International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 305–310

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Mining Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijmst

Sensing for advancing mining automation capability: A review

of underground automation technology development
Ralston Jonathon ⇑, Reid David, Hargrave Chad, Hainsworth David
Earth Science and Resource Engineering, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Queensland 4069, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper highlights the role of automation technologies for improving the safety, productivity, and
Received 10 October 2013 environmental sustainability of underground coal mining processes. This is accomplished by reviewing
Received in revised form 15 November 2013 the impact that the introduction of automation technology has made through the longwall shearer auto-
Accepted 8 December 2013
mation research program of Longwall Automation Steering Committee (LASC). This result has been
Available online 24 April 2014
achieved through close integration of sensing, processing, and control technologies into the longwall
mining process. Key to the success of the automation solution has been the development of new sensing
Keywords:
methods to accurately measure the location of longwall equipment and the spatial configuration of coal
Mining automation
Longwall mining
seam geology. The relevance of system interoperability and open communications standards for facilitat-
Longwall Automation Steering Committee ing effective automation is also discussed. Importantly, the insights gained through the longwall automa-
Interoperability tion development process are now leading to new technology transfer activity to benefit other
Inertial navigation underground mining processes.
Coal seam sensing Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.

1. Introduction
1.1. Motivation and purpose
The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organi-
sation, CSIRO, is Australia’s national science organization which
delivers innovative solutions into industry domains around the
world. CSIRO also focuses mission-directed mining research to pro-
mote transformational change in the mining and resource ecosys-
tems. A major emphasis of the research activity is in the
development of remote and automated mining technologies to
support safer, cleaner, more productive and sustainable mining.
Critical to delivering on this mission is continual development of
new sensing system technologies.
cally personnel have been required to work in this hazardous envi-
ronment and manually control the equipment at close range to
ensure the efficient operation of the mining process. The complex-
ity of manually operating equipment of this scale has led to the full
productivity of longwall systems not being achieved, and the harsh
and hazardous working environment has potential health and
safety concerns for personnel [3,4].
Mining automation system technology demonstrates significant
potential to meet these needs by facilitating more accurate mining
methods, incorporating sensing to optimally control equipment,
and increasing personnel safety through remote process operation.
To this end, this paper explores the impact of automation technol-
ogy innovations for the automation of underground longwall
shearer mining equipment.

1.2. Industry needs 1.3. Architecture for mining automation

The Australian coal mining industry is constantly driven by the
need to improve mining productivity, increase personnel safety,
and achieve environmental sustainability [1,2]. Underground coal
mining presents many hazards including personnel proximity to
machinery, high energy hydraulic and electrical power systems,
roof falls and exposure to explosive mine gases and dust. Histori-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 7 3327 4702.
E-mail address: Jonathon.Ralston@csiro.au (J. Ralston).
From a system architecture perspective, effective mining auto-
mation requires the integration of three key components: sensing,
processing, and control. These fundamental components must
interact in a continuous cycle as the underlying resource is dynam-
ically sensed, modified and transported through the process of
mining. This mining automation cycle in Fig. 1 shows the three
‘‘sense, decide, and act’’ components dynamically operating in con-
cert with the mining process. These three elements respectively
represent the underlying mechanisms that provide situational

