is the density of the sphere, pl is the density of the liquid, g is
acceleration due to gravity (a fixed value of 9.8 m/s 2), a is the radius of the sphere, and v is the
velocity of the sphere2
Terminal velocity is defined as the highest velocity that can be achieved by an object that is falling
through a fluid, such as air or water3. When terminal velocity is reached, the downward force of
gravity is equal to the sum of the object's buoyancy and the drag force. An object a terminal velocity
has zero net acceleration.
2× m× g 4
Terminal velocity, V =  Equation 1
ρ× A ×C

where m is the mass of the falling object, g is acceleration due to gravity, ρ is the density of the fluid
through which the body is falling, A is the projected area of the body and C is the drag coefficient.

The coefficient of viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow of the fluid5. In general, gas viscosity is
less than liquid viscosity. The inverse of viscosity is called fluidity (McCain, 1990). Thus, a fluid with
a large viscosity has a low fluidity.

Considering a small sphere of radius r and density ρ falling freely in a viscous medium (liquid) of
viscosity η and density σ. The forces acting on it are:

1
CSC Scientific Company. “What Is Viscosity, and Why Is Measuring Viscosity Important?” What Is Viscosity, and Why Is Measuring Viscosity
Important?, www.cscscientific.com/viscosity.
2
Ruff, Bess. “How to Measure Viscosity.” WikiHow, WikiHow, 20 Sept. 2019, m.wikihow.com/Measure-Viscosity.
3
Helmenstine, Anne Marie. “How Terminal Velocity and Free Fall Work.” ThoughtCo, ThoughtCo, 24 Jan. 2020, www.thoughtco.com/terminal-
velocity-free-fall-4132455.
4
Person, and wikiHow. “How to Calculate Terminal Velocity.” WikiHow, WikiHow, 22 Jan. 2020, www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Terminal-
Velocity.
5
“Coefficient of Viscosity.” Coefficient of Viscosity - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/coefficient-
of-viscosity.

2
Figure 1: arrows depicting the different forces acting upon the body falling through a viscous liquid

The weight of the sphere acting downward

4 3
W= πr ρ g  Equation 2
3

The upward thrust = Weight of the liquid displaced by the sphere

4 3
B= πr σ g  Equation 3
3

the effective downward force,

4 3 4
== π r ρ g - π r 3σ g
3 3

4 3
= π r ( ρ−σ ) g  Equation 4
3

Upward force of viscosity, F=6 π η r v  Equation 5

When the downward force is balanced by the upward force of viscosity, the body falls down with a
constant velocity, called terminal velocity.

Hence, with terminal velocity,

4 3
6 π ηr v = π r ( ρ−σ ) g  Equation 6
3

2
Or, the terminal velocity, v=
2 r (ρ –σ)g  Equation 7
9 η

3
 2
coefficient of viscosity, η=
2 r (ρ – σ)g  Equation 8
9 v

where m is the mass of the falling object, g is acceleration due to gravity, ρ is the density of the fluid
through which the body is falling, A is the projected area of the body and C is the drag coefficient

This equation represents that of a straight line, with r2 as the gradient.

V

This relationship will be used in varying the data graphically.

HYPOTHESIS

I expect that as the radius of the ball increases, the terminal velocity also increases.
Reason: As per the following formula derived for terminal velocity in equation 7, we see that the
terminal velocity is directly proportional to the square of the radius. Hence, as the radius increases, the
terminal velocity also must increase.

APPARATUS

Sl. No Apparatus Remarks

1 Metallic balls of 8 different radii R(cm)= 0.27, 0.45, 0.50, 0.70, 0.80, 0.94,
1.06, 1.16

2 Vernier caliper L.C = 0.1mm ≈ 0.01 cm

3 Cylindrical measuring flask 500 ml

4 Meter scale L.C= 1mm
5 Stop watch L.C = 0.01s
6 Rubber bands 4 no’s

PROCEDURE

The data collection procedure is divided into 2 parts:

i. Part 1: To measure diameter of the metallic balls
ii. Part 2: To measure the terminal velocity of the metallic balls falling through the chosen
viscous liquid.

Part 1: measuring the diameter of the metallic balls:

1. Keep the jaws of Vernier Calipers closed. Observe the zero mark of the main scale. It must
perfectly coincide with that of the Vernier scale. If this is not so, account for the zero error for
all observations to be made while using the instrument as explained on pages 26-27.
2. Look for the division on the Vernier scale that coincides with a division of main scale. Use a
magnifying glass, if available and note the number of division on the Vernier scale that
coincides with the one on the main scale. Position your eye directly over the division mark so
as to avoid any parallax error.

