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Gras e Mann 2005
Gras e Mann 2005
www.elsevier.com/locate/jsg
Abstract
An analysis of the theoretical displacement field around a single dip-slip fault at depth reveals that normal and reverse fault drag develop
by perturbation flow induced by fault slip. We analytically model the heterogeneous part of the instantaneous displacement field of an
isolated two-dimensional mode II fault in an infinite, homogeneous elastic body in response to fault slip. Material on both sides of the fault is
displaced and ‘opposing circulation cells’ arise on opposite sides of the fault, with displacement magnitudes increasing towards the center of
the fault. Both normal and reverse drag can develop at the fault center depending on the angle between the markers and the fault; normal drag
develops there for low angles (!30–408) and reverse drag for higher angles. A comparison of the theoretical results with published models
and natural examples reveals that the characteristics of normal and reverse fault drag are largely insensitive to the scale and rheology of the
faulted rocks and that drag forces generated by frictional resistance need not be the primary cause of fault drag. Fault drag has some
interesting geometric implications for normal and reverse fault terminology emphasizing the importance for discrimination of vertical
separation and throw. Furthermore, our results lead us to propose an alternative model for the formation of rollover anticlines above normal
faults.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fault drag; Listric fault; Rollover; Analytical modeling; Stress function
2. Conceptual model
Fig. 2. Displacement fields in the (a) x-direction ux and (b) y-direction uy generated by dextral slip along a mode II fault from K1!x!1 at yZ0. Poisson’s ratio
nZ0.3 and the ratio of driving stress to the modulus of rigidity Ds/GZ1/100. In order to illustrate the heterogeneous deformation of the elastic solutions,
displacements in the figures are exaggerated by a factor of 100 (Pollard and Segall, 1987). Marker lines (dotted line) perpendicular or at high angles to the fault
will be primarily deformed by the discontinuous displacement field ux into a concave shape in the shear direction and therefore record a reverse drag. Marker
lines parallel or at low angles to the fault will be displaced predominantly by the continuous displacement field uy into a convex shape recording a normal drag.
The total displacement field composed of ux and uy are shown in Fig. 3.
ð1 K 2nÞ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
uy jyZ0 Z Ds ðx K x2 K a2 Þ; jxjO a (5b)
2G
Figs. 2b and 3 show a counterclockwise rotation of the Fig. 3. Total displacement field near a dextral mode II fault and
medium containing the fault for the ‘apparent right-lateral’ corresponding deformation of marker lines, initially passing through the
origin at different angles. Marker lines meeting the fault at higher angles
sense of slip depicted. For an opposite sense of slip, the
(Ow30–408) are dominated by the influence of ux resulting in reverse fault
rotation would be clockwise. Adjacent to the fault (jxj%a, drag. At lower angles (!w30–408), however, where ux is less significant,
yZ0G) uy is directly proportional to the distance from the the deformation of the marker lines are mainly a function of uy and
center of the fault and the driving stress (see Eq. (5a)). This therefore result in a normal fault drag (compare with Fig. 2).
B. Grasemann et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 27 (2005) 999–1010 1003
means that the rock bordering the fault experiences a Close to the fault (i.e. within 1/10 of the fault half-length)
uniform rotation, with the amount of rotation scaling with our results show that normal drag (negative diopters) at the
the driving stress (Martel, 1999). Pollard and Segall (1987) fault center arises for fault-marker angles q!w408, with
show that Eq. (5a) is also the first-order solution for uy reverse drag occurring for fault-marker angles qOw408
anywhere within roughly half a fault length from the fault (dotted line in Fig. 4). However, in natural examples the
center. Analogous to the ux field near the fault being nearly drag very close to the fault might be difficult to recognize
independent of x, the uy field near the fault is nearly and it has therefore been suggested to investigate fault drag
independent of y (compare Fig. 2a and b). The uy field near up to a distance of about half the fault-length (e.g. Barnett et
the fault thus would cause a marker adjacent and parallel to al., 1987). If the central marker is evaluated at a larger
the fault to be rotated but not bent. With increasing distance distance to the fault (e.g. within 3/4 of the fault half-length)
r from the fault center though, uy (as well as ux) decreases, normal drag arises for fault-marker angles q!w308, with
eventually decaying as a/r. The rotation becomes negligible reverse drag occurring for fault-marker angles qOw308
far from the fault. As a result, originally planar markers that (solid line in Fig. 4), which is consistent with results from
are oblique to the fault are rotated more strongly near the finite element solutions of Grasemann et al. (2003).
