International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition

ISSN: 0963-7486 (Print) 1465-3478 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/iijf20

Glycaemic response of proso millet-based

(Panicum miliaceum) products

Matthew B. McSweeney, Agota Ferenc, Katarina Smolkova, Alexander Lazier,

Amy Tucker, Koushik Seetharaman, Amanda Wright, Lisa M. Duizer & D. Dan
Ramdath

To cite this article: Matthew B. McSweeney, Agota Ferenc, Katarina Smolkova, Alexander Lazier,
Amy Tucker, Koushik Seetharaman, Amanda Wright, Lisa M. Duizer & D. Dan Ramdath (2017):
Glycaemic response of proso millet-based (Panicum miliaceum) products, International Journal of
Food Sciences and Nutrition, DOI: 10.1080/09637486.2017.1301890

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2017.1301890

Published online: 14 Mar 2017.

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCES AND NUTRITION, 2017
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09637486.2017.1301890

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Glycaemic response of proso millet-based (Panicum miliaceum) products

Matthew B. McSweeneya, Agota Ferencb, Katarina Smolkovab, Alexander Lazierb, Amy Tuckerb,
Koushik Seetharamanc, Amanda Wrightb, Lisa M. Duizerc and D. Dan Ramdathd
a
School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada; bHuman Nutraceutical Research Unit, Department
of Human Health & Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; cDepartment of Food Science, University of
Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada; dGuelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, Ontario,
Canada

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The glycaemic response of millet foods and the effect of processing are not known. Therefore, Received 4 August 2016
decorticated proso millet was used to produce four types of common food products (biscuits, Revised 4 November 2016
couscous, porridge and an extruded snack). Postprandial blood glucose response of these prod- Accepted 28 February 2017
ucts (all containing 50 g of total starch) was compared to the same foods produced with refined
corn, in a crossover human study with 12 healthy male participants (age 26.3 ± 3.8 yr; BMI KEYWORDS
23.3 ± 2.8 kg/m2). Capillary blood samples were collected and glycaemic response was deter- Glycaemic response; proso
mined; differences were assessed using repeat measures ANOVA. Overall, the mean (±SEM) incre- millet; refined corn; gluten-
mental area under the blood glucose response curve (mmol min/l) of the proso millet products free
was different from the corn products, but individual products (couscous ¼ 66.7 ± 11.6, bis-
cuit ¼ 82.6 ± 13.7, extrudate ¼ 198.7 ± 20.9, porridge ¼ 40.1 ± 5.8) were not significantly lower
(couscous ¼ 43.5 ± 5.8, biscuit ¼ 102.0 ± 10.3, extrudate ¼ 198.7 ± 20.9, porridge ¼ 52.2 ± 8.1)
(p > .05). Glycaemic response of the products was not dependent on the grain type, but rather
product matrix.

Introduction to account for the positive effects on plasma lipid lev-

Nutrition related chronic non-communicable diseases
such as type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardio-
vascular disease (CVD) are significant public health
concerns. Individuals with T2DM have a significantly
greater chance of developing CVD and about 75% of
all deaths attributed to diabetes occur as a result of
CVD (Li et al. 2006). As such, improving glycaemic
control can reduce the risk of CVD (Kreisberg 1998).
It is therefore imperative to explore new strategies to
reduce the risk of T2DM and CVD and improve dis-
ease management and prevention.
Several epidemiological studies have demonstrated
strong associations between consumption of diets rich
in plant-based foods and reductions in the risk of
developing CVD and T2DM (Bazzano et al. 2001;
Joshipura et al. 2001). Diets rich in legumes, cereals
and fruits have been associated with improvements in
glycaemic control and reduction of coronary heart dis-
ease risk factors (Bazzano et al. 2001; Joshipura et al.
2001; Bazzano et al. 2003). In the case of legumes and
cereals, fibre content and low glycaemic load appear
els and improved insulin sensitivity (Kingman 1991;
Geil & Anderson 1994; Jarvi et al. 1999).
Millet is a cereal crop of increasing importance
in North America, in part because it is consumed
regularly among persons of the South Asian and
African diaspora, which are growing communities in
North America. Millet is rich in iron, calcium and
dietary fibre. Additionally, in terms of energy dens-
ity, protein, fat and vitamin content, millet is super-
ior to wheat, maize and sorghum (Rathi et al.
2004). Millet also does not contain gluten, which
could be of interest to consumers who are inter-
ested in gluten-free food products (Chandrasekara &
Shahidi 2011).
We previously showed that incorporating millet
into food products resulted in elevated levels of pro-
tein, lipids, phenolics and dietary fibre and that
refined proso millet-based products had a lower
expected glycaemic index (eGI) than those produced
using refined corn flour (McSweeney 2014). Expected
glycaemic index simulates the digestion that would
take place in the human body and estimates the