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 3. Gently loosen the screw to release the movable jaw. Slide it enough to hold the
sphere/cylindrical body gently (without any undue pressure) in between the lower jaws AB.
The jaws should be perfectly perpendicular to the diameter of the body. Now, gently tighten
the screw so as to clamp the instrument in this position to the body.
4. Carefully note the position of the zero mark of the Vernier scale against the main scale.
Usually, it will not perfectly coincide with any of the small divisions on the main scale.
Record the main scale division just to the left of the zero mark of the Vernier scale.
5. Start looking for exact coincidence of a Vernier scale division with that of a main scale
division in the Vernier window from left end (zero) to the right. Note its number (say) N,
carefully.
6. Multiply 'N' by least count of the instrument and add the product to the main scale reading
noted in step 4. Ensure that the product is converted into proper units (usually cm) for
addition to be valid.
7. Repeat steps 3-6 to obtain the diameter of the body at different positions on its curved surface.
Take three sets of reading in each case.
8. Record the observations in the tabular form [Table E 1.1(a)] with proper units. Apply zero
correction, if need be.
9. Find the arithmetic mean of the corrected readings of the diameter of the body. Express the
results in suitable units with appropriate number of significant figures.

Part 2: measuring the terminal velocity of the metallic balls falling through honey

1. Clean the cylindrical measuring flask thoroughly, dry it and fill it with honey.
2. Check that the vertical scale along the height of the jar is clearly visible. Note its least count.
3. Tie two rubber bands, one at 50 ml and the other at 400 ml.
4. Measure and note down the distance between these two rubber bands placed.
5. Drop the ball into the cylindrical flask.
6. Start the stop watch when the ball passes through the first rubber band, placed at 400ml.
7. Stop the stop watch when the ball passes through the second rubber band, placed at 50ml.
8. Repeat the steps 5 to 7 seven more times for the same metallic ball.
9. Repeat steps 5 to 8 for all the other chosen metallic balls.

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

No major safety concerns are associated with this experiment. Normal laboratory safety measures
were taken into account. No significant environmental or ethical issues are involved.

DIAGRAMS OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 2: diagrams representing the experimental setup, along with relevant positions of the metallic
ball as it falls through the viscous liquid (honey). Please note that the above representation is not
taken to the scale, and is just an approximate.

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DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING

Part 1: measuring the radius of the metallic balls

Table 1. Radii of different metallic ball

Total Radius
MSR VSR VSR x L.C
Sl no Diameter (cm) R2
(cm) (cm) (cm) L.C=
MSR+ (VSR (L.C= (cm2)
±0.1cm 0.01cm
x L.C) 0.01cm)

1 0.5 3 0.03 0.53 0.27 0.070

2 0.8 9 0.09 0.89 0.45 0.198
3 0.9 9 0.09 0.99 0.50 0.245
4 1.3 9 0.09 1.39 0.70 0.483
5 1.5 9 0.09 1.59 0.80 0.632
6 1.8 7 0.07 1.87 0.94 0.874
7 2.1 2 0.02 2.12 1.06 1.124
8 2.3 2 0.02 7 1.16 1.346

Here, MSR refers to the Main Scale Reading, VSR refers to the Vernier Scale Reading and L.C refers
to the least count of the Vernier caliper, 0.01 cm.

Sample calculation for Table 1:

1) The formula to calculate the total diameter is MSR+ (VSR x L.C).

E.g., For the MSR value of 0.5 cm, the total diameter is given by:

0.5 + (3 x 0.01) = 0.53 cm.

2) The radius is calculated by dividing the total diameter by 2.

E.g., For the total diameter of 0.53 cm, the radius is given by:
0.53
=0.265 ≈ 0.27(2 s . f )
2

3) R2 is calculated by squaring the value calculated for radius.

E.g., For the radius of 0.27 cm, R2 is given by:
(0.27)2 = 0.070

Part 2: measuring the terminal velocity of the metallic balls falling through honey

Table 2: Raw data table

Sl (Independent Time taken to cover a distance of 16.8 cm (400ml- 50ml)

no variable) (L.C = 0.01s)
radius of the
ball

6
 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

1
0.27 12.16 12.32 12.10 12.31 11.91 12.22 12.22 12.19
2
0.45 8.32 8.11 8.03 8.75 8.29 8.00 8.07 8.12
3
0.50 6.88 6.09 6.84 6.69 6.66 6.69 6.69 6.53
4
0.70 4.78 4.72 4.87 4.91 4.94 4.78 4.82 4.72
5
0.80 4.15 4.07 4.06 4.03 4.05 4.06 4.19 4.12
6
0.94 3.78 3.59 3.50 3.69 3.63 3.65 3.28 3.50
7 1.06 2.94 2.81 2.94 2.41 2.56 2.59 2.34 2.65
8 1.16 2.72 2.72 2.65 2.91 2.57 2.56 2.03 2.47
It is a raw data table with 8 readings of the time of fall of a metallic bob for each radii varying from
0.27cm to 1.16cm

