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CAMARINES SUR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGES

Nabua, Camarines Sur

LESSON 4 – SOLVING SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS or ROOTS OF EQUATIONS

OBJECTIVE:
1. To understand what roots problems are and where they occur in engineering
2. To understand different methods in solving systems of equations
INTRODUCTION:

Before the advent of digital computers, there were several ways to solve for roots of algebraic and
transcendental equations. For some cases, the roots could be obtained by direct methods, as was done with the
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
equation, you have learned years ago, the quadratic formula 𝑥 = in solving 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐. The
2𝑎
values calculated are roots of the equation of a function of x equal to zero f(x)=0. For this reason, roots are sometimes
called the zeros of the equation. Although quadratic formula is handy, there are many other functions for which the
roots cannot be determined easily. For example, even an apparently simple function such as 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 − 𝑥 cannot
be solved analytically. In such instances, the only alternative is an approximate solution technique.

One method to obtain an approximate solution is to plot the function and determine where it crosses the x-
axis. The point of intersection along axis represents the roots or x value for which f(x)=0. This method is called
Graphical Method but only useful for obtaining rough estimates of roots and lack precision. An alternative approach
is trial and error in which guessing the value of x and evaluating whether f(x)=0.
In this lesson, alternative techniques will be discussed, are also approximate but employ systematic
strategies to home in on the true root. The combination of these systematic methods and computers makes the
solution of most applied roots of equations problems a simple and efficient task.

ROOTS OF EQUATIONS AND ENGINEERING PRACTICES

Roots of Equations frequently occur in the engineering design. Table PT2.1 lists several fundamental
principles that are routinely used in design work. Mathematical equations or models derived from these principles
are employed to predict dependent variables as a function of independent variables, forcing functions and
parameters. Note that in each case the dependent variables reflect the state or performance of the system, whereas
the parameters represent its properties or composition.

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An example model is the equation, derived from Newton’s second law used for the parachutist velocity:

where velocity v = the dependent variable, time t = the independent variable, the gravitational constant g =
the forcing function, and the drag coefficient c and mass m = parameters. If the parameters are known

The above equation can be used to predict the parachutist’s velocity as a function of time. Such computations
can be performed directly because v is expressed explicitly as a function of time. That is, it is isolated on one side of
the equal sign.
However, suppose we had to determine the drag coefficient for a parachutist of a given mass to attain a
prescribed velocity in a set time period. Although this equation provides a mathematical representation of the
interrelationship among the model variables and parameters, it cannot be solved explicitly for the drag coefficient.
Try it. There is no way to rearrange the equation so that c is isolated on one side of the equal sign. In such cases, c is
said to be implicit.
This represents a real dilemma, because many engineering design problems involve specifying the properties
or composition of a system (as represented by its parameters) to ensure that it performs in a desired manner (as
represented by its variables). Thus, these problems often require the determination of implicit parameters.
The solution to the dilemma is provided by numerical methods for roots of equations. To solve the problem
using numerical methods, it is conventional to re-express this equation. This is done by subtracting the dependent
variable v from both sides of the equation to give

The value of c that makes f (c) = 0 is, therefore, the root of the equation. This value also represents the drag
coefficient that solves the design problem.
MATHEMATICAL BACKGROUND
TYPES OF EQUATIONS

1. Algebraic Equations – functions expressed in the form:

where 𝑓𝑖 = an ith-order polynomial in x

2. Polynomial Equations – a simple class of algebraic functions that are represented generally by

where n= the order of the polynomial and the a’s = constants.

Examples: and
3. Transcendental Equations – a non-algebraic equation of trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic and other
less familiar functions
Examples: and

Roots of equations may be either real or complex. Although there are cases where complex roots of
nonpolynomials are of interest, such situations are less common than for polynomials. As a consequence, the
standard methods for locating roots typically fall into two somewhat related but primarily distinct problem areas:
1. The determination of the real roots of algebraic and transcendental equations. These techniques are usually
designed to determine the value of a single real root on the basis of foreknowledge of its approximate
location.
2. The determination of all real and complex roots of polynomials. These methods are specifically designed for
polynomials. They systematically determine all the roots of the polynomial rather than determining a single
real root given an approximate location.

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METHODS OF SOLUTION
Leading group of solving function’s roots:
Closed Method – finding the root’s value starts by assuming that it is in the interval with lower limit x l and
upper limit xu. Series of iterations are performed so that the interval became as close to the actual roots as possible.
The main advantage of this is the result always converges, thus this will still solve for the roots. Some of these closed
methods are: Bisection Method and Method of False Position (Regula Falsi)
Open Method – starts by assuming an initial value of x or x 0 and series of iterations are performed so that
the value of x becomes as close to the actual roots as possible. This method’s main advantages is: (a) this only needs
one initial value of x, and (b) this converges quickly. However, the value of x do not always converge. Some of the
open methods are: Newton-Raphson Method and Secant Method.
CLOSED METHOD
BRACKETING METHODS
Techniques on roots of equations that exploit the fact that a function is typically changes signs in the vicinity
of a root because two initial guesses for the roots are required. As the name implies, these guesses must “bracket”,
or be on either side of, the root. The particular methods described herein employ different strategies to
systematically reduce the width of the bracket and, hence, home in on the correct answer.

