FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS VINCENT K. S. CHOO Department of Mechanical Engineering New Mexico State University New Mexico, U.S.A. KNOWEN ACADEMIC PRESS, INC., DOVER, DELAWARE, U.S.A. ‘KNOWEN}©1990 by KNOWEN ACADEMIC PRESS, INC., by KNOY All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Choo, Vincent K. S. Fundamentals of Composite Materials Includes bibliographical references and index 1, Mechanics 2. Composite Materials ISBN 0-929785-00-2In memory of Mrs. Lina Freeburg and Mrs Lin Yin ChooDe afane FIClLace Composite materials present unique challenges to the traditional roles of material acientists and engineers. A composite material can be custom tailored to have specific properties that will meet special requirements. However, a com- posite material has added dimensions of complexity with respect to engineering analyses which involve complicated mathematical models. These models may be constructed using tensor notation which lends itself well in affording a means of formulating compact mathematical models and yet contain a large amount of information. This book has been arranged consistently to present the mechanics of composite materials using Cartesian tensors as a shorthand. It introduces students to the fundamental concepts of the mechanical behavior of composite materials. In addition, it provides a solid foundation for further study and re- search. This book is based on a one-semester graduate course that I give. It is intented as a graduate level textbook. However, it may be used by students, researchers and practicing engineers for reference. ‘The first chapter provides a general introduction to composite materials. Chapter 2 discusses the second rank strain tensor. The transformation rules for a strain tensor are established clearly to show the reader how a strain tensor may be transformed from one coordinate system to the next. In chapter 3, it is shown that a stress tensor has the same transformation rules as a strain tensor. An elastic constitutive model can be used to relate the strain and the stress tensors as demonstrated in chapter 4. Fundamental to the constitutive model is the fourth rank material elastic stiffness tensor. Its transformation rules are explained. This chapter illustrates the differences among anisotropic, orthotropic and isotropic materials by examining their respective elastic material stiffness tensors. Knowledge gained from chapters 2, 3 and 4 is applied to the study of the mechanics of a lamina in chapter 5. Here, the mechanical behavior of a lamina is presented. The coupling between in-plane normal stresses and in-plane shear strain is examined. A lamina normally serves as a building block for a laminate due to limitations in engineering applications of the lamina. For the purpose of studying a laminate, the classical lamination theory is discussed in chapter 6. In general, the coupling stiffness tensors of laminated composite plates or shells are Non-zero. As a consequence, there is coupling between bending and stretching. ‘The classical lamination theory provides a means of studying the mechanicalbehavior of a laminate. Chapter 7 examines the laminated plate theory. General governing equations for bending and buckling of laminated plates are derived. A brief discussion on the thermal stresses in composites is given in chapter 8. This chapter shows that the classical lamination theory breaks down in the vicinity of a laminate edge. It is due to the edge effects which are peculiar to laminated composites. A detailed discussion on the edge effects is also included. Failure criteria of composite materials which are important in engineering design are examined in chapter 9. It has taken more than a hundred years to develop the failure criteria for isotropic materiais. Comparatively, the development of failure criteria for composite materials is still in its infancy. A basic groundwork is built from chapter 2 through chapter 9 for the study of the macromechanics of composites. In these chapters, no mention was made of the roles played by the constituent materials. Nevertheless, a knowledge on the micro-level is essential since the properties of the constituent materials clearly affect the properties of their composite materials. A brief introduction on the complicated but important topic of micromechanics is given in the final chapter. I am indebted to my wife, Charlene, and children. Without their pa- tience and support it would have been impossible for me to undertake such a project. Thanks are due to Drs. George P. Sendeckyj, Nicholas J. Pagano and James M. Whitney, of the Wright-Patterson Air Force Materials Laboratory, and Dr. Stephen W. Tsai, of Stanford University, for their generosity and kindness to review the various chapters of this book. Their highly regarded opinions have been very helpful to me in the preparation of this text. Thanks are also due to Mr. John H. Chesson, Dr Sali G. Ma, Mr. John Tipton and Mr. Toby R. Maes, of General Electric, for their interests in the composites and polymers program at New Mexico State University. I am grateful for the financial support provided by the Polymers Division of the American Chemical Society and the GE Foun- dation. I also like to thank Dr. Ron J. Pederson, who is a very kind and helpful colleague, for his assistance and advice in the preparation of this book. I am grateful for the opportunity to work with and learn from Dr Dennis D. Davis and Mr. Joe L. Creed. Thanks are due to my graduates students who have provided many valuable inputs. . Ch:CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2 STRAIN TENSOR 24 2.2 23 24 25 CHAPTER 3 STRESS TENSOR 3.1 3.2 3.3 CHAPTER 4 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS 4. 