Processing raw data table:

Table 3: Variation of the average time of the fall with the radius of the ball and its uncertainty

Radius (±0.01)/m Average time taken for the Uncertainty for the average time
Sl no.
(1cm= 0.01m) fall/seconds (T) taken for the fall /  seconds (∆T)
1 0.00265 12.2 0.2
2 0.00445 8.2 0.4
3 0.00495 6.6 0.4
4 0.00695 4.8 0.1
5 0.00795 4.1 0.1
6 0.00935 3.6 0.3
7 0.01060 2.7 0.3
8 0.01160 2.6 0.4

Sample calculations for table 3:

4) Radius: converted into meters (initially measured in centimeters)

E.g.: 0.27cm = 0.00265m

T 1+T 2+…+T 8
5) Average time =
8

E.g.: for radius 0.00265m,

The average time taken for the metallic bob to fall through a height of 16.8cm = 12.18s

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 6) Uncertainty for the average time taken for 10 oscillations /  seconds:
The minimum value is subtracted from the maximum value and is divided by 2
T max −T min
i.e.;
2

E.g.: for radius 0.00265m

Uncertainty for the average time taken the fall = Tmax - Tmin
2

= 12.32-11.91
2
= 0.2s

Table 4: variation of Radius (R) and Radius squared (R2) with velocity, along with their
uncertainties
Radius/m (±0.0001 ∆V (m/s)
Sl no. R2/ m2 Velocity (m/s)
m)

1 0.00265 7.02 x 106 0.014 0.000

2 0.00445 1.98 x 105 0.020 0.001

3 0.00495 2.45 x 105 0.025 0.002

4 0.00695 4.83 x 105 0.035 0.001

5 0.00795 6.32 x 105 0.041 0.001

6 0.00935 8.74 x 105 0.047 0.003

7 0.01060 1.12 x 104 0.063 0.007

8 0.01160 1.35 x 104 0.065 0.011

Sample calculations for table 4:

1) Radius in terms of meters (explained earlier)
2) Radius squared expressed in m2
E.g., (0.00265m)2 = 7.02E-06 m2
3) Velocity in ms-1
Velocity = Displacement
Time
= 0.168
12.18
= 0.014 ms-1

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 4) Uncertainty in velocity
It is calculated by using the formula: ∆V= ∆D + ∆T
V D T
Here D is the diameter. Since the diameter of the metallic bob is measured using a screw gauge,
the least count is 0.001cm or the uncertainty in the measured value of the diameter is (0.001)/2 cm
which is quite negligible. Therefore, the formula is reduced to:

∆V= ∆T
V T
»∆V = V x ∆T
T

i.e; for the first one, ∆V = V x ∆T

T
= 0.014 x (0.2/12.18)
≈ 0.000ms-1 (this indicates high precision in the measurements)

Note: the average of the ∆V values (0.3cms-1) was taken in order to plot the error bars on the Y
axis (velocity).

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION

8 --------- Maximum Gradient

7 --------- Minimum Gradient
f(x) = 4.47 x + 0.79 --------- Best fit line
6 R² = 1
5
Velocity

4
3
2
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
R^2

Note: the units of the scale for the above graph is taken as: y axis-cm 2 and x axis cm/s, in order to
avoid errors in calculations. The gradient thus calculated is thereby converted into the SI unit: ms -1

EVALUATION

Calculating gradient and the uncertainty of the gradient:

MAX gradient + MIN gradient

1) Gradient is givenby the formula :
2

Maximum Gradient Minimum Gradient

9
 P1= (x1 , y1 - ∆y1) P3 = (x1 , y1 + ∆y1)
= (0.07, 1.1) = (0.07, 1.7)

P2= (x2 , y2 + ∆y2) P4 = (x2 , y2 - ∆y2)

= (1.346, 6.8) = (1.346, 6.2)

(6.8 – 1.1) (6.2 – 1.7)

MAX Gradient = MIN Gradient =
1.346−0.07 1.346−0.07

=4.467 = 3.527

Gradient = MAX gradient + MIN gradient

2
= 4.467+3.527
2
= 3.997 cm/s
≈ 0.040 m/s

2) Uncertainty in gradient = MAX gradient - MIN gradient

2
= 0.280- 0.222
2
= 0.470 cm/s
≈ 0.005 m/s

Gradient:

Gradient (G)= V = (3.997  0.470) cms-1 ≈ (0.040 0.005) ms-1

R2

R2 = 1 = (0.250  2.127) cms-1 ≈ (0.0025 0.213) ms-1

V G

According to the theory stated earlier,

coefficient of viscosity, η = 2 r2(ρ –σ) g
9 v
This equation represents that of a straight line, with r2 as the gradient.
V

Rearranging this equation, we get:

r2 = 9 η
V 2 (ρ –σ) g

V= 2 (ρ –σ) g
r2 9η

0.0025 = 2 (7850 – 1450) 9.81

9η

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i.e., η = 34.88 P

uncertainty in η (∆η ) is given by

0.0003 = 2 * (7850 – 1450) * 9.81

9η

∆η = 4.18 P

Therefore, the final experimental value for the coefficient of viscosity of honey is (34.88 ± 4.18)P

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

From the data collected and the graph plotted, it is evident that, as the radius of the ball increases, the
terminal velocity also increases.