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmst.2014.03.003
2095-2686/Ó 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of China University of Mining & Technology.
306 J. Ralston et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 305–310
Decide
Sense Act
Mining process
Fig. 1. Mining automation cycle showing three key technology elements necessary
to achieve remote situational awareness (sense), perception and decision support
(Decide), and mining execution and control (act).
awareness, decision support, and process management functions
necessary to achieve a closed-loop mining automation cycle.
The rationale underpinning development of mining automation
system technology is the drive to improve personnel safety and
enhance operational efficiency. This is primarily achieved through
the integration of new sensing, processing, and assistive control
technologies into the longwall mining process. The introduction
of new capabilities often also provides new options for cleaner coal
recovery through coal seam sensing capabilities and improved
mine process awareness.
1.4. Level of mining automation capability
A continuum of automation capability exists from local manual
control through to full automation. The following discrete levels
have been identified to provide context for identifying the desired
automation level:
(1) Local manual control: where the operator has immediate
line-of-sight of the mining process through a hard-wired,
direct-connect machine control interface.
(2) Remote manual control: where the operator has immediate
line-of-sight of the mining process but achieves direct drive
control via a portable console interface.
(3) Tele-operation: where the operator does have a line-of-sight
but directly controls the mining process through sensors
that provide mining situational awareness.
(4) Tele-supervision: where the operator does not have line-of-
sight but initiates and monitors the mining process at a high
level, facilitated by assistive automation technologies.
(5) Full automation: where the operator has no line-of-sight or
immediate direct machine control, and most or all compo-
nents of the mining process are functioning autonomously.
The specific level of automation achieved is governed by the
minimal automation level of any given component in the overall
automation cycle. There are a wide variety of mining scenarios
which still require mining personnel to manually undertake the
sensing, processing and execution functions. This has important
safety and efficiency implications, with corresponding productivity
and sustainability impacts to the overall mining process.
1.5. Longwall mining background
Longwall coal mining is a highly productive underground min-
ing method that involves the removal of coal in large blocks or pan-
els using a mechanized shearer. The coal panel is typically 200–
350 m wide and can be up to five km in length. The shearer is
mounted on a shearer pan and rails which guide the shearer as it
moves back and forth across the coal face [1,5]. Coal cut from the
face of the longwall by the shearer is removed by an armoured face
conveyor (AFC) that transports coal to the adjoining gateroad tun-
nels for conveyance to the surface.
With this method of mining, the roof is supported by hydraulic
shields that are individually advanced as mining progresses. As the
roof support system advances into the coal panel, the mine roof is
allowed to collapse into the void behind the shields. A small por-
tion of a longwall operation and shearer is shown in Fig. 2.
As noted in Fig. 2, the direction of mining is into the coal seam
on the left hand side of the image, and the coal seam is indicated by
the hatched layer between the underlying and overlying strata.
Singh further detailed technical reviews of the longwall mining
process [1].
1.6. Need for operational improvements
The underground mining environment can present many oper-
ational hazards to personnel. These include proximity to powerful
machinery, hydraulic and electrical power, roof falls and exposure
to dust and potentially explosive mine gases. In the absence of
advanced automation, miners have for decades been required to
work in this hazardous environment to manually control the
equipment at close range to ensure the efficient operation of the
mining process. The industry recognized that this was increasingly
unacceptable and unsustainable in the long term and sought
answers to these problems.
Since 1970s, there have been a number of attempts world-wide
to develop longwall automation systems [4,5]. These had been lar-
gely unsuccessful because it had not been possible to accurately
and reliably measure the positions in space of the principal ele-
ments of the longwall due to a lack of proven sensing capabilities.
1.7. Longwall automation program of Longwall Automation Steering
Committee (LASC)
In response to these issues, the Australian Coal Association
Research Program (ACARP) provided ‘‘landmark’’ funding for CSIRO
to undertake an ambitious research and development program to
develop an advanced longwall automation system. The research
project commenced in 2001 and was overseen by a Longwall Auto-
mation Steering Committee (LASC), the name now given to the
resultant technology solutions [5,6]. Through this research,
enabling technology was developed that was designed to not only
remove personnel from hazardous environments and improve pro-
ductivity but also to provide open standards for future equipment
interoperability.
The research project commenced by conducting a detailed anal-
ysis of what aspects of the longwall mining process could be real-
istically automated, as well as investigating what could be learned
from previous attempts at technology development and deploy-
ment in this application. From this analysis, three priority automa-
tion tasks were identified:
Fig. 2. Cut-away view of the underground longwall mining process (the shearer is
in centre view, mechanised roof supports to the left and right, and embedded in coal