4.2 43 44 45 INTRODUCTION INFINITESIMAL DEFORMATION STRAIN TENSOR TRANSFORMATIO! STRAIN AND DISPLACEMENT ...... THE EQUATIONS OF COMPATIBILITY EXERCISES REFERENCES INTRODUCTION STRESS TENSOR TRANSFORMATION EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS EXERCISES REFRRENCES INTRODUCTION wees APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS IN MATERIAL DEFORMATIONS .. ‘TRANSFORMATION OF THE MATERIAL ELASTIC STIFFNESS TENSOR... TRANSFORMATION OF THE MATERIAL COMPLIANCE TENSOR THR CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS 4.5.1 Monoclinic Material 4.5.2 Orthotropic Material 4.5.2 Isotropic Material EXERCISES iz Al 43 44 a7 50 53 582 contenrs REFERENCES CHAPTER 5 MECHANICS OF A LAMINA 5.1 INTRODUCTION 5.2 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS OF A LAMINA 5.3 TRANSFORMATION OF Qj;11 AND Sija1 FOR A LAMINA 3.4 BLASTIC BENAVIOR CF A LAMINA 5.5 DEFORMATION OF A CONSTRAINED — GENERALLY ORTHOTROPIC LAMINA EXERCISES REFERENCES . CHAPTER 6 MECHANICS OF A LAMINATE 6.1 INTRODUCTION ... 6.2 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE CLASSICAL LAMINATION THEORY 6.3 CLASSICAL LAMINATION THEORY 64 ELASTIC BEHAVIOR OF LAMINATED PLATES 6.4.1 Specially orthotropic Plates 6.4.2 Generally Orthotropic Plates 6.4.3 A Two-ply Laminated Plate 6.4.4 A Three-ply Laminated Plate 6.45 Balanced Laminates EXERCISES REFERENCES CHAPTER 7 ELASTIC LAMINATED PLATE THEORY 7.1 INTRODUCTION 7.2 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS OF A LAMINATED PLATE 7.3 BENDING OF A SPECIALLY ORTHOTROPIC PLATE 4 VAKIALIONAL METHOD 7.4.1 Bending of a Specially Orthotropic Plate with Clamped Edges 7.8 GOVERNING BUCKLING EQU. 7.6 TRANSVERSE VIBRATION OF A LAMINATED PLATE REFERENCES CHAPTER 8 THERMAL AND EDGE EFFECTS 8.1 INTRODUCTION .... 8.2 THERMAL RESIDUAL STRESSES 8.2.1 Microscopic Thermal Residual Stresses 8.2.2 Macroscopic Thermal Residual Stresses in a Lamina 148 152 160 161 163 167 -168 169 169 1698.2.3 Macroscopic Thermal Residual Stresses in a Laminate 83 THERMAL GRADIENT 84 EDGEEFFECTS .... 8.4.1 Interlaminar Stresses in Angle-ply Laminates 8.4.2 Effect of Stacking Sequence on the EXERCISES REFERENCES CHAPTER 9 FAILURE CRITERIA AND ANISOTROPIC PLASTICITY 9.1 INTRODUCTION ..... 9.2 STRENGTHS OF UNIDIRECTIONAL LAMINAE 9.2.1 Uniaxial Loading 9.2.2 Biaxial Loading 9.3 FAILURE CRITERIA 9.3.1 Gol’denblat-Kopnov Strength Criterion for Brittle Anisotropic Materials 9.3.2 The Tsai-Wu Strength Tensor Polynomial Criterion 9.3.3 The Tsai-Wu Strain Tensor Polynomial Criterion 9.3.4 Maximum Stress Criterion 9.3.5 Maximum Strain Criterion 9.3.6 First Ply Failure Criterion 9.3.7 Last Ply Failure Criterion 9.3.8 Hashin Failure Criteria 9.4 ANISOTROPIC PLASTICITY 9.4.1, Elastic Constitutive Relations 9.4.2 Plasticity Theory for an Elastoplastic Isotropic Solid 9.4.3 Plasticity Theory for an Elastoplastic Composite Material EXERCISES REFERENCES CHAPTER 10 BEHAVIOR AT THE MICROLEVEL 10.1 INTRODUCTION 10.2 EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF THE EFFECTIVE ELASTIC STIFFNESS TENSOR 10.3 THEORETICAL PREDICTION OF THE EFFECTIVE ELASTIC STIFFNESS TENSOR 10.3.1. Variational Bounding Method 10.3.2 Strength of Material Approach 175 182 186 193 211 21 213 214 214 214 217 220 226 236 239 244 244 245 248 251 252 253 257 260 261 265 266 266 270 270 280aii 10.4 10.5 STRENGTHS AND FRACTURE BEHAVIOR OF UNIDIRECTIONAL LAMINA 10.4.1 Transverse Tensile Failure 4.2 Transverse Compressive Failure Tensile Strength along the Fiber Axis Compressive Strength in the Fiber Direction in i bo MICRO-YIELDING IN COMPOSITE MATERIALS EXERCISES REFERENCES APPENDIX I INDEX 284 285 289 289 292 293 293 205 297 299 310Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION2 carrer s wrropverion The word composite means ‘made up of distinct parts or substances’. Natu- rally, a composite material is a material that consists of two or more distinct constituent materials which arc bound together to form an integral unit. In nature, composite materials have been in existent for millions of years. Wood, bamboo and bone are just a few examples of the natural occurring composite materiale. Man has learned to fabricate composite matcrials relatively recently. Perhaps, one of the first evidence of a man-made composite material is the mud- blocks reinforced with straws. The composite material fabrication technology has since progressed from straw reinforced mud blocks to man made fiber rein- foreed composite materials such as fiber reinforced polymers, ceramic matrix, metallic matrix and carbon-carbon composite materials. ‘An obvious advantage that the fiber reinforeed composite materials have over the conventional engineering materials such as copper, steel, aluminum, tita- nium, etc., is the high specific strength and modulus. The definition of specific strength is the ratio of the material strength to the material density and the specific modulus is defined as the material Young’s modulus per unit material density. High specific strength and specific modulus have important implica- tions on the engineering applications of composite