Department of Industrial & Production Engineering

Full Module Specification

Thermodynamics and Heat transfer
Module Title/Course Name
sessional
Module Code: ME 266
Module Level: Second level
Academic Year: 2021
Module Lecturer: Farzana Momtaz Mithila
Contact Address: mithilaeub01@gmail.com
Counseling Hour: Before or after class or by appointment
Module Credit 1.5
Pre-Requisites:
Co Requisites:
Duration of Module: 4 Months
Grading : As outlined in the University policy
Class room lecture,
Multimedia presentation,
Teaching Methodology
Discussion, group study,
Assignment, presentation, etc.
Attendance = 20

Report & Performance = 40

Method of Evaluation
Quiz = 20
Viva = 20
TOTAL 100

1
List of the Experiments

1. Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal (Brass) Bar.

2. Study of Heat Transfer by Natural Convection from a Horizontal Cylinder.

3. Study of Free Convection and Forced Convection.

4. The Effect of Varying Flow Rate in parallel and Counter flow.

5. The Effect of Varying Temperature in parallel and Counter flow.

6. Study of boiler mountings and accessories.

7. Determination of Heating Value of Coal by Bomb Calorimeter.

8. Study of Psychrometer and determination of humidity of air using Sling

Psychrometer.

2
 Experiment 1
Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal (Brass) Bar

Introduction:
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to conduct heat, determined by
the rate of heat flow normally through an area in the substance divided by the area and by minus
the component of the temperature gradient in the direction of flow: measured in watts per meter
per Kelvin

Symbol K is used for denoting the thermal conductivity

According to the Fourier Law of thermal conductivity of place wall

∞�

Or = −��

Where

Q = heat flow (by conduction rate) through the material

A = The section through which heat flows by conduction

= the temperature gradient at the section

The proportionality constant K is a transport property known as thermal conductivity (W/mk)

and is a characteristics of the wall material. It provided an indication of the rate at which energy
is transferred by diffusion process. It depends on the physical structure of matter, atomic and
molecular , which is related to the state of matter. The minus sign is consequence of the fact that
heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing temperature.

The generalized heat conduction equation for constant thermal conductivity in Cartesian co-
ordinate is:

2 2 2
1
2
+ 2
+ 2
+ =

3
T = temperature distribution at the location x,y,z (ºC)

x,y,z = co-ordinates

q = internal heat generation rate per unit volume (W/m^3)

k = thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)

= Thermal diffusivity (=k/ρc) of the material (m^2/s)

t = time , s

Some assumptions that are given can be followed to simplify the generalized equation:

1. Heat flow is one-dimensional i.e. temperature, varies along x-direction only. This is
achieved by putting insulation on the circumferential surface of the specimen.
2. End effect is negligible
3. The specimen material is isotropic
4. There is no internal heat generation in specimen
5. Steady state is achieved before final data recorded

So, the simplified form of the generalized equation is,

2

2
= 0

When the steady state is attained the following boundary conditions are considered:

(i) At x = 0; T = T0
(ii) At x = L; T = TL

Using these boundary conditions we get the solution of the differential equation as :

− 0
=
� − 0 �

Where,

T = temperature of the section at distance x (ºC)

T0 = temperature at section where x = 0 (ºC)

TL = temperature at section where x = L (ºC)

X = Distance of the section of measurement from the section at x = 0, (m)

L = Distance between sections at x = 0 and x = L , (m)

4
In this experiment a Brass rod is heated by nicrome wire surrounding the brass bar at one side.
The brass bar was properly insulated is such a way that heat flow remain one dimensional to the
other end of the rod for heat conduction study with a view to fulfilling the following objectives:

(i) To plot temperature vs. distance curve from experimental measurements.

(ii) To plot temperature vs. distance curve from theoretical analysis.
(iii) To determine thermal conductivity of the metal specimen.