CONTACT Matthew B. McSweeney matthew.mcsweeney@acadiau.ca School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Acadia University, 12 University Avenue,
Huggins Science Hall, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, Canada B4P 2R6
ß 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
2 M. B. MCSWEENEY ET AL.
glycaemic response. These products included a cous-
cous and porridge made from refined proso millet
flour, which had a low eGI (less than 55) (McSweeney
2014). This agreed with earlier work showing that, in
humans, consumption of millet-based foods was asso-
ciated with significant attenuation of postprandial
blood glucose levels, improved glycaemic control and
a significant decrease in total and LDL-C and
improvement in lipid profile (Pathak et al. 2000;
Kumari & Sumathi 2002; Shobana et al. 2009; Gupta
& Naga 2010). However, despite promising results,
few millet-based human studies have been conducted,
and none has used food products commonly con-
sumed in North America.
This study aimed to assess the glycaemic response
of foods prepared from proso millet, a variety of millet
grown in North America using a rigorous design and
well characterized millet foods, to address the know-
ledge gap of the health benefits associated with millet.
To determine the effects of processing methods on
glycaemic response, four food matrices were investi-
gated, i.e. an extruded snack, porridge, a couscous-like
product and a biscuit. This study also attempted to
advance the formulation and production of functional
foods incorporating 100% millet. This has not been
previously reported, possibly due to technological
challenges in preparing 100% millet products,
although this is critical to differentiate the biological
effects of millet from those of other ingredients
(wheat, rice, etc.).
Materials
Two different grains (refined proso millet and refined
corn) were used to prepare each product: porridge,
biscuits, extruded snacks and couscous. Whole grain
proso millet was also included to produce a couscous
like product in order to investigate the effect of decor-
tication on glycaemic response. All products used dur-
ing testing were manufactured from Colorado white
proso millet (Erker Grain, Fort Morgan, CO) and
corn meal (Bunge, St. Louis, MO). All ingredients
except the corn flour and proso millet flour were pur-
chased from a local grocery store in Guelph, Ontario,
Canada.
Flour production
Refined forms of the grains were used to produce the
couscous, while porridge and biscuits were produced
using milled flours. For flour production the proso
millet was refined and milled by Satake-USA (Stafford,
TX) using the procedure outlined in Anderson (2014).
Corn meal was milled to produce flour by Bunge
(St. Louis, MO). The flour and the grains were
shipped to the University of Guelph (Guelph, ON) for
storage in an 18  C freezer, until product testing.
Biscuit preparation
For each biscuit, 248 g of flour was mixed with baking
powder, egg, unsalted butter, salt and milk. Forty-
seven grams of thoroughly mixed batter were placed
in a 7.6 cm diameter muffin mold and baked at 425  F
for 15 min. After manufacture the biscuits were stored
in an 18  C freezer for up to 2 months. The biscuit
was removed from the freezer the night before the
trial.
Porridge preparation
Porridge was prepared from refined millet flour and
corn flour: 50 g of flour was added to 490 ml of boil-
ing filtered water. The flour and water mixture was
not stirred and was allowed to simmer, for 25 min
with the pot lid on and then was removed from the
heat. The porridge was prepared fresh the day of
consumption.
Extruded snack preparation
The extruded snacks were produced at the Bunge
Innovation Centre (Bradley, IL) using refined corn
meal and refined millet grains. Both the corn meal
and refined millet were adjusted to 14.0% moisture.
Following mixing in a ribbon blender, the corn meal
and millet were transferred to a weight in loss hopper/
feeder (American Extrusion International, South
Beloit, IL). The extrudates were produced from these
cereals using an Advantage 50 Single Screw extrusion
system (American Extrusion International, South
Beloit, IL). Extrusion conditions were optimized to
produce extrudates with maximum expansion proper-
ties. A 30.5 cm screw with a single flow plate was used
with an eight-hole die. The die openings were 3.5 mm
in diameter. Extruder conditions were held constant
throughout production and were as follows: feedstock
feed rate 90 kg/h, screw speed 325 rpm, motor amper-
age 35 amp, die temperature of 150  C and knife speed
300 rpm. The extrudates ranged from 18 to 34 mm in
length, and 8.5 to 13.8 mm in width; they were vac-
uum-sealed in foil bags and shipped at ambient tem-
perature. After transport to the University of Guelph,
the extrudates were stored in an 18  C freezer and
were removed from the freezer on the night before
testing.