(hatched) and host strata (dots)).
 J. Ralston et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 305–310
Face alignment: This involves, in simplest terms, achieve a long-
wall face profile that is straight and perpendicular to the gate
roads. If the face is straight, both mechanical stresses on the AFC
and roof support geotechnical issues are minimised.
Horizon control: This involves achieve vertical positioning of the
longwall shearer so that the roof and floor cutting horizons are
entirely within the seam or desired extraction profile. An optimal
horizon control strategy will maximise extraction of product and
minimise extraction of waste.
Creep control: This involves maintain the longwall equipment in
an optimal lateral position with respect to the gate roads. In partic-
ular, this may require the face line to be adjusted to compensate
for sloping seams as the longwall mining retreats.
Fundamental to achieving each of the three automation goals
was the need to accurately measure the absolute three-dimen-
sional position of the shearer throughout the mining process and
also to improve knowledge regarding the coal geology structure
in the vicinity of the shearer operation. If the position of the long-
wall shearer could be measured continuously in three-dimension,
the path the shearer takes in the mining process would then enable
the positions of all the individual powered supports, and moreover,
the track of the mined roof and floor, to be calculated. This infor-
mation provides the key technology to allow the mining process
to be controlled both in response to large-scale coal seam geolog-
ical information and fine-scale incremental adjustments between
successive shear cycles.
These two primary sensing tasks, namely real-time equipment
localization and coal seam geological spatial measurement, are
essential for achieving the priority automation tasks. The third
aspect, creep control, is considered elsewhere [7].
1.8. Sensing for longwall shearer localization
During 1990s, the CSIRO demonstrated the use of inertial navi-
gation techniques for the guidance of underground equipment in a
number of highwall mining scenarios [8]. In highwall mining, the
motion of mining equipment was largely constrained and the
required equipment localization performance could be achieved
using a conventional inertial navigation technology and standard
processing algorithms.
However, in longwall mining, the motion of the shearer is less
constrained than for the highwall scenario and so additional sens-
ing technologies were required to reduce the inherent position
drift of the INS. While inertial navigation techniques are used in
many every-day applications ranging from consumer electronics
to automotive navigation systems, there are major obstacles to
achieving accurate navigation solutions in an underground mining
environment. The environment is also extremely harsh for electri-
cal equipment and even industrial-quality control hardware, and
electronics are unlikely to survive without additional field-
hardening.
A localization method was developed based on inertial naviga-
tion technology to accurately measure the shearer position in 3D
[5,7]. The approach became practically feasible through the avail-
ability of high quality and rugged inertial measurement units
developed initially for military and aerospace applications. Using
this principle which enabled position to be measured using a
robust sensor mounted inside the shearer body for protection
without the need for other sensors, a reliable method for 3D
shearer position measurement was developed. Fig. 3 shows the
resulting inertial navigation unit development for real-time
shearer localization. This unit is installed into the body of the
shearer to provide accurate real-time shearer position and orienta-
tion measurement.
To validate the performance of the localization solution, the 3D
position of the AFC rail along which the shearer travels was
307
Fig. 3. Longwall shearer localisation measurement solution that consists of an
embedded system processor and communications unit (left), and instrumentation
grade inertial navigation system (right).
manually surveyed and compared with the LASC-derived position
at the completion of one production cycle. The results of this
‘‘ground truth’’ experiment in both the horizontal and vertical axes
are shown in Figs. 4 and 5 respectively.
Taking into account the inherent position smoothing as the 6 m
long shearer travels along the rail, there is close agreement
between the inertial solution and the manual survey in both hori-
zontal and vertical axes. Hargrave gave a detailed coverage of the
limitations and technical challenges associated with this applica-
tion with regards to system communications requirements [9].
1.9. Sensing for coal seam spatial geometry
Achieving an automated longwall operation not only relies on
accurate shearer position information but also on spatial informa-
tion regarding the location of the coal seam. This resource location
information is critical in order to maintain the shearer in an opti-
mal position for extraction within the coal seam. Operating the
shearer in the coal seam is also important in terms of minimizing
damage to equipment, reducing dust production, and to relieve
personnel from potential hazards such as hard-rock debris dis-
lodged from out-of-seam mining.
A common approach used by operators to identify coal seam
boundaries during longwall operations relies on monitoring vari-
ous indicators in the mining face. These indicators include visual
cues present in the geology, a change in dust conditions when tran-
sitioning coal-rock boundaries, or inspection of the extracted
resource. In particular, personnel regularly monitor the thin hori-
zontal ash layers present in the seam, referred to as marker or
penny bands, which provides a visible contrast with the host coal
strata because of their light-grey or white color. These marker