materials. It means that the composite materials are strong and stiff and yet light in weight. Such character- istics are very desirable in the aeronautical and aerospace industry. The weight savings realized by fabricating structural components out of composite materials is directly translated into fuel savings which in turn makes the operation of an aeroplane or a space vehicle more economical. It is predicted that the savings in the operating costs of an aeroplane will he able ta nay for a an of the initial cost of the aeroplane. This factor has been the main impetus on the development of composite materials during the fossil fuel crisis. Composite materials also afford the flexihility of placing strength and stiffness in critical areas without the penalty of weight increment as would be with macroscopically isotropic engineering materials. In many applications a structure is required to retain its strength and stiffness at. an ultra-high temperature. ‘The leading edges of the wings and the nose cone of a space vehicle are examples of such struc- tures which may encounter temperature as high as 3000° F during re-entry. At Present, only the carbon-carbon composite material can meet the demands of this severe operation condition. The carbon-carbon composite material has made the ablative technology obsolete. Thus, it has enable the dream of a reusable space vehicle to materializ The introduction of composite materials has changed many conventional jatantial amannt.eHAPTER 1: inTRopucTiON 3 engineering practices. For instance, in the engineering design realm, designing an engineering structure also means designing the required material simultaneously. Therefore, a designer has to have a fundamental knowledge on the material fabrication techniques. He has to interact very closely with the manufacturing and processing department right from the beginning of any project. of parts out of composite materials is both labor intensive and expensive. The manufacturing process is slow. For example, a part fabricated from carbon- carbon can take as long as nine months from start to finish. As technology progresses, it is predicted that the price of the fibers should drop. Also, as more automation emerges in the manufacturing process, the manufacturing cost will decrease too. The automotive industry has been slow in entering the composite materials arena simply because it is not yet cost effective to build automobiles out of composite materials. Nevertheless, there are limited non-critical parts in some land transportation vehicles that are made of composite materials. Sheet molding compound reinforced with chopped strand glass fibers is employed. The sheet molding compound is compression molded to form the near finished part where a manufacturing cycle time of about 60 seconde is attainable. ‘The number of joints in an aircraft part fabricated from a composite ma- terial can be reduced drastically compared to the same part made of aluminum. However, joining composite parts is difficult. In general, composite materials like to handle a distributed load rather than a concentrated point load which exists in a rivet joint. Another disadvantage of composite materials is the difficulties associated with repair. Subsurface damage can be generated in a composite material. It has an adverse effect on the performance of the composite material and is not easy to detect. Furthermore, it is very difficult to repair. In an open hole damage where the damage area is open to the air, moisture is likely to be absorbed and diffused into other regions of a polymeric composite material. Moisture absorption presents further di he Performance of a part usually is not as good as it was in its initial state. The repair technology for composite materials is still in its infancy. As it progresses, this picture will change. ‘The reinforcing agent in a composite material may be particulates, aligned short fibers, randomly oriented short fibers or aligned long continuous fibers. In this text only the behavior of the continuous fibere reinforced com- Posite materials will be examined. Composite materials are macroscopically anisotropic or orthotropic in nature. As such, they are very complex compared to the macroscopically isotropic materiale euch as steel, aluminum, ete. Hence, Tany parameters are involved in any formulation that deals with composite materials. In a Cartesian coordinate system the Cartesian tensor undoubtedly Provides convenient and useful shorthands. It will be used throughout this text. ‘Two Cartesian coordinate systems will be prominent throughout the rest of this silty in the repair proced 2 Upon rap:4 chapren i inrropucrion book. They are: (1) the principal material coordinate system 1222 and (2) an arbitrary coordinate system denoted by a prime as 24.2525. One of the principal material axes is parallel to the fiber axis and the remaining two axes are mutually orthogonal to the fiber axis. For convenience sake, the term global or geometric coordinate system will be used to refer to the arbitrary coord; coord’ ly orthogonal avee are parallel FL Fig. 1.1 Coordinate systems Consequently, all terms in an equation will be primed if the reference coordinate aystem Principal material coordinate system is the reference system.Chapter 2 STRAIN TENSOR6 cuaprena srnain TeNsoR 21 INTRODUCTION A flying aircraft undergoes translation and rotation. In addition, the forces exerted