Couscous preparation
After receipt, the refined proso millet and corn meal
were stored in an 18  C freezer. Additionally, a
whole grain proso millet grain was included in order
to investigate how the decortication process affected
the composition of the grain. All couscous products
were manufactured at the University of Guelph by
addition of 90 g of grain to 250 ml of boiling filtered
water. The refined proso millet and corn meal were
allowed to simmer on the stove for 15 min with the
pot lid on and then the pot was removed from the
heat. The pot was then left covered for 15 min before
testing. The couscous was prepared fresh the day of
consumption.
Methods
Food analysis
Proximate analysis was performed using standard
AOAC methods for total fat, protein, total dietary
fibre and moisture. A Megazyme assay kit (K-TSTA,
Megazyme International Ireland Ltd., Ireland) was
used to measure the total starch content. Glucose pro-
duced by the hydrolysis of starch was estimated using
the glucose oxidase peroxidase (GOPOD) reagent and
measuring the absorbance at 510 um (Cary 1-Bio UV
visible spectrophotometer, Ontario, Canada). The gly-
caemic carbohydrate was defined as the total starch
content of the product.
Glycaemic response study
Study participants
Healthy men were recruited from the University of
Guelph and surrounding community. Inclusion crite-
ria were: normal fasting plasma glucose (<5.6 mmol/l)
and body mass index (BMI) from 18.5 to 29.9 kg/m2.
Exclusion criteria included: regular consumption of
millet as defined by questionnaire at screening; smok-
ing, heavy alcohol use (>3 drinks per day); very low
fibre consumption as assessed by 24-h food diary
(restrained eater as defined by the Three Factor Eating
Questionnaire (TFEQ) at screening (Stunkard &
Messick 1985); recent (i.e. >4 kg in previous
3 months) or intended weight loss or gain; food aller-
gies or any life-threatening allergy (food or otherwise);
Table 1. Participant characteristics (males, n ¼ 12; mean and SD).
Age (year) Height (cm) Weight (kg)
a
Mean 26.3 ± 3.8 177.4 ± 7.7 73.3 ± 10.7
a
Values were evaluated during screening visit.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCES AND NUTRITION 3
inflammatory bowel disease or other gastrointestinal
disorders; use of drugs which influence carbohydrate
metabolism; training or elite athletes, and inability to
adhere to study protocols. Insulin resistance (IR) was
calculated from fasting glucose and insulin values
using the Homeostasis Assessment Model 2
(HOMA2); a HOMA2-IR value of greater than 1.0
was considered indicative of insulin resistance (Levy
et al. 1998).
Participants were recruited from the Guelph com-
munity through posters and email flyers. Two hun-
dred and sixteen participants were screened by phone,
leading to 47 men screened in person. From this sam-
ple 15 healthy, non-smoking men between the ages of
19 and 40 were enrolled into the study. Three did not
complete the study due to time complications, sched-
uling conflicts and not adhering to study protocols.
The participants’ characteristics can be seen in
Table 1.
Study design and execution
A randomized cross-over study design with different
treatment blocks was used; the study power with
twelve subjects was set at 80% to detect a 22% differ-
ence in areas under the curves between the foods.
This study was completed at the Human Nutraceutical
Research Unit (HNRU) of the Department of Human
Health and Nutritional Sciences at the University of
Guelph. It was approved by the University of Guelph
Research Ethics Board (REB#13AP004) and registered
at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02075788). All participants
provided written informed consent. The study was
blinded, where possible. Although participants were
not told what grain their foods were made from, this
was sometimes obvious from the appearance of the
test foods. However, the investigator performing the
blood and data analysis was blinded to study treat-
ment. Participants visited the trial clinic on 12 occa-
sions and completed 2-h postprandial tests, following
a 12–13 h overnight fast. At each visit the randomly
consumed a different millet- or corn-containing prod-
uct, each containing 50 g of glycaemic carbohydrates
(total starch). Participants also ate white bread (50 g
portion) on three occasions to ensure their glycaemic
response did not change throughout the study dur-
ation. Prior to each study visit, participants were asked
to consume a standard supper meal recommended by
BMI (kg/m2) Fasting plasma glucose (mmol/l) Fasting serum insulin (pmol/l) HOMA2-IR
23.3 ± 2.8 4.6 ± 0.3 42 ± 12.2 0.8 ± 0.2
4 M. B. MCSWEENEY ET AL.
a study coordinator (based on each participant’s food
diary and preferences) and to avoid alcohol consump-
tion and strenuous activity. At each study visit, the