Experimental Set up:

Operation procedure
1. Check the room temperature by an analog thermometer and then calibrate the digital
thermocouples.
2. Start the experiment by switching on the Veriac and make suitable heating at the end of
the brass bar by nicrome wire.
3. Carefully measure the distance from one thermocouple to another thermocouple or the
positions of the thermocouples.
4. After every 10 minutes take the reading of every thermocouples along with the reading of
water inlet and outlet.
5. Continue this until the steady state has come.
6. It will take too long time to come steady state. So, take the reading of every thermocouple
after ten minutes and draw the curves.

5
 7. If two or more than two consecutive curves show that slopes are similar or equal
(carefully follow the shape of the curve); then we can consider the heat flux through the
brass bar is constant at that time.
8. Take the reading of the water inlet and outlet.
9. Draw the curves of Temperature vs. distance for both experimental case and theoretical
case
10. Find the thermal conductivity of the metal Bar.
11. Find the mass flow rate of the water.

Data Table:
Time
(minutes)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Positions
0 inch
1.8 inch
3.6 inch
5.4 inch
7.2 inch

Time
(minutes)
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
Positions
0 inch
1.8 inch
3.6 inch
5.4 inch
7.2 inch

6
Collected Data and Calculation:
1. Heat Flow Rate, Q

Heat flow rate through the specimen, Q is equal to the amount of heat carried away by the
flowing water. Heat carried away by the flowing water is calculated from:

= � ∆

mw = mass flow rate of water in Kg/s

Cw = specific heat of water, 4120 J/Kg-K and
∆ = Rise in temperature of flowing water, K

2. Plots:

 Plot experimentally measured temperature (Te) against distance and evaluate dT/dx
 Plot the theoretically calculated temperature (T t) against distance.

3. Thermal conductivity, K

Evaluate thermal conductivity K from:

= −�� = � ∆

4. Theoretical temperature , Tt
− 0
Evaluate theoretical temperature (Tt) from = and plot (Tt) against distance x.
�− 0 �

7
Discussions:
 Briefly explain the Experimental temperature distribution plot (Temperature vs.
Distance) plot.
 Is there any deviation in the values of thermal conductivity obtained in two
observations during the experiment? If yes, why?
 What is the actual value of thermal conductivity of Brass at the temperature that was
maintained during the experiment? Is there any discrepancy between the actual and
the experimental value? If yes, why?
 Explain the variation in the Experimental temperature distribution and theoretical
temperature distribution plot, if there is any

Conclusion
 Comment on the thermal conductivity of Brass obtained in the experiment

8
 Experiment 2
Study of Heat Transfer by Natural Convection from a Horizontal
Cylinder
Introduction
An extended surface is commonly used in reference to a solid that experiences energy transfer by
conduction within its boundaries, as well as energy transfer by convection to its surroundings.
The extended surface is most often utilized in quick removal of heat. The rate of heat removal by
convection from surfaces is increased by increasing the surface area for heat transfer by using
extended surfaces called fins. A fin with a cylindrical shape and high aspect ratio
(length/diameter) is called a pin fin.

Fins are often used seen in engine cooling, electrical appliance such as in a computer power
supply or substation transformers, etc.

The generalized equation for one dimensional heat transfer through extended surfaces may be
written as:
2
2
2
= − ∞

2 ℎ
Where, = �

T = T(x) , Temperature at a section in the fin which is at a distance x from the base wall

T∞ = Temperature of the fluid surrounding the fin

h = heat transfer coefficient between the surface of the fin and the surrounding fluid (W/m^2 k)

k = Thermal conductivity of the fluid

A = Cross sectional area of the metal bar or fin

With the following assumptions:

 The fin material having no external heat generation

 One dimensional conduction exist only along the fin
 The system is steady state
 Radiation loss is neglected
 The base temperature is fixed
 Natural convection conditions are maintained

9
The solution of the aforementioned differential equation depends on the choice of boundary
conditions. Three different boundary conditions are set below will be considered.