on the aircraft body subject it to deformation. The aircraft is said to be undergoing transformation which consists of the following two parts: (1) the rigid body motion (2) the pure deformation. A simplified explanation of the transformation can be achieved by considering a plate CDEF with a line AB drawn on it as shown in Fig. 2.1. V&V" are vectors Fig. 2.1 Vector transformation in the Cartesian coordinate The plate CDEF was initially at location €. Imagine that when it is subjectedaa wrropverion 7 to external forces it moves to location x and assumes the new shape denoted by C*D*E*F*. In the 3-dimensional space AB represents a vector V. Under the transformation, vector V is carried over to V*. In the Cartesian coordinate system, vector V may be expressed in terms of its components as V=e Vis fori=12,3 (2.1) where e; 18 a unit vector in the 2; direction. Similarly, Vise Vi; fori=1,2,3 (2.2) Therefore, oY =Ve (2.3) Vectors V and V* differ in direction and magnitude due to the transformation. ‘As it is shown in Fig. 2.1, Vj is given by (2.4) and Ve =aP* — oft (2.5) As shown by Sokolnikoff and Specht [2.1] the properties of a linear trans- formation of points are 2 = aio + (65 +045) 25 5 for if = 1,2,3 (2.6) where 6,; is the Kronecker delta when i # j when i= j The term aj, and a4; ate constant coefficients. Therefore, Thus, ot eh tay xf] Rearranging gives (xP - 24] + os [xP - 2f! @7n Substituting equation (2.4) into (2.7) yields8) caprar 2 srRain TENSOR (2.8a) or (2.85) 6V; = a4 Vj (2.9) which is the transformation. ‘The coefficient of transformation is denoted by ais. 2.2 INFINITESIMAL DEFORMATION When the deformation is infinitesimal, the following two rules applied. (1) The principle of superposition is valid. In a product transformation, where there is more than one transformation, the approximate resultant transformation is obtained by adding the coefficients of the successive transformations ai;, fi;, 7%;, ete., (2) The order of transformations has no effects on the resultant transforma- tion. Within these rules, the transformation expressed in equation (2.9) can be sepa- rated into two parts, (1). the rigid body motion and (2) the pure deformation components as illustrated below. (1) Rigid body motion The length of vectors V and V* are ivi= Jv24.v2+v2 and IV] = (Vy? + Vg? + Vg? respectively. For rigid body motion the leiigth of the vector V must remain constant. Therefore, [V3 + V3 + V2 = Vs? + Vg? + Vg? Ve + Vi + Vg = Vy? + Vz? + Vg? (2.10) But22 INPINITESIMAL DEFORMATION 9 aj Vj 3 for i,j =1,2,3 (2.82) Hence, Ve =Vi tau Vit a2 Vat os Vs Vii = Vo + a1 Vi + ana Va + 029 Va (2.41) Vg = Vo +a: Vi + 232 Vo + 039 Vo Substituting equation (2.11) into (2.10) gives Ve 4+ VP + VP = (Vit on Vi tous Va +e Vo)?+ (Va +021 Vi + 0222 Vo + a2 Vs)?-+ (Va + a1 Vi +192 Vo +033 V5)? Neglecting the terms with product of yields ij and rearranging the resulting equation a1 Vi +022 V3 + a3 Vat (o12 + 21) Vi V2 + (23 + @32) Va Va + (ais +031) Vi Vs =0 (2.12) For all values of Vi, V2 and V3, equation (2.12) is identically zero if 11 = O22 = 33 = 0 a O23 O21 32 (2.13) O91 aig = Hence, the necessary and sufficient condition for equation (2.9) to represent a rigid body motion is for i,j =1,2,3 (2.14) ‘Thus, aj; is skew-symmetric for a rigid body motion. (2) Pure deformation Returning to equation (2.9) one observes that it can only be decomposed into the following form 8; = 5 [aay + ays) + (ayy — a5] V5 (2.18)10 cuapren a srnai reNson Now (aij + aj) is symmetric and (aij — ay) is skew-symmetric. As shown earlier, the skew-symmetric part is the rigid body motion transformation com- ponent. Thus, the symmetric part must be the pure deformation transformation component. Let (2.16) and (2.17) as used by Sokolnikoff and Specht [2.1]. Thus, the general infinitesimal transfor- mation becomes IY; = ey Yj to Vi (2.18) is known as the strain tenor. For the pure deformation case, where wi Yj =0 Hence, the pure deformation transformation component is 8V; = 645; Vj (2.19) ‘Therefore, the components of the strain tensor are given by 6 : w= s fori,j=1,2,3 (2.20) Vi It must be pointed out that in the absence of a rigid body motion 6V; represents the extension of V;. Expansion of equation (2.20) gives (2.21)aa inenaresimat Derormarion 11 3, fali ena isi, j=3: es =H, ‘The terms e11, e22 and egg are the normal engineering strains in the z1, 22 and zg directions respectively. The tensorial shear strains are represented by ¢12, ¢32 and eg. ‘heir geometric interpretation can be iiiustrated by considering ¢12 in the 222 plane as follows. Rectangular plate ABCD shown in Fig. 2.2 undergoes a shear deformation. Let the edges AB and AD represent vectors V1 and Vz respectively. Under an infinitesimal deformation, the plate assumes a new shape indicated by AB*C*D*. Vector Vj is changed to vector Vj. Similarly, Vector V2 is changed to vector Vj. Therefore, Vp = Vit 6V2 Vp= Vet 6Vi Fig. 2.2 Shear deformation Expressed in terms of their components along the 21 and zz axes, one has Miser12 cuapren 2 strain TENSOR Vi2=e2 V2 where e; and e2 ate the unit vectors along the 2; and zz axes respectively. ‘Therefore, For an infinitesimal deformation Therefore, Equations (2.21) and (2.22) show that Omen ones But, for an infinitesimal deformation, @ Hence, e12 = en Similarly, it may be verified that 2a = €a2 ea = €13 (2.22)2. STRAIN TENSOR TRANSFORMATION 13 Thus, the strain tensor ej is symmetric which validate equation (2.16). ‘The engineering shear strains in the 222, 2223 and 25x; planes are 2 ¢12, 2 23 and 2 eas respectively. 