participant’s body weight was first determined. Body
composition by bioelectrical impedance analysis,
height and blood pressure were also determined at the
first, sixth and final study visits.
Blood collection and analysis
At baseline, all measurements were taken in duplicate
in two separate fingers (Wolever et al. 2008). The par-
ticipant was then asked to consume the test product
within 10 min and duplicate blood samples were ana-
lyzed from one fingerprick at each of 15, 30, 45, 60,
90 and 120 min following the start of food ingestion.
The participants were instructed to drink a cup
(250 ml) of room temperature water within 5 min fol-
lowing consumption of the test product. During each
study visit, participants were asked to remain seated
with minimal activity, either watching movies or read-
ing in the research unit. Study personnel and/or a
medically trained technician supervised participants at
all times throughout the trial. After the 120 min sam-
pling, participants were provided with a light lunch
(sandwich, fruit, juice or milk) before leaving the unit.
At each study visit, a department-approved phlebot-
omist or a trained graduate student took finger prick
blood samples. A Pink SurgiLance Safety Lancet
(Model: SLN300; Depth: 2.8 mm; Gauge: G21,
Georgia, United States) was used to perform the fin-
gerprick from the side of the fingertip. Approximately
5 ll of blood was collected directly into a HemoCue
Glucose 201 microcuvette (Angelholm, Sweden) in a
continuous process and blood glucose determined in
duplicate using the HemoCue Glucose 201 system.
Once filled, any excess blood on the microcuvette was
wiped off with a KimwipeTM (Wisconsin, United
States) and the microcuvettes were analyzed.
Data analysis
Whole blood glucose was plotted as a function of time
and the 2-h area under the curve (AUC) calculated for
each test food using SAS 9.4 (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary,
NC), ignoring the area below fasting as outlined by
Wolever et al. (1991) using the trapezoid method. For
the AUC calculation, fasting blood glucose was taken
to be the average of the two different values measured
at baseline. All data was subjected to a repeated meas-
ures one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and a
Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference (HSD) Test (IBM
SPSS STATISTICS Version 20, IBM, New York, NY)
Table 2. Means and SEM for area under the blood glucose
response curve.
Food Glycaemic response (AUC) (mmol min/l)
Whole grain millet couscous 53.3 ± 7.51a,b,c
Refined millet couscous 66.7 ± 11.61
Refined corn couscous 43.5 ± 5.81
Refined millet biscuit 82.6 ± 13.71#
Refined corn biscuit 102.0 ± 10.31#
Refined millet extruded snacks 189.3 ± 16.41
Refined corn extruded snacks 198.7 ± 20.91
Refined millet porridge 40.1 ± 5.81^
Refined corn porridge 52.2 ± 8.11^
a
n ¼ 12.
b
Means in the same column with the same superscript numbers are not
significantly different at p < .05.
c
Means in the same product category (couscous, biscuit, extruded snacks,
porridge) with the same symbol are not significantly different at p < .05.
to assess significant differences in blood glucose
responses across time points for the different product
types. A paired t-test (Microsoft ExcelTM 2011) was
conducted to compare the means of the AUC values
of each product type based on grain type (millet ver-
sus corn).
Results and discussion
Participants
The characteristics of the 12 participants who com-
pleted the study can be seen in Table 1. All partici-
pants had normal fasting blood glucose levels
(4.6 ± 0.03 mmol/l) and an average BMI of
23.3 ± 2.8 kg/m2.
Glycaemic response
The mean blood glucose AUC values (Table 2) were
calculated from the response curves shown in Figures
1 and 2 for all of the products. For both millet and
corn, the extruded snacks had the highest AUCs and
this may be due to the degree of gelatinization of the
products. Extrusion is a high heat, high shear process-
ing condition, which can cause a high amount of gel-
atinization (Svihus et al. 2005). Gelatinization is
directly related to glycaemic response and as the
degree of gelatinization increases, so does the gly-
caemic response of the food (Parada & Aguilera
2009). The relationship between cooked or gelatinized
starch and raw starch and their respective effects on
glucose and insulin response has been investigated in
wheat (Berthold & Mohamed 1976), oat and barley
flakes (Granfedlt et al. 2000), corn (Collings et al.
1981) and potato (Vaaler et al. 1984). Gelatinization is
affected by time, temperature, pressure and moisture
during the treatment and since this these parameters
were consistent for the two grains used in this study,
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCES AND NUTRITION 5