Case-1: The fin is very long and the temperature at the end of fin is essentially that of the
surrounding fluid

Case-2: The fin is finite length but its tip is insulated.

Case-3: The fin is of finite length and heat loses by convection from its end

For case 1: the solution becomes

− ∞ −
=
0− ∞

For case 2: The solution becomes

− ∞ � ℎ [ (� − )]
=
0− ∞ cosh �

For case 3: The solution becomes

− ∞ � ℎ �− + ℎ/ sinh �−
=
0− ∞ cosh � + ℎ/ sinh �

Where

To = temperature of the base wall of the fin

L = length of the fin

x = distance of the fin section from the base wall where the temperature is being measured

The amount of heat transfer involved in these 3 cases may be given by the following expressions:

Case 1: 1 = ℎ �( − ∞)

Case 2: 2 = ℎ � − ∞ tanh �
ℎ
sinh �+ cosh �
Case 3: 1 = ℎ � − ∞ ℎ
cosh �+ sinh �

To indicate the heat transfer performance of a fin, two parameters are defined as below :

1. Fin efficiency : defined as the ratio of actual heat transferred to heat which would be
transferred if the entire fin area were at base wall temperature

10
 tanh �
=
�
2. Fin effectiveness: defined as the ratio of heat transfer from the wall after adding fin to
the heat transfer from the wall before adding fin

tanh �
=
ℎ�/

The specific objectives of this experiment are as follow:

 To plot the temperature distribution along the fins.

− ∞
 To plot against to show the temperature distribution along the fins in non-
0− ∞ �
dimensional form for both experimental and theoretical considerations using tree
different boundary conditions stated before.
 To estimate heat transfer under all conditions.
 To estimate fin efficiency and fin effectiveness.

Experiment Set-up:

Fig: Pin fin

Thermal conductivity of the stainless steel is 16.26 W/m-K

11
Procedure:
1. Record room temperature and that is the surrounding fluid temperature
2. Maintain natural convection condition as far as possible during the experiment and
collection of data
3. Switch on the heater and adjust the watt setting for heating purpose
4. Take the initial readings at the different positions of pin fin
5. Take the reading of the same position after 10 minutes.
6. If possible then repeat this same experiment for the second watt setting.
7. Plot the temperature distribution along the fins
− ∞
8. Plot against to show the temperature distribution along the fins in non-
0− ∞ �
dimensional form for both experimental and theoretical considerations.
9. Find the effectiveness and efficiency if this metal bar is considered as fin
10. Find the experimental errors and find how to minimize that.
11. Discuss the nature of true experimental and theoretical results you get from the graph and
through calculations

12
Data collection table:

− ∞
Position of Reading of − ∞ from Theory
Watt Time from 0− ∞
thermocouples temperature 0− ∞
setting (minutes) experiment
(mm) ℃
Case-1 Case-2 Case-3
0 0
7.5
19.5
31.5
43.5
55.5
67.5
10 0
7.5
19.5
31.5
43.5
55.5
67.5
20 0
7.5
19.5
31.5
43.5
55.5
67.5
30 0
7.5
19.5
31.5
43.5
55.5
67.5
40 0
7.5
19.5
31.5
43.5
55.5
67.5

50 0
7.5

13
 19.5
31.5
43.5
55.5
67.5

Calculations:
Diameter of rod, D = 13 mm

Length of fin, L = 72 mm

Thermal conductivity of the material, K =

Heat transfer coefficient between in surface and surrounding fluid h = 10 W/m^2K

− ∞
 Find from experiment and from the theoretical conditions
0− ∞
 Find Fin efficiency and effectiveness for different cases

14
 Experiment-3
Free Convection and Forced Convection

Introduction

In most applications, a ‘heat sink’ cools a critical component such as an engine cylinder head or
electronic component. Therefore, a suitable and simple comparison of the surfaces is to apply a
fixed input power and airflow (natural), while measuring surface temperature. The surface that
reaches the highest surface temperature will be the least effective at transferring heat to air.
Therefore, the surface that reaches the lowest temperature will be the most effective at
transferring heat to air. We have here three find apparatus like pin fin, surface fin and open
surface.