2.3. STRAIN TENSOR TRANSFORMATION In an infinitesimal deformation let vector V be transformed to V + 0V as shown in Fig. 2.3. Now, veav bv =e SY for i=1,2,3 Since the vector V originates from the origin, it can also be written as Veer; fori=1,2,3 Hence, Vi=a (2.23) The dot product of the two vectors V and 6V, whi given by is a scalar quantity, is VebV = 0M 00 5V5 Vi Vi (2.24) But, Vj = 645 Vy (2.19) Veiv =e Vij (2.2) From equations (2.23) and (2.25) it can be shown that V ebV = 645 24 25 (2.28) ‘The same argument applies if the 2',2'2', coordinate system is used. The scalar quantity V6 6V remains unchanged since a scalar quantity is independent of the coordinate system. However, the dot product is now expressed as VebV =e), 2215 forp.g=1,2,3 (2.27) Equations (2.26) and (2.27) must be identical. Consequently, equation (2.28) is true,14 cuapren 2 sTRAIN TENSOR eig2i 25 = hy 2 25 Sor i,i,p.g =1,2,3 (2.28) For the coordinate systems in Fig. 2.3, the property of linear transformation of the coordinates of points is Al yx2,x3) Fig. 2.3 Vector transformation where lj; are the direction cosines. Expanding equation (2.29) gives zh shy ay the 22 ths 23 af = lay 21 + loa 22 + las 25 24 = lay 21 + loz 22 + las 23 Table 2.1 Direction cosines a | 22 | 2a wt ha | he | hs zy | la la | bas z | ts Is2 Isa2.3 STRAIN TENSOR TRANSFORMATION 15 which may be arranged into the following useful form as shown in Table 2.1. The inverse of equation (2.29) is = hye 2 (2.30) The direction cosines lj can be determined from a coordinate rotation as illus- trated below. In Fig. 2.4 the coordinate system z,z2z3 is rotated through an angle 6 to ziz42'. Therefore, thy = cos(z4,21) = cos 0 Iya = cos(z',22) = cos(90° — @) ys = c0s(24, 23) = cos 90° Ip, = cos(z}, 21) = c0s(90? + 8) lap = cos(24, 22) = cos 8 lng = cos(24,23) = cos 90° Igy = c08(24,21) = cos 90° Teo = cos(x4, 22) = cos 90° ag = c08(24, 28) = cos 0° Fig. 2.4 Rotation of a Cartesian coordinate system16 cmapren 2 stain TENSOR Substituting equation (2.29) into (2.28) yields ig epg (lpi #4) (las 23) Rearranging the above equation gives le Ni toe (2.31) Conversely, the strain tensor ¢; can be transformed into ¢, a8 eg = byt las 15 (2.32) Equations (2.31) and (2.32) are known as the rules of transformation for a second rank Cartesian tensor. As a result, the strain tensor ¢;; is a second rank tensor. 24 STRAIN AND DISPLACEMENT As show in Fig. 2.5, vector V is transformed to vector V*. Fig. 2.5 Transformation of a vector24 STRAIN AND DispLAcEMENT 17 Let the displacement of A to A* be A’ uf = uf(z; and the displacement of B to B* be (23) ~(2P -2f) ap" — 2) — (2M — xf) that is, 64; = uP — uf Furthermore, 8V; = a5 Thus, Pub tay Vj (2.33) The displacement u? may also be expanded in terms of uf using the Taylor series expansion as follows. uP = wi(et + Vi) duslet) = A i wet) +M Se or uP mut 4 y; Ducat) ann 02; If one were to let dui(zf) ee waste) then,18 cuarren a strain TeNsoR: ub suf + uis(2t) Vi (2.34) From equations (2.33) and (2.34) it is obvious that aj = usg(2A) (2.35) Since z2f is arbitrary, equation (2.35) is a general equation and zf can be replaced by z;. Thus, equation (2.35) is written as ay = 3 (2.36) by dropping the argument #;. But, and as shown earlier, (2.16) 1 iy = 5 (as ~ (2.17) ‘Therefore, the strain tensor is given by 1 6g = 5 (is + Uys) (2.37) ‘The components of the strain tensor are obtained as follows by expanding equa- tion (2.37). Pre My oo aa = ta.9 1 tra} (ust uaa) = enn (2.38) 1 as = 3 (una tna) = ea2 1 es = 5 (uaa + 1,2) = era where u;, tz and us are the displacements in the 21, 22 and 2s directions respectively.2.8 THE BquATIONS or comparieiity 19 2.5 THE EQUATIONS OF COMPATIBILITY ‘At any point in a deformed medium the displacements u:, uz and us must be unique. Such a requirement is ensured by imposing the continuity condition. In general, the relations among the displacements are expressed by the equations of compatibility as follows. Sor i,j,k, l= 1,2,3 (2.39) Detailed derivation of the equations of compatibility ean be found in [2.1]. It may be verified as follows that equation (2.39) is identically zero. Recalling that, C65 kl + Catag — C4 = 510k 1 CES (2.37) Therefore, 1 y (uae + uy se) 1 = 5 (wager + us,sni) 1 a (uaaig + anaes) 1 => (usage + Un sgt) 1 3 (jun + usin) Thus, 1 eight + eed aj — Coe,jt— juin = 5 [(usgnr + Uy ans) + (un tig + ueig) — (usage + Ue agi) — (uj ue + urjie)] (2.40) Hence, jar + enna; — C14, gt — estce = 0 (2.39) From equation (2.40) it can he observed that the displacements us, ua and ua must be continuous and differentiable up to at least second order. There are four indices involved in equation (2.39). Each index can assume either 1, 2 or 3. Let M be the total number of equations obtained in the expansion of equation (2.39) through permutation. It may be seen that M is given by20) cuapren a sTRaIn TENSOR M = (number of spatial dimensions)("™mber of indices involved) =3*=81 However, there are only six independent equations in the system of 81 equations 2 era = e11,22 +-€22,11 2 ex9,29 = ¢2a,90+ ¢as,22 2 esi,91 = esa, + C1133 e123 2,31 = —€a1,22 + €21,28 + €23,21 €93,12 = —€12,33 + €32,31 + €s1,82 —e2g.a1 + €13,12 + €12,13 (2.41) (2.42) (2.43) (2.44) (2.45) (2.48) Written out in the familiar form [2.2 to 2.4] in an zyz Cartesian coordinate system, equations (2.41) to (2.48) become a Pees &e, Oz? yer + bedy Prey ude Oye ye * B20 a, a tey) + Fea: Pays Bzdy Ores + Gyae ] ] ] (2.414) (2.42) (2.432) (2.44a) (2.45a) (2.46a) ‘As can be seen, the tensor notation is systematic and it offers simplicity in mathematical modelling.