fault center than they are far from the fault. This rotation Although our focus is on the fault center, we also
change causes the marker to be bent (dragged) in a direction investigate how the sense of drag can vary with position
that is concave in the direction of slip. However, the fault- along a fault. The theoretical results here allow four classes
normal component of displacement causes a central marker of drag structures to be distinguished (Fig. 5). However, in
oblique to the fault to be bent convex in the direction of slip: order to understand the heterogeneous deformation induced
a normal drag contribution develops (this superposition of a by slip along a fault, we modeled the heterogeneous part of
normal drag on the reverse drag is discussed in more detail the deformation field without an imposed background strain.
below, compare Fig. 7a and c). Although our focus is Therefore, the instantaneous structures in Fig. 5 cannot be
primarily on deformation of a marker near a fault, we show directly compared with finite structures represented by the
one example of how deformation along a long marker can natural examples in Fig. 6. However, analogue and
be complicated (Fig. 2b). Consider a marker that intersects numerical models of finite deformation and the comparison
the fault at a shallow angle: at xZa, uy attains its maximum of model results with natural examples (Grasemann et al.,
amplitude (Eqs. (5a) and (5b)) and for xOa, uy decreases 2003; Exner et al., 2004; Wiesmayr and Grasemann, 2005)
monotonically towards zero. The marker is deformed in a show that at low finite strain the geometries are very similar
complex wave-like shape with an inflexion point opposite to the instantaneous structures presented in this study. For
the fault tip. this reason, we think it is useful to refer to natural examples
The total displacement field around a fault reflects a in the following discussion of our modeled structures,
superposition of both the ux and uy components (Fig. 3). although we are aware that a direct comparison is
Whether a central marker displays normal or reverse drag
inadequate.
will depend on the relative contributions of the displace-
ment field to reverse drag and normal drag. Given the
complexity of the displacement field around a fault, the 2.3.1. Normal fault-normal drag
sense of drag can vary with the orientation of a marker, Large-scale examples are so-called ‘low-angle’ normal
where a marker intersects a fault, and the position along the faults, which commonly reveal a normal drag (e.g.
marker. The difference between normal drag and normal Wernicke, 1981). Other natural examples of this structure
drag superposed on reverse drag is outlined in more detail in at smaller scale are shear bands (Berthé et al., 1979; White,
the discussion section.
Fig. 5. Array of markers deflected by the displacement field (Eqs. (1a) and (1b)) generated by a fault of finite length (parameters and exaggeration see Fig. 2). In
order to compare the model results with faults cutting through a horizontal layering or bedding, the coordinate system of Fig. 3 is rotated until the marker lines
are parallel to a horizontal reference line. Dependent on the angle between the markers in the far field and the fault, four different structures can be
distinguished: (a) normal fault–normal drag; (b) normal fault–reverse drag; (c) reverse fault–normal drag; (d) reverse fault–reverse drag.
1979), which are secondary synthetic slip surfaces. results in a decrease in the mean compressive stress,
Statistically shear bands have low angles to the shear zone whereas reverse drag develops in the quadrants where the
boundary (Passchier, 1984; Goscombe et al., 2004), but mean compressive stress increases. Although the orientation
depending on the rheology, anisotropy and rotation during of the fault in the field example given in Fig. 6a is higher
progressive deformation, shear bands may be also oriented than in the instantaneous solution (Fig. 5a), the overall
at higher angles (Platt, 1984; Williams and Price, 1990; geometry of the fault drag of marker lines matches the
Stock, 1992). Typical natural examples of shear bands are geometry predicted by our model fairly well.
illustrated in many publications. For example, Snoke et al.