Free Convection

This is when the heat transfers from the object under the influence of fluid (air) density changes.
The heat energy around the object causes the air density around the surface of the object to
decrease. The reduced density air is more buoyant than the surrounding air and rises, transporting
the heat energy away naturally. In normal conditions, gravity is the main force affecting
buoyancy and therefore convection. However, where the object forms part of a rotating machine,
centrifugal force can be a driving force for convection.

Forced Convection

This is when an external force moves air around or across the surface. The movement of air transports
the heated air away from the object. The higher the air velocity, the faster it transports heat away from
the object.

Thermal Conductivity of Air (k air)

Some materials (including fluids) are better heat conductors than others; their chemical and atomic
structure affects the rate of heat transfer. This effect is its thermal conductivity (k). It is a measure of how
quickly heat energy travels along a unit length of material of a unit cross-sectional area. The thermal
conductivity of air increases almost linearly with temperature over the range O to 100°C.

Thermal inertia or thermal mass:

= ∆

15
From this equation it is clear that when you have two objects of same material, the one with the largest
mass needs more heat energy to rise its temperature. Inversely, when two object of same material but of
different mass have the same temperature, the object with the largest mass could contain or store more
heat energy than a smaller mass.

In terms of heat flow therefor, a larger mass takes more time to reach a given temperature than smaller
mass when supplied at the same rate. Again, inversely a larger mass takes more time to lose energy than a
smaller mass when the loss is at the same rate. It has a larger thermal inertia.

In Mechanical engineering, a flywheel helps to store energy (mechanical inertia) and help damp
outtransient changes in demand. In electronic engineering, a capacitor helps to store charge and help
damp out transient changes in current in voltage. In thermodynamics, a large thermal mass helps to store
heat energy to help damp out transient changes temperatures or heat supply.

Objective:
 To compare the maximum temperature each surface reaches for a given input power when in
freeconvection.
 To compare the maximum temperature each surface reaches for a given input power when in
forced convection.

Procedure:
1. Remove the fan from the top of the duct in case of free convection test.
2. Fit your chosen heat transfer surface.
3. Create a blank results table
4. Increase the power to 15 Watts.
5. Wait for the temperatures to stabilize while readjusting the power if necessary and record the
maximum temperature each surface reaches. Under free convection, it may take up to 30 minutes
for temperatures to stabilize.
6. Record the inlet (ambient temperature).
7. Switch off the heater and allow the surface to cool down to near ambient temperature.
8. Repeat the experiment for the other heat transfer surfaces.
9. In case of forced convection,first make sure fan speed is at zero.
10. Switch on the heater and set it to 15-Watts power.
11. Wait for the temperatures to stabilize and then take readings of the surface and inlet
temperatures.
12. Increase the fan speed to give an air velocity of approximately 2 m/s
13. Wait for temperatures to stabilize and take readings of surface and inlet temperatures.
14. Switch off the heater and allow the surface to cool down to near ambient temperature (use the fan
to help cool down the surface if necessary).
15. Repeat the experiment for the other heat transfer surfaces.