This is because, as the size of the ball (the radius) increases, the weight of the body also increases.
Since net force causing it to fall = weight – buoyant force, the net force also increases. To counter the
net force increased, higher frictional force is required. This is attained when the terminal velocity
increases.

In other words, as the radius of the metallic bob increases, the surface area in contact with the fluid
also increases. This thereby increases the frictional force between the layers of the liquid and the
metallic ball. This frictional force can also be understood as the drag force that acts in the opposite
direction as the ball falls through the viscous liquid. Larger the body is, greater is the mass and the
upward thrust acting on it.

In order to overcome this increased frictional force, the terminal velocity (by virtue of the weight of
the body) increases. This is also in lines with the formula derived for terminal velocity in equation 7.
We can infer from this equation that the terminal velocity of a body is directly proportional to the
mass of the body.

Additionally, a statistical R2 test was performed in order to justify this reasoning. We can infer from
the equation in the graph that R2 value for the data processed is 1. This signifies that there is a positive
correlation between the radius of the ball and terminal velocity.

Since coefficient of viscosity is a measure of the resistance to the flow of a body in a viscous fluid, the
appropriate rearrangement of equation 7 enabled the understanding that the gradient of the graph
between R2 and Terminal velocity gives coefficient of viscosity.

CONCLUSION
The deduced value for the coefficient of viscosity of honey η is = (34.88 ± 4.18) P whereas the actual
value is 35.00 P. This minor mismatch between the experimental value and the actual value indicates
the possible errors that might have taken place during the experiment.

From this experiment performed and the data processes, we can conclude that the radius of the ball
does influence the terminal velocity of a body falling through a viscous liquid. We can obtaina
positive correlation between the radius of the ball and terminal velocity which can then be used to find
the coefficient of viscosity.

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WEAKNESSES IN THE INVESTIGATION

1. The divisions on the ends of the meter scale might be faded, which might have resulted in
errors in the readings of the height travelled by the ball in its terminal velocity.

2. Parallax errors would have made a difference in determining the position of the ball, as
shown in the figure 2.

3. Only one trial was taken while measuring the radii of the metallic balls. If this process was
repeated several times, there would have been precision in these readings as well.

4. The experiment was performed near a window. This would have interfered in the actual
terminal velocity.

STRENGTHS IN THE INVESTIGATION

1. 8 trials were taken for measuring the time taken for each metallic ball to pass through the
chosen displacement. This ensures precision in the terminal velocity thus deduced.

2. Reliable sources such as the NCERT guides were used to base the investigation upon. I
believe this has reduced experimental errors in terms of the technique carried out.

SCOPE FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATION

Since the coefficient of viscosity remains constant for a given fluid at a fixed temperature, the same
experimental procedure could be followed for more viscous fluids and investigate how this value
changes at a constant temperature and the same metallic balls used.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Person, and wikiHow. “How to Calculate Terminal Velocity.” WikiHow, WikiHow, 22 Jan.
2020, www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Terminal-Velocity.
2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275950118_Determination_of_Viscosity_from_T
erminal_Velocity_of_a_Falling_Sphere
3. http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kelm102.pdf
4. CSC Scientific Company. “What Is Viscosity, and Why Is Measuring Viscosity
Important?” What Is Viscosity, and Why Is Measuring Viscosity Important?,
www.cscscientific.com/viscosity.
5. Ruff, Bess. “How to Measure Viscosity.” WikiHow, WikiHow, 20 Sept. 2019,
m.wikihow.com/Measure-Viscosity.
6. Helmenstine, Anne Marie. “How Terminal Velocity and Free Fall Work.” ThoughtCo,
ThoughtCo, 24 Jan. 2020, www.thoughtco.com/terminal-velocity-free-fall-4132455.

12
7. Person, and wikiHow. “How to Calculate Terminal Velocity.” WikiHow, WikiHow, 22 Jan.
2020, www.wikihow.com/Calculate-Terminal-Velocity.
8. “Coefficient of Viscosity.” Coefficient of Viscosity - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics,
www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/coefficient-of-viscosity.

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