(1998) illustrate shear bands from many different rock types 2.3.2. Normal fault-reverse drag
developed under a broad range of metamorphic conditions. Hamblin (1965), who coined the term ‘reverse drag’,
Fig. 5a shows a central marker (in a heavy line) with normal provided a superb example from the Hurricane Fault (Grand
drag from our model for qZ208. Interestingly, normal drag Canyon, Arizona) nearly four decades ago. Grasemann and
also develops along the fault in the two quadrants where slip Stüwe (2001), Passchier (2001) and Grasemann et al. (2003)
B. Grasemann et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 27 (2005) 999–1010 1005
Fig. 6. Natural examples of structures modeled in Fig. 5. (a) Normal faults (shear band boudinage) in greenschist facies marbles mylonites showing a marked
normal drag (N Naxos, Greece; N37811 0 26.2 00 /E25830 0 48.8 00 ). (b) Normal fault with reverse drag from the same outcrop. (c) Reverse fault with normal drag in
the Tethyan sediments of the fold and thrust belt in Spiti (Pin Valley, NW-Himalaya; N32805 0 53.04 00 /E78809 0 59.64 00 ). Note the similarity of the structure with a
fault propagation fold. (d) Reverse fault associated with reverse fault drag in marbles of the Goantagab Domain (Kaoko Belt, Namibia;
S20840 00 33.0 00 /E014825 00 49.7 00 ).
described other examples of reverse drag-along faults with recognized and are commonly attributed to folding that
extensional slip. Surprisingly few studies exist, however, coincides with the upper tip of a thrust fault (e.g. Boyer,
that focus on the origin of reverse drag (e.g. Hamblin, 1965). 1986; Suppe and Medwedeff, 1990). Passchier (2001) also
Fig. 5b shows a central marker (in a heavy line) with reverse presented natural examples of reverse faults with normal
drag from our model for qZ408. Note that the sense of drag drag, terming the drag features ‘s-Type flanking folds’. An
changes along the model fault in Fig. 5b in a manner exceptional illustrative example from the Pin Valley in the
analogous to that of Fig. 5a. Our analytical results, NW-Himalayas is given in Fig. 6c. Most of the published
represented in Fig. 5b, are consistent with the numerical examples are associated with a fault ramp that is connected
results of Grasemann et al. (2003), and also similar to the to a flat detachment fault, and the footwall commonly is
field example of Fig. 6b. Reverse drag associated with considered as undeformed (e.g. Jackson and McKenzie,
regional normal faults is commonly referred to as a rollover 1983). We find that neither a flat detachment fault nor a rigid
anticline. Rollover anticlines typically are attributed to slip footwall is required for normal drag on a reverse fault.
along listric normal faults, even though many reported Footwall deformation along reverse faults generally has
examples of reverse drag do not occur along listric faults. been interpreted as indicating folding preceding faulting
Our model shows that reverse drag does not require curved during early development of break-thrust folds (Fischer et
fault geometry. We discuss this point further below. al., 1992). Nevertheless, McConnell et al. (1997) presented
excellent natural examples of fault-related folds, where the
2.3.3. Reverse fault-normal drag hanging walls and footwalls are deformed, displacements
Regional reverse faults with normal drag are widely decrease up- and down-dip from the centers of the faults,
1006 B. Grasemann et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 27 (2005) 999–1010
and fault ramps do not join a flat-lying detachment. The along the same side of a fault. If drag was produced by
kinematic model of McConnell et al. (1997) for folding frictional resistance to slip, then the amount of drag should
yields geometric forms similar to our mechanical model increase with frictional resistance. However, mechanical
(Fig. 5c). Note that normal drag of the central marker and at models predict that if frictional resistance to slip increases,
the leading edge of the reverse may be accompanied by the slip on a fault decreases (Pollard and Segall, 1987) but
reverse drag between the fault centers at the trailing tip. Our also the drag decreases (Reches and Eidelman, 1995;
results thus should be distinguishable from folds considered Grasemann and Stüwe, 2001). Thus if frictional resistance
to be break-thrust folds (Wiesmayr and Grasemann, 2005). accounted for drag, then the largest fault drag would be
expected along faults with vanishing amounts of slip (i.e.