16
Schematic:

Fig: Free and Forced convection velocity profile

Fig: Free and Forced convection temperature profile

17
 Fig: Fin and Pin

Data Table:
Free convection :

Power = 15W

T2 T1
Difference (TS-Tin)
Heat Transfer Surface
Surface Temperature Duct Inlet (ambient) (℃)
Ts(℃) temperature Tin (℃)

Finned

Pinned

18
Forced convection :

Power = 15W
Fan velocity =

T2 T1
Difference (TS-Tin)
Heat Transfer Surface
Surface Temperature Duct Inlet (ambient) (℃)
Ts(℃) temperature Tin (℃)

Finned

Pinned

Schematic:

Fig : Compressed air flow over finned and pinned surface

19
Data Sheet:

Heat Transfer Surface:

Power = 15W
Fan velocity =
T2 T1
Difference (TS-Tin)
Air velocity (m/s)
Surface Temperature Duct Inlet (ambient) (℃)
Ts(℃) temperature Tin (℃)

Result Analysis
 What does the chart say about temperature and velocity?
 Which surface has the coolest temperature for any given air velocity?
 Free convection and forced convection
 Which surface created greater temperature difference in free and forced convection?
 Why thermal conductivity of air rises with increasing temperature
 Discuss about the results you got for free convection and forced convection

20
Thermal Conductivity of Air:

21
 Experiment 5
The Effect of Varying Flow Rate in parallel and Counter flow
Introduction
The heat exchanger is a simple shell and tube type heat exchanger. It has two tubes one inside
the other. The outer tube is shell. The inner tube carries the water from the hot circuit of the
service module; the outer tube carries the water from the cold circuit. Heat transfer between the
two tubes. Parallel and Counter flow arepossible in this heat exchanger module but not the cross
flow

This heat exchanger is in two equal parts with extra thermocouples at the midpoint.

Parallel flow:

When the direction of flow for the both hot water and cold water is same then it is called parallel
flow

Counter flow:

When the detection of flow for the hot water is just opposite of cold fluid then it is called counter
flow

Some common terminology:

The mean temperature efficiency and heat transfer coefficient give more useful results for
comparison between heat exchangers.

The temperature efficiency of the hot circuit of the Heat Exchanger is the ratio of the
temperature change in the hot circuit, divided by the difference between the maximum and
minimum temperatures of the hot and cold circuits:

�1 − �2
� = × 100 %
�1 − �1

The temperature efficiency of the cold circuit of the Heat Exchanger is the ratio of the
temperature change in the cold circuit, divided by the difference between the maximum and

�2 − �1
� = × 100 %
�1 − �1

The mean temperature efficiency of the two circuits is the average efficiency of them both:

� + �
=
2

22
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
This is a measure of the heat driving force that creates the heat transfer. It is a logarithmic
average of the temperature difference between the hot and cold circuits at each end of the heat
exchanger.

�2 − �2 −( �1 − �1 )
� �=
�2 − �2
ln
�1 − �1

Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)

This is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall and boundary layers. It is a measure of
how well the heat exchanger works. A good heat exchanger will give a high
coefficient;therefore, this value is important to engineers.

=
�� �
Mean heat transfer area A = 0.02 m2

Heat Transfer and Energy balance (Q, Qeand Qa)

The subscript ‘e’ represents here emission and ‘a’ represents here absorption. Here the heat is
emitted from the hot water and the cold water is absorbing heat energy.

Commonly we know that = ×� ×∆

And mass flow rate, m = ×

ρ = density and V = volumetric flow rate

Heat emitted by the hot water is = � × � ×� � ×∆ � And heat absorbed by the cold
water is = � × � ×� � ×∆ �

Density and specific heat must be measure at the average temperature of inlet and outlet.

In ideal heat exchanger, the heat emitter by the hot water must be equal to the heat absorbed by
the cold water but practically it is not. There are some losses in the surroundings.

= ± Losses or gain from surroundings

Heat balance Coefficient, CEB=

If there are gain from Surrounding then Qa>Qe.In these the energy balance coefficient may be
greater than 1.

23
Objective
 To show how different cold flow rates affect the performance of the heat exchanger in
both parallel flow and counter flow connection (hot flow rate and heater temperature are
fixed).
 Temperature vsposition graphs for both the counter flow and cross flow
 Calculation of power emitted , power absorbed , mean temperature efficiencies and
energy balance for parallel and counter flow
 Find LMTD and over all heat transfer coefficient (U) for each flow rate.