bands are particularly important as they often provide the only vis-
ible indicator to infer the relative vertical location of the shearer
with respect to the overall geological coal seam trend. However,
there are currently very few (if any) reliable real-time solutions
0.6
INS data
0.4 Survey data
Smoothed survey
0.2
In panel (m)
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Across panel (m)
Fig. 4. Comparison of the shearer’s horizontal path measured by the inertial
navigation solution with manual survey (the horizontal axis is distance along the
shearer face).
308 J. Ralston et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 305–310
1.0
INS data
Survey data
0.5
Smoothed survey
Elevation (m)
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Across panel (m)
Fig. 5. Comparison of the shearer’s vertical path measured by the inertial solution
with a manual survey (the horizontal axis is distance along the shearer face).
that exist to locate and track seam profiles for longwall shearer
operations.
What has been missing is a sensor that can accurately provide
information regarding the vertical position of the shearer with
respect to the coal seam in real-time. Following the initial inertial
navigation technology development, further development to
enhance automation performance in horizon control (tracking
seam roof and floor) was explored.
Initial research concentrated on replicating human vision capa-
bility using a visible-light camera. The visible-light camera method
represented an intuitive approach to marker band tracking that
yielded positive outcomes [6]. However, the nature and presence
of marker bands is geology-dependent, and so it is not given that
such features will be visibly observable at every minesite. An addi-
tional sensing approach was considered using thermal infra-red
imaging. The use of thermal infra-red imaging over traditional
vision-based imaging offers advantages which can overcome the
limitations associated with vision-based sensing:
(1) Thermal infrared cameras can operate in complete darkness
without any loss of image quality, i.e., the camera output is
independent of the level of ambient (visible) light present.
(2) Thermal wavelengths are longer than visible light cameras
and so can effectively penetrate through large dust and
water particles, allowing imaging in a much broader range
of operational conditions.
(3) Sensing of ‘‘thermal marker bands’’ generates new features
that are strongly linked to coal seam trends but are other-
wise invisible to the human eye.
Mounting the thermal infrared camera on the body of the
shearer provided a viewable aspect of the drum and surrounding
strata. Preliminary data processing performed on the thermal
infrared images evaluated the potential of a line-based tracking
algorithm for automatic seam horizon datum generation. This
involved identifying a region of principal interest within each
image frame. An adaptive algorithm for detecting and tracking line
features was then applied based on a threshold pre-determined
during the experimentation and calibration phase. This was then
sequentially applied for each image frame as acquired by the ther-
mal infrared camera. The results of this initial feature detection
phase are shown in Fig. 6 which shows the automatically extracted
line segments.
A robust, real-time marker band tracking implementation was
developed to account for model errors and observation noise asso-
ciated with the feature detection and location process using a Kal-
man filter [8]. The tracked thermal feature was mapped into the
shearer’s coordinate system through a simple calibration process.
Fig. 7 shows the outcome of this seam tracking system. By using
the highly accurate position and orientation of the shearer
Fig. 6. Detection of thermal marker band features (red) overlaid onto original
thermal image (the occasional degradation in the threshold based detection due to
variations in feature intensity).
80
70
Marker band height (mm)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 50 100 150 200 250
Machine position (m)
Fig. 7. Marker band height estimates across the longwall face for seam horizon
tracking: comparison of unfiltered (thin line) to Kalman filtered (thick line).
(available though the LASC system), the cutting drum position
can be established to achieve the desired mining extraction
horizon.
It should be noted that the sensing technology necessary for
accurate coal seam sensing is not yet as mature as the inertial nav-
igation location sensing. However, demonstrations of the visible
and thermal infrared based seam tracking have been made using
sensors based on the longwall shearer [10]. The reliable measure-
ment of coal seam interfaces for horizon control remains as a cur-
rent area of research and development, and is the subject of a
current ACARP project (C22014) being undertaken by the CSIRO.
2. Impact of longwall automation technology
2.1. Industry adoption
LASC technology has been taken up by all major longwall Origi-
nal Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) under technology licensing
agreements with CSIRO. Each OEM has integrated the LASC open
intercommunication standards into their proprietary control sys-
tem architecture and shearer manufacturers have installed the
hardware segment of the inertial navigation system into their
equipment. This equipment is either built in-house by the OEM
or by a specialist third party technology supplier also working
under license to CSIRO. These systems have now been operating
on a 24/7 fully commercial basis in active longwalls since 2008
and, in the minesites which collaborated with the original develop-
ment project field trials, since 2005.
Since the installation of the first commercial LASC system in
2008, more than 50% of Australian longwall mines have either
incorporated or specified LASC technology as part of their longwall
 J. Ralston et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 305–310 309