2.3.4. Reverse fault-reverse drag where faults are absent; compare Fig. 6a, b and d). This
Fig. 6d shows reverse drag along a reverse fault at a steep conclusion is untenable. Finally, our investigation reveals
angle (w608) to a mylonitic foliation. Although this that both normal and reverse drag can occur along a single
structure has been predicted by mechanical finite element fault (e.g. Figs. 5b and 6d; see also Mansfield and
models (Grasemann et al., 2003), to our knowledge no Cartwright, 2000), and that normal drag can be superposed
natural example has been previously published. In the upper on reverse drag (Figs. 5a and 6a). Frictional resistance
part of the picture above the tip of the fault a leading edge cannot account for these observations either. We therefore,
fold can be recognized. Towards the middle of the picture, reject frictional resistance as a primary cause for fault drag.
the slip along the fault increases, revealing a pronounced
reverse drag effect. This field example is consistent with our 3.2. Normal drag sensu stricto, vertical separation, and
model results of Fig. 5d. throw
Fig. 7. Both vertical separation vs and throw t can be used to investigate possible fault drag geometries along normal ((a) and (c)) and reverse faults ((b) and
(d)): if the throw is less than the vertical separation (t1!vs), then normal drag must exist ( in (a) and (b)). If the throw equals the vertical separation (t2Zvs),
then no net drag occurs ( in (a) and (b)). If throw exceeds the vertical separation (t3Ovs) reverse drag must exist ( in (a) and (b)). If vsZ0, then the throw
must exceed the vertical separation (t1,2,3Ovs in (c) and (d)) and an offset horizontal marker must record reverse drag. Superposed on this reverse drag could be
normal drag ( ), no drag ( ) or reverse drag ( ).
B. Grasemann et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 27 (2005) 999–1010 1007
(t) is the vertical distance between piercing points on references therein). This assumption seems highly precar-
opposing walls of the fault. By these definitions, vertical ious to us. First, although listric faults appear common, not
separation is measured using points far from a fault, whereas all normal faults have listric geometries. For example,
throw relies on points that border a fault. As a result, vertical seismic reflection data commonly indicate normal fault
separation is independent of local displacements near a fault traces that are not concave up in cross-sections (e.g.
that produces fault drag, whereas throw depends strongly on Jackson, 1987). Additionally, earthquake data provide little
fault drag. Pure normal drag or no drag is only possible evidence for the notion that large-scale normal faults
geometrically if the vertical separation is greater than zero invariably flatten with depth. Second, reverse drag and
(Fig. 7). rollover-like geometries occur at all scales and within a
Both vertical separation and throw can be used to broad range of different homogeneous and heterogeneous
investigate possible fault drag geometries of a marker rheologies (compare the presented and referenced examples
through the center of a dip-slip fault (Fig. 7). Three cases are in this work), including faults that have non-listric
possible. First, the throw is less than the vertical separation geometries. Third, in addition to our results, many
(t1!vs), then normal drag must exist (Fig. 7a and b). mechanical models of planar faults (King et al., 1988;
Second, if the throw equals the vertical separation (t2Zvs), Gibson et al., 1989; Ma and Kusznir, 1993; Reches and
then no net drag occurs. Third, if throw exceeds the vertical Eidelman, 1995; Grasemann et al., 2003) show reverse drag.