Procedure:
1. Connect and set up your heat exchanger
2. Press the solenoid valve at the hot water system for filling water inside the tank. Stop
pressing when the full green lamp is on.
3. Switch off the inlet regulator for hot circuit.
4. Start heater and set the heater tank temperature at 60 °C
5. After achieving that temperature stop the heater and open the inlet regulator (hand
operated flow control valve). Start the pump immediately. Set the flow of the hot water
circuit 3 L/min and the cold-water circuit 3 L/min.
6. Allow at least five minutes for the heat exchanger temperatures to stabilize. Generally the
temperature at the inlet of the hot water circuit is low and then start increasing and after
sometime the temperature will begin to fall. It is because the thermocouple at the inlet
need some time and also continuous flow for stabilization. So the temperatureTH1at the
beginning of experiment start rising but as the cold water is also taking some heat so after
giving a peak temperature it will begin to fall again.
7. Record the hot water inlet temperature TH1 ,Hot water outlet temperature TH2and a middle
hot circuit temperature TH3. Also record the readings of cold water inlet temperature TC1
and cold water outlet temperature TC2 and the cold water circuit middle temperature TC3.
Take all the temperature at the peak of TH1
8. Follow the procedure for differentflow rate in case of cold-water flow.
9. Apply the same procedure for counter flow.

24
Experimental set up :

Fig: Counter flow and parallel flow for concentric shell and tube heat exchanger

25
Data Sheet:
Data Table 1:

Parallel flow connection

Ambient tank temperature :
Heater thank temperature :
Hot Cold
Average Average
Test Flow flow TH1 TH2 ∆TH TH3 TC1 TC2 ∆TC TC3
TH TC
L/min L/min
1

Data Table 2:

Counter flow connection

Ambient tank temperature :
Heater thank temperature :
Hot Cold
Average Average
Test Flow flow TH1 TH2 ∆TH TH3 TC1 TC2 ∆TC TC3
TH TC
L/min L/min
1

26
Calculation Table:
Table 1:

Parallel Flow
Test CPH CPC Qe Qa CEB LMTD U

Table 2:

Counter Flow

Test CPH CPC Qe Qa CEB LMTD U

Result Analysis:

 Discuss the deviation in results of counter and parallel flow

 Write about the losses in surroundings

27
28
29
 Experiment 6
The Effect of Varying Temperature in parallel and Counter flow

Objective
 To show how different cold flow rates affect the performance of the heat exchanger in
both parallel flow and counter flow connection (hot flow rate and heater temperature are
fixed).
 Temperature vs position graphs for both the counter flow and cross flow for different
temperatures.
 Calculation of power emitted , power absorbed , mean temperature efficiencies and
energy balance for parallel and counter flow
 Find LMTD and over all heat transfer coefficient (U) for each flow rate.

Data Sheet:
Data Table 1:

Parallel flow connection

Hot water flow rate:2.86 L/s
Cold water flow rate:1.43
Ambient tank temperature :
Heater tank temperature :
Heater
Average Average
Test Set TH1 TH2 ∆TH TH3 TC1 TC2 ∆TC TC3
TH TC
Temperature
57.8 54.9 31.3 33.2
1 60

54.1 52.2 31.3 32.9

2 55

48.8 47.6 31.3 32.4

3 50

30
Data Table 2:

Counter flow connection

Hot water flow rate:2.87
Cold water flow rate:1.43
Ambient tank temperature :
Heater tank temperature :
Heater
Average Average
Test Set TH1 TH2 ∆TH TH3 TC1 TC2 ∆TC TC3
TH TC
Temperature
60 58.7 55.9 31.3 33.9
1

54.3 53.8 31.3 33.2

2 55

49.8 47.7 31.3 33.0

3 50

Calculation Table:
Table 1:

Parallel Flow
Test CPH CPC Qe Qa CEB LMTD U

Table 2:

Counter Flow

31
Test CPH CPC Qe Qa CEB LMTD U

Result Analysis:
 Discuss the deviation in results of counter and parallel flow
 Write about the losses in surroundings

32
33
34
 Experiment :26
To Study the Working and Function of Mountings and Accessories in boilers

Boiler: A steam boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is produced from water by combustion
of fuel.
Classification of Boiler:
Boilers are classified on the basis of following
1. According to contents in the Tube:
a) Fire tube boiler: In fire tube boilers, the flue gases pass through the tube and water surround
them. Vertical tubular, Lancashire, Cochran, Cornish, Locomotive fire box, Scotch marine etc.
are some fire tube boiler.
b) Water tube boiler: In water tube boiler, water flows inside the tubes and the hot flue gases
flow outside the tubes. Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-mont boiler, Benson
boiler, Loeffler boiler etc are some of water tube boilers.

35
2. According to the pressure of steam:
a) Low pressure boiler: A boiler which generates steam at a pressure of below 80 bars is called
low pressure boiler. Examples: Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler etc.
b) High pressure boiler: A boiler which generates steam at a pressure higher than 80 bar is called
high pressure boiler. Example- Babcock and Wilcox boiler, La Mont Boiler etc.

Boiler Mountings:
Boiler mountings are the machine components that are mounted over the body of the boiler itself
for the safety of the boiler and for complete control of the process of steam generation. Various
boiler mountings are as under:
1) Pressure gauge
2) Water Level Indicator
3) Fusible plug
4) Safety Valve
5) Steam stop valve
6) Feed check valve
7) Blow-off cock
8) Man and Mud hole

1. Bourdon's pressure gauge:

Function:
• To record the steam pressure at which the steam is generated in the boiler.
• A bourdon pressure gauge in its simplest form consists of elliptical elastic tube bent into
an arc of a circle
• This bent up tube is called as BOURDON’S tube.
• One end of tube gauge is fixed and connected to the steam space in the boiler.
• The other end is connected to a sector through a link

36
2. Water Level Indicator:
Function:
• The function of water level indicator is to indicate the level of water in the boiler constantly.
• It is also called water gauge.
• Normally two water level indicators are fitted at the front end of every boiler
3. Fusible plug:
Function:
• To extinguish fire in the event of water level in the boiler shell falling below certain specified
limit.
• It protects fire tubes from burning when the level of the water in the water shell falls abnormally
low and the fire tube or crown plate which is normally submerged in the water, gets exposed to
steam space which may not be able to keep it cool.
• It is installed below boiler's water level.
4. Safety Valve:
Function: The function of safety valve is to release the excess steam when the pressure of steam
inside the boiler exceeds the rated pressure.
There are 4 types of safety valves:
i) Lever Safety Valve:
The disadvantage of this valve is that it admits of being tempered with, and the effect of
a small addition to the weight is magnified considerably in its action on the value.

ii) Spring Loaded safety Valve:

For locomotives and marine engines both the lever and dead weight types are unsuitable
for obvious reasons and the valve must be spring loaded, as such valve is unaffected by vibration
or deviation from the vertical.
Disadvantage:
• One disadvantage of this valve is that the load on the valve increases as the valve lifts, so that
pressure required just to lift the valve is less than that required to open it fully.

37
 iii) Dead Weight Safety Valve:
It is mainly used for low pressures, low capacity, stationary boilers of the Cornish and Lancashire
types.
• Merits:
1) Simplicity of design
2) Gives quite a satisfactory performance during operation.
3) It cannot be easily tempered from the pressure adjustment view.
• Demerits:
1) Unsuitable for use on any boiler where extensive vibration and movement are experienced
(e.g. locomotive and marine work).
2) It is not suitable for high pressure boilers because a large amount of weight is required to
balance the steam pressure

iv) High steam and low water safety valve:

It serves the following purposes.
(i) The steam automatically escapes out when the level of water falls below a certain level.
(ii) It automatically discharges the excess steam when the pressure of the steam rises above a
certain pressure.
Use: It is generally used on Lancashire or Cornish boiler. It cannot used in mobile boilers.