(A) 7.5

Blood glucose (mmol/L)

6.5

5.5

4.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (minutes)
Whole Grain Millet Couscous Corn Couscous Millet Couscous

(B) 7.5
Blood Glucose (mmol/L)

6.5

5.5

4.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (Minutes)
Millet Porridge Corn Porridge
Figure 1. Postprandial glucose response shown by areas under the blood glucose curves of couscous (A) and porridge (B).

the only other factor affecting the gelatinization would Srivastava 2014). However, our results did not support
be the grain itself (Altan et al. 2009). Based on the this hypothesis as the AUC of the whole grain cous-
similar blood glucose responses for millet and corn cous (53.3 ± 7.5 mmol min/l) was not significantly dif-
extrudates in Figures 1 and 2, it is likely the grains ferent from that of the refined millet couscous
experienced the same amount of gelatinization. (66.7 ± 11.6 mmol min/l) (p < .05). The whole grain
The millet extruded snack produced a relatively millet contained a higher fibre, fat and protein content
high AUC (189 ± 16.4 mmol min/l), as can be seen in than the decorticated millet (Table 3). These nutri-
Table 2. The extruded snack was produced from the tional components usually lead to a lower glycaemic
same decorticated proso millet as the porridge, biscuit response (Parada & Aguilera 2009), however that was
and couscous and yet its glycaemic response was not found in this study. This finding once again indi-
much higher than those products (p < .05). This was cates that the product matrix affects the glycaemic
also seen in the refined corn flour products, with the response of a food item.
product type dictating the glycaemic response. These Overall, no statistically significant differences were
results indicate that, independent of the grain utilized, observed in the AUC between the corn and millet
the product matrix and processing plays a crucial role products, however it is still important to investigate
in the glycaemic response of cereal grains and specific- the individual postprandial blood glucose responses
ally of proso millet in this study. elicited by the same products produced with different
It was hypothesized that the decortication would be grains. The postprandial curves can be seen in Figures
associated with a higher glycaemic response. This 1 and 2. It can be seen that there is no significant dif-
agrees with many other studies indicating that decorti- ference (p < .05) at any of the time points (0, 15, 30,
cation leads to an increase in glycaemic response 45, 60, 90 and 120 min) for the biscuit, couscous and
(Foster-Powell et al. 2002; Slavin 2003; Shukla & porridge products. The only significant difference
6 M. B. MCSWEENEY ET AL.

(A) 9
8.5

Blood glucose (mmol/L)

8
7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (minutes)
Millet Extrusion Corn Extrusion

(B) 8.5
8
Blood glucose (mmol/L)

7.5
7
6.5
6
5.5
5
4.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (minutes)

Millet Biscuit Corn Biscuit

Figure 2. Postprandial glucose response shown by areas under the blood glucose curves of extrudates (A) and biscuits (B).

Table 3. Profile of 50 g glycaemic carbohydrate of test foods.

Food Weight eaten (g) Moisture Content (g) Fat (g) Protein (g) Ash (g) Glycaemic carbohydrate (g) TDF (g)
100% Millet
Biscuit 80.1 13.0 4.9 6.1 0.3 50.0 5.6
Extruded snack 63.4 1.3 2.0 7.2 1.3 50.0 5.6
Porridge 71.1 9.1 0.9 5.2 0.6 50.0 5.3
Couscous 63.6 3.6 2.4 6.6 1.0 50.0 1.9
Whole grain couscous 82.5 3.1 3.1 9.6 3.5 50.0 12.5
100% Corn
Biscuit 77.8 18.7 3.1 2.0 2.2 50.0 1.6
Extruded snack 61.0 2.2 0.4 5.5 0.4 50.0 2.5
Porridge 75.0 10.5 0.7 3.0 2.9 50.0 2.0
Couscous 55.9 2.6 0.3 4.0 0.3 50.0 1.7