(2.1) (2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.5) (2.1) (2.2) [2.3] (2.4) nerenences 21 EXERCISES Show that 4 (cj +a,;) is symmetric and 4(ai;—a;;) is skew symmetric, ‘The indices can assume the values of 1, 2 and 3. Expand the following equations wiz = 0 (2.2.1) ui = (P2.2.2) jet p e425 ‘A new coordinate system 24252 is formed by rotating 20° clockwise about the zs-axis of the x1z273 coordinate system. Determine the di- rection cosines jj for i,j = 1,2,3. Expand the following equations cig = dpi bag hy (P2.4.1) = pr las ere (P2.4.2) Pid, 8 = 1,2,3 Sor i, Explain how equations (P2.4.1) and (P2.4.2) may be used. REFERENCES Sokolnikoff, I. S., and R.D. Specht, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1946 Langhaar, H. L., Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1962 Wang, C.T., Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953 Timoshenko, S., and D. H. Young, Elements of Strength of Materials,Chapter 3 STRESS TENSORsa srness TENSOR TRANSFORMATION 23 3.1 INTRODUCTION In general, when a continuous medium is eubjected to an external force it will translate, rotate and experience internal stresses. In modelling a rigid body motion, it is assumed that the internal stress resultanta constrain all points in the rigid body to remain at a fixed relative distance from each other [3.1]. Deformation within the rigid body is assumed to be insignificant. However, if a significant amount of deformation exists in the medium, then the medium should not be treated as a rigid body. In such a case, the deformation may be analyzed by relating the internal stresses to the displacements and the strains. ‘The resulting stress tensor will be examined in detail in this chapter. 3.2 STRESS TENSOR TRANSFORMATION A stress tensor will be defined as follows. An externally applied elemen- tal force Af acting over an elemental surface area of AS will produce a stress vector or traction [3.2] as follows. _ Af df . a 1) se “ ‘The internal stresses at any point P of the medium can be related to the applied stress vector T” at point P through the use of an infinitesimal elemental tetra- hedron as illustrated in Fig. 3.1. Let the height of the tetrahedron from the base ABO ww point F be hk i ch hermuure, ici Sy, Sg aud ‘Ss be the areas of BCP, ACP and BAP. The direction cosines ni, nz and ng are Oa ny = cos(z1,n) nig = cos(z2,n) ng = cos(z3,n) where n denotes a unit vector normal to the eurface of ABC. Therefore, S=Sm $= Sno (3.2)24° cuapren s srapss TENSOR nis a unit vector normal to the surface ABC O33 Fig. 3.1 A complete system of stresses at point P Sa =S ng Written in the general form, equation (3.2) becomes San S (3.3) Distributed forces which are of gravitational, centrifugal, magnetic, chemical, ete., in nature are known as the body torces [3.3]. Let the body force acting on the elemental volume of the elemental tetrahedron be F which is proportional to the mass of the element. Thus, F=Fe+her+fses (3.4) where €1, €7 and eg are unit vectors along z,, zz and 23 respectively, The magnitudes of the components of F are Fy, Fz and F3. Similarly, the stress vector may be written as T" = The, +Tye2 + Tyes (3.5) ‘Thus, the equilibrium of the elemental tetrahedron along the 21 direction can be approximated by3. STRESS TENSOR TRANSFORMATION 25 rs TPS +(- on Sioa: S2— oss Sa) + Fi (Fh 8) =0 (3.6) Substituting equation (3.2) into (3.6) gives Ty S— (ou m ton ma tos ms) 5+ Fi (GAS) =O ‘Taking the limit, where the volume of the tetrahedron approaches zero, then, : i jlim, Fi (5 5) =0 Equation (3.7) becomes T? S-S (011 m +021 m2 +091 03) =0 or TP = 011 m +021 n2 +031 Ns (3.8) Similarly, it may be readily shown that Th = 012 my +022 m2 +092 Ms (3.9) and Tz = 019 m1 + 028 nz + 033 13 (3.10) In tensor notation, the above three equations (3.8 to 3.10) may be condensed to TF ny for i,j =1,2,3 (3.11) The body force on an infinitesimal tetrahedron is infinitesimal compared to the tractive forces on the faces of the tetrahedron. Hence, equations (3.8), (3.9) and « ‘oth in static and in dynamics cases. 04; is the stress tensor at point P. The nine variables o11, 012, 022, 33, etc., found in equations (3.8) to (3.10) are its components, Their specification gives a complete characterization of Uhe state of stress at point P. By balancing the moments of an elemental cube at point P, it can be shown also that O12 = on 023 = 82 o1s = 981 that is oj = 0545 for i,j =1,2,326 © cuaprens srness TeNson Thus, the stress tensor oj; is symmetric in nature. It is a second rank tensor 3.4}. The stress tensor is dependent on the reference coordinate system. Since the stress tensor is of second rank it follows the transformation rule that governs a strain tensor described in chapter 2. Let the stress tensors based on the 212228 and z/,z)z4 coordinate systems be oj; and o4, respectively. The relative Fig. 3.2 orientation of the tio coordinate systeme are chown Fig. 3.2 Relative orientation of the 212223 and 242524 coordinate sys- tems: ‘The stress tensor transformation rule is Sq = bos tas O45 (3.12) where Ips and [yy are the direction cosines which are given by Table 3.1 Table 3.1 Direction