operations. The uptake of this technology has resulted in the relo-

cation of mining personnel away from the hazardous close-prox-
imity areas and achieved quoted productivity improvements in
excess of 5%. It is expected that uptake of the LASC system within
Australian longwalls will increase to at least 85% (approximately
25 mines) by 2016. The international market holds the potential
for significant volume growth. The estimated international market
size for LASC systems is shown in Table 1 below.
The US market provides the next logical growth area for LASC
technology and the first US installation is scheduled for late
2013. With the successful deployment of this first US system, it
is expected that other US mines will quickly follow. Fig. 8. Visualization of the longwall process in real time which facilitated through
open LASC interoperability specifications.

2.2. Open communications standards for system interoperability

A key aspect of any modern industrial automation process is the
use of open communication protocols to ensure seamless interop-
erability of equipment. A mining equipment interoperability stan-
dard has been fully embraced and championed by the LASC
industry consortium [6]. The LASC interoperability standards have
been rapidly adopted by major OEMs, vendors and minesites, and
now have been successfully deployed for over a decade for mining
production.
The major benefits of the LASC open standard implementation
include step-change improvements in equipment interoperability
and intercommunications, vendor neutrality, new opportunities
for technology leveraging for supplier and client, and enhanced
options in remote and autonomous mining capability. Further,
the LASC interoperability specification is both open and free for
use. It is also constantly being expanded as new sensors, equip-
ment and processes are developed. As an example of this, new
phases of LASC development have provided next generation
enhancements for high level control of the system and also have
increased operator feedback. This ensures the automation systems
will work reliably across products supplied by all major longwall
equipment manufacturers.
Included in the LASC longwall interoperability specification was
the means to readily report system operation and conditions exist-
ing on the longwall. This has given rise to advanced visualization
solutions that to produce high quality representations of the state
of the underground longwall system to an operator at a remote
location. A typical longwall visualization is shown in Fig. 8 which
provides a realistic representation of the mining process.
2.3. Validation of LASC system compliance
As any OEM or vendor can develop new technologies for LASC
automation, it is important to ensure compliance so that device
performance and interoperability conformance can be verified.
LASC software verification tools have been developed as part of
CSIRO’s ongoing support to the industry.
These publicly and freely available tools allow the longwall
OEMs and mines to independently verify that their equipment fully
complies with the LASC interoperability standards. Using these
verification tools, the OEMs are able to produce a LASC-compliance
certificate which they can provide to their customers. These certif-
icates are also published on the LASC website to assist the mining
industry in equipment selection.
2.4. Transfer of automation technology for roadway development:
CM2010
The experiences gained through the use of LASC longwall auto-
mation technology are now being further adapted and refined for
use in other underground coal mining processes. A major area of
mining industry research focus is improving roadway development
rates through improved assistive and self-guidance technologies.
The Roadway Development Task Group (RDTG) was established
in 2005 by ACARP to lead this effort with the view to deliver a sim-
ilar step-change technology for the guidance of underground con-
tinuous mining processes [11,12].
CSIRO is currently engaged in an ACARP funded project, known
as CM2010, to develop a continuous miner that has a self-guidance
capability based on the use of inertial navigation technologies. The
primary technical objective is to deliver a ‘‘self-steering’’ capability
that will enable a continuous miner to maintain a desired 3D posi-
tion and orientation under remote supervision. Fig. 9 shows a skid-
steer remote-control vehicle (known as the Phoenix) which is
being used as a realistic scaled test platform for autonomous nav-
igation research [13]. Focused research and development contin-
ues to improve the underlying navigation performance and
deeper system integration. This project is now in the final stages
leading to full system demonstration on a continuous miner oper-
ating under production mining conditions.
The CM2010 project is a powerful demonstration of how sens-
ing, processing and control technologies and process development
for one mining activity, i.e., longwall shearer automation, can

