Bangladesh School Muscat

Year : 10
Subject : Physics
Atoms and Radioactivity

Atomic Structure
The Atom
Specification Point 7.2
 Describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons and
use symbols such as 614C to describe particular nuclei.

 Atoms are made up of three different particles:

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom, while electrons orbit at a distance.

 The properties of each of these particles are shown in the table below:

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Atomic Symbols

 The atom shown in the diagram can also be represented using an atomic symbol:

Atomic symbols, like the one above, describe the constituents of nuclei

 The top number is called the mass number, and is equal to the total number of particles (protons
and neutrons) in the nucleus.
 The lower number is called the atomic number and is equal to the total number of protons in the
nucleus.

Protons, Neutrons and Electrons

Specification Point 7.3
 Know the terms atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and isotope.

 When given an atomic symbol, you can figure out the total number of protons, neutrons and
electrons in the atom:
o Protons: The number of protons is equal to the atomic number (also known as the proton
number).
o Electrons: Atoms are neutral, and so in a neutral atom the number of negative electrons
must be equal to the number of positive protons.
o Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be found by subtracting the atomic number from
the mass number (also known as the nucleon number).

 Although atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons (and hence
electrons), the number of neutrons can vary:

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 The three atoms shown above are all forms of hydrogen, but they each have different numbers of
neutrons

 The number of neutrons in an atom does not affect the chemical properties of an atom, only its
mass. Such atoms are called isotopes:

Isotopes are atoms (of the same element) that have equal numbers of protons but different
numbers of neutrons

Radiation
Instability
Specification Point 7.4
 Know that alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ) rays are
ionising radiations emitted from unstable nuclei in a random process.

 Some isotopes are unstable – usually because of their large size or because the number of
protons and neutrons within them are out of balance.
 As a result, these isotope will decay – emitting little chunks (radiation) in order to reduce
their size or bring them back into balance.

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles – radiation

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  The resulting radiation can be one of three types: alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, or
gamma (γ) rays, and has very high energy.
 If these particles hit other atoms, they can knock out electrons, ionising the atom.

When radiation passes close to atoms, it can knock out electrons, ionising the atom

 Ionisation can cause chemical changes in materials, and can damage or kill living cells.

Properties of Radiation
Specification Point 7.5
 Describe the nature of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma (γ)
rays, and recall that they may be distinguished in terms of penetrating power
and ability to ionise.

 Alpha (α) particles are high energy particles made up of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (the
same as a helium nucleus).
They are usually emitted from nuclei that are too large.
 Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus (even though the
nucleus does not normally contain any electrons).
They are usually emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons.
 Gamma (γ) rays are high energy electromagnetic waves.
They are emitted by nuclei that need to lose some energy.

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 Alpha particles, Beta particles and Gamma waves

 The nature and properties of the different types of radiation are summarised in the table
below.

 Note that when you go down the table, the range and penetration increase, but the
ionisation decreases.

Diagram showing the penetrative abilities of alpha (α) particles, beta (β−) particles, and gamma
(γ) rays. Note how some of the gamma rays are able to penetrate the lead

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 Practical: The Properties of Radiation
Specification Point 7.6
 Practical: Investigate the penetration powers of different types of radiation
using either radioactive sources or simulations.

 In your IGCSE examination you may be asked to describe an experiment you could carry out to
investigate the relative penetration of different types of radiation.
 In your method you should:
o List any apparatus you need. (Make sure you use the correct names).
o Describe how the apparatus will be set up. (A diagram is helpful).
o Describe how you will carry out a fair test.
o Describe what measurements you will take.
o Describe how you will form your conclusions.
o Describe any safety procedures you will need to follow.

Measuring the relative penetrating ability of different types of radiation

Method:

 Connect a Geiger-Muller tube to a counter and, without any sources present, measure
background radiation over a five minute period.
 Repeat this three times, and take an average.
 Now place a radioactive source a fixed distance of 3 cm away from the tube and take another
reading over a five minute interval.
 Now take a set of absorbers: some paper, several different thicknesses of Aluminium (increasing
in 0.5mm intervals) and different thickness of lead.
 One at a time, place these absorbers between the source and the tube and take another reading
over a five minute interval.
 If the count over that interval falls to background levels (allow for a little random variation),
then the radiation has all been absorbed.
 Repeat the above experiment for other radioactive sources.

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Safety:

 When not using a source, keep it in a lead lined container.

 When in use, try and keep a good distance (a metre or so) between yourself and the source.
 When handling the source, do so using tweezers (or tongs) and point the source away from you.

Conclusions:

 If the radiation is stopped by paper, the source will be emitting alpha

 If the radiation is stopped by a few mm of aluminium (about 5 or 6) then the source is
emitting beta.
 If some radiation is still able to penetrate a few mm of lead (5 or 6) then the source is
emitting gamma.

(Note: Some sources emit more than one type of radiation).

Decay
Specification Point 7.7
 Describe the effects on the atomic and mass numbers of a nucleus of the
emission of each of the four main types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma and
neutron radiation).
Alpha Emission

 An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

(It is emitted from large unstable nuclei)

An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons

 When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:

o The nucleus loses 2 protons:
The atomic (proton) number decreases by 2.
o The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total:
The mass (nucleon) number decreases by 4.

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Beta Emission

 A beta particle is a high energy electron emitted from the nucleus.

 It is emitted when a neutron in the nucleus suddenly changes into a proton – an electron
is created in order to balance the positive charge of the proton.
(Note: The electron is created at the moment of decay – it is not present in the neutron
beforehand).

A beta particle is emitted when a neutron turns into a proton, emitting an electron

 When a beta particle is emitted from a nucleus:

o The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1:
The atomic (proton) number increases by 1.
o The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same.
The mass (nucleon) number doesn’t change.

Gamma Emission

 A gamma waves is emitted from a nucleus when the nucleus needs to lose some energy.
 No protons or neutrons are lost from the nucleus in this process:
The atomic (proton) and mass (nucleon) numbers do not change.

Neutron Emission

 A small number of isotopes can decay by emitting neutrons.

 When a nucleus emits a neutron:
o The number of protons does not change:
The atomic (proton) number does not change.
o The total number of particles (nucleons) in the nucleus decreases by 1:
o The mass (nucleon) number decreases by 1.

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 Nuclear Equations
Specification Point 7.8
 Understand how to balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge.

 Nuclear equations, just like chemical equations, balance:

o The sum of the upper (mass) numbers on the left of each equation should equal the
sum on the right.
o The sum of the lower (atomic) numbers should also balance.

Alpha Emission:

Beta Emission:

Neutron Emission:

 Note that the beta particle is given an atomic number of -1 in the above examples.
This is because the atomic number is being used to measure charge in this case:
Protons being positive particles, have positive atomic numbers.
Electrons being negative, have a negative number.