found when comparing the glucose response was that and millet both peaked at minute 45 and then
for the extruded snacks at 60 min; the corn extrudates decreased (Figure 2(B)). Furthermore, the extrudates
elicited a significantly higher response than the millet produced from millet and corn were the only products
extrudates (Figure 2(A)). Otherwise, there were no sig- for which baseline was not reached at time 120 min,
nificant differences between the extruded products indicating once again that product matrix appears to
and this further supports the argument that product have an impact on starch digestion.
matrix and processing play an important role in deter- The glycaemic responses of millet products were
mining glycaemic response. Also, the postprandial also compared using a one-way repeated measures
response for the couscous, porridge and biscuits ANOVA to determine if the glycaemic response they
exhibited rapid increase of blood glucose level peaking elicited differed with processing. At time points 0 and
at minute 30 and then decreasing (Figures 1 and 2). 15 min, none of the millet-based products was signifi-
However, the extruded snacks produced from corn cantly different from each other. As the time

progressed to 30, 45 and 60 min, the couscous, whole
grain couscous, biscuit and porridge produced using
millet all had significantly lower glucose responses
than that of the extruded snack (p < .05). At every
time point, the millet porridge had the lowest incre-
mental blood glucose response. The millet biscuit was
found to have a significantly higher glycaemic
response than the millet porridge at 45 and 60 min.
Blood glucose levels elicited by the extruded snack
were significantly higher than the couscous, whole
grain couscous and porridge at all times except for 0,
15 and 120 min (p < .05).
The refined corn products were also analyzed using
a one-way repeated measures ANOVA and they fol-
lowed the same trend as the millet products.
Generally, the couscous and porridge with corn were
found to elicit a significantly lower blood glucose
response than the extruded snack at 30, 45, 60, 90 min
(p < .05). This is similar to the millet-based products,
as extruded snacks produced from millet were found
to also be significantly different from the couscous
and porridge at these time points (p < .05). In agree-
ment with the millet products, the corn biscuit had a
significantly higher glucose response at 45 min than
the corn porridge (p < .05). However, it also did have
a significantly different incremental glucose response
than the corn porridge at 30 min. Comparing Figures
1 and 2, it is evident that the product types follow
the same general trends of glucose response, inde-
pendent of grain type. This indicates that product
type and processing used in the manufacture of the
product are significant factors in determining gly-
caemic response.
Previous studies have indicated that product matrix
or type plays a role in determining the glycaemic
response of a food. For instance, in pasta, the dense
texture created during preparation reduces the starch
digestion ratio, thus lowering the glycaemic response
(Grandfedlt et al. 1991). In this study, the couscous
had a lower glycaemic response than the extruded
snacks. This could be due to the fact that the grain
remains intact during product manufacture, something
that has previously been observed in rice (Jarvi et al.
1995). Juntunen et al. (2002) found that the lower gly-
caemic response associated with rye bread and pasta
as compared to wheat bread was not explained by the
type of cereal or rate of gastric emptying, but by the
structural properties of the food. Although the mech-
anism responsible for the differences in glycaemic
response due to product matrix was not within the
scope of this study, these findings indicate that the
product matrix and structure must be investigated to
fully understand glycaemic responses.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD SCIENCES AND NUTRITION 7
Conclusions
This study attempted to advance the formulation and
production of foods incorporating 100% millet. Foods
produced from proso millet and corn had similar gly-
caemic responses. Furthermore, decortication did not
have a negative effect on millet product glycaemic
response, as the whole grain couscous did not have a
significantly lower glycaemic response than that of the
refined millet couscous. However, this study con-
firmed that, independent of grain type, product matrix
and structure play critical roles in impacting glycaemic
response and may even dictate the glycaemic response
of the food. Future work should investigate the mech-
anisms by which the product matrix of corn and
proso millet-based products affects glycaemic
response. It should also include an investigation of the
starch–protein and starch–lipid interactions, identify
the fatty acids present and the type of fibres in the ash
content of these grains. In terms of millet’s potential
to replace corn in food products directed at prevent-
ing or managing T2DM, the refined proso millet used
in this study elicited the same glycaemic response as
those food items produced with refined corn.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the Ontario Ministry of
Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs Highly Qualified
Personnel Scholarship. All extruded snacks were provided
by and produced by Bunge Inc. Bunge Inc also supplied the
millet and millet flour for the production of the biscuits,
porridge and couscous. The staff and students in the
Human Nutraceutical Research Unit at the University of
Guelph also supported this research.
Disclosure statement
The authors all declare no conflicts of interest.
Funding
This research was supported by the Ontario Ministry of
Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs Highly Qualified
Personnel Scholarship.
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