Table 1
Estimated number of LASC-enabled longwall
mining systems by 2016.

Country Number
Australia 30
US 55
UK 10
China 1300
Germany 10
India 4 Fig. 9. Phoenix mobility platform for staging multi-sensor navigation system
Estimated total (potential) 1404 evaluations, interoperability compliance and autonomous motion execution as part
of the ACARP CM2010 self-steering continuous miner project.
310 J. Ralston et al. / International Journal of Mining Science and Technology 24 (2014) 305–310
benefit another mining process. It also serves to boost industry
confidence and support for ongoing mining automation initiatives.
2.5. Future automation developments: intelligent exception
management strategies
Sensing, processing and control technologies will continue to
evolve and mature to provide enhanced options for both assistive
and full mining automation capability. The continued adoption
and utilization of automation technologies into mining processes
will be driven by industry’s need for business competitiveness,
availability of new functionality through innovations, and govern-
mental regulations. This will deliver a more efficient mining pro-
cess with enhanced operational continuity and reduced
production variability.
A further result of ongoing automation system uptake will gain
in system interoperability, process information, deployment cost,
and reliability. One significant area that is likely to require signifi-
cant research and development, however, is in the realm of intelli-
gent exception management. Whilst automated control systems
can be expected to deliver repeatable and optimal performance
under normal conditions, they can rapidly degrade under even
mild variations to operational conditions. Developing capability
to actively monitor and detect exception conditions is essential if
an unsupervised automation system is to be achieved.
3. Conclusions
The rationale underpinning much of the core automation sys-
tem technology development is the desire to improve personnel
safety, enhance operational efficiency, and deliver new options
for cleaner coal recovery. This is primarily achieved through the
integration of sensing, processing, and assistive control technolo-
gies into the longwall mining process. A successful mining automa-
tion outcome has been demonstrated using the LASC automation
solution. The value of LASC longwall automation has been widely
acknowledged and embraced by the underground community
and mining OEMs. This has facilitated the interconnection of
equipment across multiple different vendors, as well as providing
a platform for the integration of new enabling technologies and
systems. The demand for new, integrated technologies for sensing,
processing and control to support mining processes will continue
into the future.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank ACARP, members of the Longwall
Automation Steering Committee (LASC), and the Roadway Devel-
opment Task Group (RDTG) for their support and insight in guiding
the research and development processes involved in developing
this longwall automation technology.
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