separation (t3Ovs) reverse drag must exist. If no vertical So listric fault geometries are not a prerequisite for reverse
separation occurs across a fault, then the throw must exceed drag to develop. Our results show instead that reverse drag
the vertical separation (t1,2,3Ovs in Fig. 7c and d). In such a can be a consequence of heterogeneous perturbation
case, an offset horizontal marker must record reverse drag. deformation as a result of fault slip. Although other
Superposed on this reverse drag could be normal drag (t1), mechanisms before, during or after faulting could affect
no drag (t2) or reverse drag (t3). A major result of this simple the development of reverse fault drag, we are in accord with
geometrical observation is that any fault with no vertical Barnett et al. (1987) who suggested that the displacement
separation must have fault drag. Additionally, if no drag field associated with slip is the primary cause for reverse
occurs across a fault, then vertical separation must occur. drag (e.g. Fig. 5b).
Because the established terminology is insufficient to The second perception that appears suspect to us is that
describe complex fault drag geometries, Coelho et al. the footwall of a normal fault is rigid. This assumption has
(2005) have recently suggested a new quantitative descrip- no mechanical basis, and it certainly does not make sense in
tive terminology using cubic Bézier curves. cases where rocks of similar lithology (or rheology) are
juxtaposed by faulting (Kusznir et al., 1991). Indeed,
3.3. Listric faults and rollover anticlines geodetic measurements for single slip events, high-resol-
ution three-dimensional seismic data sets, and detailed
The concept of a listric (based on the Greek word listron investigations of faults in outcrops commonly reveal reverse
or shovel), concave-up normal fault was introduced by drag profiles in both the hanging wall and footwall
Suess (1909) as part of his description of curved faults in the (Kasahara, 1981; McConnell et al., 1997; Mansfield and
coal mines of Saint-Eloi and Léon (northern France). They Cartwright, 2000). A few reasons might contribute to the
are now recognized in many places around the world (e.g. perception that fault footwalls are rigid.
Shelton, 1984). Three features have been considered as The first is that displacements (and drag effects) in the
characteristic of listric normal faults: a flat detachment footwall can be much less than those in the hanging wall.
surface, a rigid footwall, and hanging wall strata with a dip Such an association would be strong evidence for a stiffness
that increases toward a normal fault (i.e. rollover anticline or difference for faults that are substantially deeper than their
reverse drag; Shelton, 1984). Balanced cross-section down-dip extent (i.e. faults that behave as though they were
analyses of listric faults are widely applied to investigate in an infinite body). Mechanical analyses of normal faults
these features, to quantify regional extension, and in the that intersect or interact with the earth’s surface, however,
exploration for hydrocarbons (e.g. Tearpock and Bischke, reveal decidedly different slip profiles from faults far from
2003). Rollover anticlines, for example, are one of the most the surface. Surface-breaching faults or near-surface faults
important hydrocarbon traps (Tearpock and Bischke, 2003 tend to have a slip maximum at or near the surface rather
and references cited therein). Since these methods also are than near the fault center; they offset markers in a manner
used to assess the geometry of normal faults, which can seal somewhat similar to that in the lower half of Fig. 5b.
subsurface fluid flow, they are important in defining the Perhaps more significantly though, unlike faults in an
volume of a hydrocarbon reservoir (Hardman and Booth, infinite elastic body with no free surface, normal faults in an
1991). The impact and widespread use of listric fault models elastic half-space generate an asymmetric displacement
prompt us to re-examine two of the commonly held field, with greater displacement (and more pronounced
perceptions about these faults. drag) in the hanging wall than in the footwall (Ma and
We start with the assumption that a hanging wall rollover Kusznir, 1993; Roberts and Yielding, 1994; Langley, 2000).
implies a listric fault geometry (e.g. Shelton, 1984 and The contrast in displacement could be mistaken for an
1008 B. Grasemann et al. / Journal of Structural Geology 27 (2005) 999–1010
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