cosines 7 = Z3 zh tna = cos(z4, 21) lig = cos(z4,22) ha = cos(z4,z3) zy Tas = cos(e4, #1) Toa = cos(r4, 72) log = cos(2h, 23) 2 Tai = c08(25, 21) Tg2 = cos(4, 22) Igg = c08(24, 23) ‘Thus, the coordinate transformation rules are33 equitiantum equations 27 as his ay nial xt for i,j =1,2,3 Conversely, if the stress tensor oj, is known, then, the stress tensor an be evaluated from of, and the direction cosines given in Table 3.1 as 215 = by bad Og (3.13) a3 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS Consider a continuous medium with surface area of $ and volume of V as shown in Fig. 3.3. Surface area Volume Fig. 3.3 A continuous body Let the body force acting on the volume be F and the applied stress vector be ‘T”, where n is the normal of the surface area over which T” acts. When the body is in a state of equilibrium the following equation is true. [Favs [1 as=0 v Is Expressed in terms of its components, one has28 cuapren » srness TENSOR [Gather heave fp e+ TS er + Tf es) dS =0 iy s In a condensed form, the equilibrium condition becomes f Redv+ fap eas=o Vv Is for i= 1,2,3 ‘Therefore, along the 2; axis, [nave [mas=o (3.14) Vv s From equations (3.11) and (3.14) it is clear that [s av+ fos nj dS =0 (3.15) iv s If it is assumed that a4, is continuous and unique, then, according to the divergence theorem [3.5] the surface integral may be changed to volume integral as follows. [os ny as= [ oa aV. (3.16) s Vv where Borj | 802; | B03; On, * Oe, ° Oza Substituting (3.16) into (3.15) yields Oi = r r [Ws | ousav=0 iv Iv that is [@ +0454) av =0 (3.17) For a given non-zero volume V and a continuous integrand, the necessary and sufficient condition for equation (3.17) to be satisfied is Fy toy5=0 or oust B= for i,j =1,2,3 (3.18)exercises 29 ‘Thus, equation (3.18) is the equilibrium condition. It may be expanded to give the equilibrium equations as onatonrtosst hi =0 Suad (2.19) raat (2.19) 13,1 + 23,2 + 09,3 + Fs = 0 In the usual engineering form, equations (3.19) are expressed as ao, de, 0c; ree, O0ys , Oe = te 1 oy os 2! Bey , O0yy , Bory _ Ft Get Git hae (3.20) one | Oy: , Orr | oe ty tort hao with the coordinate system shown in Fig. 3.4. #34 Fig. 3.4 Usual Cartesian coordinate system30 (3.1) (2) (3.3) [3.2] [3.3] [3.4] (3.5) EXERCISES An isotropic medium is subjected to the following plane stresses of, =50 MPa 049 = ~100 MPa on = 40 MPa where o4, and op are along the 2’, and x axes respectively. The shear stress o4, acts on the 742 plane. Using the following transformation equation 265 = byt las Og for i,j,p,q=1,2 determine the principal stresses. A continuous body is subjected to the stresses shown below, ou = 20 MPa o22 = 60 MPa o33 = 200 MPa 023 = 40 MPa where o11, 022 and ogg are along the z1, 22 and zg axes respectively. ‘The shear stress on the z2z3 plane is 723. Determine the corresponding stresses based on the new coordinate system formed by rotating the 212223 coordinate system 75° counter-clockwise about the zs-axis. REFERENCES Ginsberg, J. H., Advanced Engineering Dynamics, Harper Row, New York, 1988 Kanninen, M. F., and C. H. Popelar, Advanced Fracture Mechanics, Oxford University Press, New York, 1985 Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, John Wiley 1962 Sokolnikoff, I. S., and R. D. Specht, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1946 Wylie, C. R., and L. C. Barrett, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982Chapter 4 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS — Nod \,32° cuaPren « constitunve equations 41 INTRODUCTION In studying the deformation in a continuous medium, the stresses in the medium are related to the strains and displacements through an appropriate constitutive model. The constitutive equations for anisotropic and isotropic ma- terials will be established in the following sections of this chapter. In this book, the anisotropic materials of interest are the composites which are increasingly being employed in engineering applications. 4.2 APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS IN MATERIAL DEFORMATIONS An elastic model will be developed in this section by employing the lawe of thermodynamics. Let M(z;, t = 0) be an arbitrary point in a continuous medium at an unstrained state. The coordinates of the same point is transformed to M(zj, t) ina strained state at time t. Let u; be the displacement of point M in the 2; direction which is a function of the coordinates as well as the time 4; that is, uy = uy (1, 42, Zs, t); for j= 1,2,3 The rate of change of displacements are defined as An, ay Jor j=1,2,3 oe? Therefore, over the time interval of dt during the deformation process, the dis- placements 6, are given by 5 = ty dt The work done d¥ by the body forces Fj on an infinitesimal volume dV of the medium at M during the time interval dt is at = (Fj dV) at = (Fj dV) ty dt at = (Fy iy) dV dt; for 1,2,3 (4.1)4.2 APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMIcs 33 Similarly, the work done d® by the external surface forces Tf dS on the surface area dS of the infinitesimal volume dV at M is (TP dS) wi, dt d& = TP ii; dS dt (4.2) for j=1,2,3 Now, let dI’ be the total work done on the infinitesimal element at M. Therefore, the total work done on the medium of volume V is r= [ars [ao that is reff, Expressed in the rate form, onc has vats | [Tp a; as at 4.3) Ids (4.3) ar i: . a [suas [7 gas (44) But TP = 045 0; (3.11) and according to the divergence