1. Graphical Methods
2. Bisection Methods
Graphical Method

A simple method for obtaining an estimate of the root of the equation f (x) = 0 is to make a plot of the function
and observe where it crosses the x axis. This point, which represents the x value for which f (x) = 0, provides a rough
approximation of the root.

Example:

Solution: This can be solved by determining the root of equation using the parameters t=10, g=9.81, v=40
and m=68.1.

𝑐 𝑐
9.81(68.1) −( )10 668.061 −( )10
𝑓(𝑐) = (1 −𝑒 68.1 ) − 40 or 𝑓(𝑐) = (1 −𝑒 68.1 ) − 40
𝑐 𝑐

Various values of c can be substituted into the right-hand side of this equation to compute
c f(c)

4 34.190

8 17.712

12 6.114

16 -2.230

20 -8.368

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The points are plotted below

The resulting curve crosses the c axis between 12 & 16.

Visual inspection of the plot provides a rough estimate of

the root of 14.80.

Substituting to the equation

We can check the validity of the graphical estimate

14.80
668.061 −( )10
𝑣= (1 −𝑒 68.1 )
14.80

v = 40 m/s

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Example:

Using Excel (i=0.50)

Chart Title
x f(x)
2.5
0 1
2
0.5 -0.88819
1.5
1 -1.53401
1
1.5 0.439492
0.5
2 1.873116
0
2.5 0.214284
-0.5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 -1.89916
-1
3.5 -0.90372
-1.5
4 1.588967
-2
4.5 1.445824
-2.5
5 -1.02206

In the interval of 0.50, there are 5 points of intersection along x-axis or 5 roots of f(x)

(i=0.10)

Chart Title
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5

In the interval of 0.50, there are 13 points of intersection along x-axis or 13 roots of f(x). Base on the graph
this graph the roots are between x=4.20 to x=4.30
x f(x)
4.2 0.082913 Chart Title
4.21 0.046102
0.15
4.22 0.017903
4.23 -0.00142 0.1
4.24 -0.01171
4.25 -0.0129 0.05
4.26 -0.00502
0
4.27 0.011797 4.18 4.2 4.22 4.24 4.26 4.28 4.3 4.32
4.28 0.037318 -0.05
4.29 0.071219
4.3 0.113085 Therefore, the lesser the interval the more possible roots would be displayed.
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Incremental Search Method

Capitalize on this observation by locating an interval where the function changes sign. Then the location of
the sign change (and consequently, the root) is identified more precisely by dividing the interval into a number of
subintervals. Each of these subintervals is searched to locate the sign change. The process is repeated and the root
estimate refined by dividing the subintervals into finer increments.

Incremental Search Method Steps

Step 1: Select initial value of xi and initial value of increment ∆x.

Step 2: Determine value of f(xi) and f(xi+1) where xi+1 = xi + ∆x.

Step3: If f(xi) f(xi+1)<0 sign change indicates the root has been passed, if not continue iteration until
sign changes.

Step 4: If there is a sign change – revert to the previous value of x and use smaller increment ∆x
than the previous.

Step 5: Determine the f(x) progressively until another sign change.

Step 6: Procedure is repeated until a sufficiently accurate root is obtained or |εa| ≤|εs|

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠
|𝜀𝑎 | = 𝑥100%
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝜀𝑠 = (0.50𝑥102−𝑛 )%

Example:

Find the root of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0 on [1, 2]. Approximate to 3 decimal places

Using Excel

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Bisection Method

This method is alternatively called binary chopping, interval halving, or Bolzano’s method, is one type of
incremental search method in which the interval is always divided in half. If a function change sign over an interval,
the function value at the midpoint is evaluated. The location of the root is then determined as lying at the midpoint
of the subinterval within which the sign change occurs. The process is repeated to obtain refined estimates.

A simple algorithm for the Bisection Method Calculation

Example:

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Example:

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Sources:
1. Applied Numerical Methods with MATLAB for Engineers and Scientists, Steven C. Chapra,
McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition 2007/2008
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3FfMKKC-bs&t=3s
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vjVV2CjFeJ4&t=28s
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C0pjI2ywOuE&list=PLTfoKpIjBbwXvFM31nvK41JjCVdsyJ
b47
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlAdyEqXTpk&list=PLTfoKpIjBbwXvFM31nvK41JjCVdsyJ
b47&index=2
6. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICBTVJhnEU8&list=PLTfoKpIjBbwXvFM31nvK41JjCVdsyJ
b47&index=3

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