theorem Jv ty my dS [ics t;),i dV (4.5) From equations (4.4) and (4.5) it is can be shown readily that av ‘i . Gas iy avs [ (ou ij), aV av / ' : a - [% ave fous ayav + fo ty av ar : . ae [sa av+ fous iy)aV + fost [aj + ty) +5 [aja — ts] dV (4.6) But the strain tensor and the rigid body rotational tensor are34° cHAPTeR « constitutive BQUATIONS. C1 = 5 (ua + m5) rere wi = 5 (ua — 3) (4.7) respectively. Therefore, differentiating equations (4.7) with respect to time gives i, 3 (ai + ths) i) (4.8) Thus, upon substitution of equations (4.8) into (4.6), one obtains 1). i = 5 (tis a if Fj av+ fous iy)av dt ly ly [os &e ave f ou Iv v av (49) Now, og Oye = 711 Or +12 Oar +13 ba + 021 Wi2 + 022 Wz + 023 Wz + (4.10) 931 Wis + 032 Ws + 033 Was But ij; is a skew symmetric tensor as proved earlier in chapter 2; that is, 3 for i,j =1,2,8 (4.11) Therefore, ou =0 tin = 0 (4.12) 33 =0 Also, the stress tensor is a symmetric tensor, that is oj = 0505 for i,j =1,2,3 (4.18) Substituting equations (4.11), (4.12) and (4.13) into (4.10) yields 04g Gaga = OF 012 Wr + 13 Gat = 012 bn + 0+ 023 G2 = 13 Wai — 723 a2 + 04.2 APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 35 Thus, 1,2,3 ou 4nd av But, og + Fy =p tis where p is the density of the medium. Thus, ijn = 0 ty Fj and ou ty = (p ty — Fy) ay Therefore, the rate of work done 47 becomes ar i = [Gate ty — Fy ty + ig 655) dV Hence, a fe : an j (0 tay tj + 04 &s) V it - Recalling that the kinetic energy K of the medium is ‘Therefore, Thus, 24 For an infinitesi (4.14) = (4.16) al strain, the deformation is assumed to he reversible, hence, the energy of deformation is conserved. The first law of thermodynamics is applicable for such a conservative system. Going from the unstrained state to the strained state and back con: ites a cycle. The first law of thermodynamics states that during the cycle, the cyclic integral of the heat transferred through the medium36 cuapren « coneriturive BquaTions. is proportional to the cyclic integral of the work done on the medium (4.1]. Let the heat transferred be Q. Therefore, form fu Let the unstrained state be denoted by 1 and the strained state by 2 as shown i ‘Therefore, |. 1 fo sea+f 60n= f oat f Te Nh Lb h b Rearranging the above equation gives ff sa~ [60s = [ or0- [600 ¢ (stress) State 2 oe Paha { ae e (strain) State 1 F4.1 Fig. 4.1 Reversible deformation proces Thus, : (or —0)4= f(r - 50) Hence, 60 — 6 = constant (4.17)4.2 APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 37 ‘The constant in equation (4.17) is the total energy of the infinitesimal volume dV and is given by constant = 6U + 6K +6P where U is the internal energy, K is the kinetic energy and P is the potential energy. Now, let the constant be equal to 6E, then, 6E = 6U + 6K + 6P If the deformation process took place over a time interval of 6t, then, 6E a In the limit of 6t + 0 one obtains gee a dt dt dt or av_dQ_ dU , dK , aP aa at at at Assume that the change in potential energy is negligible during the deformation process, then, @_ a _w aK dt dt ~ dt ~ dt Thus, dl _ dQ, da, dk 2h ng (4.18) Next, consider the following two cases. i) An adiabatic case S dt Therefore, a _ du dk oo ee fa Comparing equations (4.19) and (4.16), it. shows that du : 7 av (4.20) Let w be the internal energy density, then,380 CHAPTER « consTITUTIVE EQUATIONS U= [ wav Vv Thus, a _ f ow alae Hence, bw , fos tu dv= fav (4.21) As a result, Beis _ aw oo Ot Ob thermal case According to the second law of thermodynamics that 5 2 where ¢ is the entropy of the system and T is the temperature of the medium. For an isothermal process, 7' is constant, therefore, oo 5Q _ Tbs a at ‘As one approaches the limit of st + 0 one obtains Therefore, a _ pda a, aK ate dt" dt Rearranging the above equation yields al _ dU+Ts) | dK a7 a ta (4.22) But dU +Ts) ow do [ev4.2 APPLICATIONS OF THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS 39 From equations (4.22) and (4.16), it is clear that dU +Ts) : wet) = f 03 4 AV Therefore, fA. we iF: Beg. av 2 LPs fab (4.23) Therefore, the adiabatic and the isothermal cases have the same result; that is, dw Be; Fe ta ais ( Jt) at or, dw = 04; des: When ej; are considered independent variables one observes that ow = Soy Since ej; is a symmetric tensor; that is, ei = Cay Hence, ow 04 = 5 (4.24) ij Expanding the strain energy density function w as a power series in terms of the strains gives Cigus ei5 21 w= Sig cj + SS ‘Terms with order higher than three in strains are neglected. Therefore, Ou 26 1 Bey = OH +5 Can ent that is it ; Cage ext If it is further assumed that the strains are zero without any applied stresses, then,40 cuapren « constitutive equations ‘Thus, Now, let, Then, Cijut ent more convenient to contract the tensor equation before examining the prop- erties of the components of C;;z1 resulting from its decomposition. In the con- tracted form, a= Cys 65 Decomposing Ci;, one obtains 1 z a4 = FIGs + Cid 5 + GICs — Cail 9 Next, let i Cis = 3G + Cid and C5 = HC — Or Note that Ciy is symmetric and Cj; is skew symmetric. Therefore, returning to ij = Cage Cet + Chjer ens where Cije1 and Cjjz; ate the non-contracted forms of Ci; and Cj; respectively. Recalling that, jer = 0 for i,j,k,t = 1,2,3 because ex is symmetric. Hence, ig = Cages ent; for i,j,k, 1 = 1,2,3 (4.25) Equation (4.25) is the generalized Hooke’s law. The term Ciy11 will be called the material elastic stiffness tensor which is symmetric in nature.