5) Steam Stop Valve:

This valve is a device that regulates the flow of a fluid (gases, fluidized solids, slurries, or liquids)
by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.
Function:
• To shut off or regulate the flow of steam from the boiler to the steam pipe or steam from the
steam pipe to the engine.
• When the hand wheel is turned, the spindle which is screwed through the nut is raised or lowered
depending upon the sense of rotation of wheel. The passage for flow of steam is set on opening of
the valve.

38
6) Feed Check Valve:
Function: The function of a feed check valve is to control the supply of water to the boiler and to
prevent the escaping of water from the boiler when the pump pressure is less or pump is stopped.
i) To allow the feed water to pass into the boiler.
ii) To prevent the back flow of water from the boiler in the event of the failure of the feed pump.
The feed check valve is fitted in the water space of the boiler slightly below the normal level of
the water.
7. Blow off Cock:
Function: To drain out the water from the boiler for internal cleaning, inspection, repair or other
purposes.
• It may discharge a portion of water when the boiler is in operation to blow out mud, scale or
sediments, periodically.
• It is fitted on the boiler shell directly or to a short branch pipe at the lowest part of the water
space.
8. Manhole and mud box:
Function: Manhole provides opening for cleaning, inspection and maintenance purpose. Mud box
is a collection chamber (as shown in Babcock and Wilcox boiler) for collecting the Mud.

Boiler Accessories
Boiler Accessories: Boiler accessories are those components which are installed either inside or
outside the boiler to increase the efficiency of the plant and to help in the proper working of the
plant. Various boiler accessories are: 1) Air Preheater 2) Economizer 3) Super-heater 4) Feed
Pump
1) Air Preheater: There are three types of air pre-heaters :
i. Tubular type, ii. Plate type, iii. Storage type.
Waste heat recovery device in which the air to on its way to the furnace is heated utilizing the heat
of exhaust gases. The function of air pre-heater is to increase the temperature of air before enters
the furnace. It is generally placed after the economizer; so the flue gases passes through the
economizer and then to the air preheater. An air-preheater consists of plates or tubes with hot gases
on one side and air on the other.

39
2) Economizer:
Function: It is a device in which the waste heat of the flue gases is utilized for heating the feed
water. To recover some of the heat being carried over by exhaust gases. This heat is used to raise
the temperature of feed water supplied to the boiler.
Advantages: i) The temperature range between various parts of the boiler is reduced which results
in reduction of stresses due to unequal expansion. ii) If the boiler is fed with cold water it may
result in chilling the boiler metal. iii) Evaporative capacity of the boiler is increased. iv) Overall
efficiency of the plant is increased.
3) Superheater:
The function of super heater is to increase the temperature of the steam above its saturation point.
To superheat the steam generated by boiler. Super heaters are heat exchangers in which heat is
transferred to the saturated steam to increase its temperature. Superheated steam has the following
advantages.
Advantages: i) Steam consumption of the engine or turbine is reduced. ii) Losses due to
condensation in the cylinders and the steam pipes are reduced. iii) Erosion of turbine blade is
eliminated. iv) Efficiency of steam plant is increased.
4) Feed Pump: The feed pump is a pump which is used to deliver feed water to the boiler. Double
feed pump is commonly employed for medium size boilers. The reciprocating pump are
continuously run by steam from the same boiler to which water is to be fed. Rotary feed pumps
are of centrifugal type and are commonly run either by a small steam turbine or by an electric
motor

40
Experiment No.: 71
Determination of Heating Value of Coal by Bomb Calorimeter
Objectives:
To find the heating value of coal experimentally using a bomb calorimeter

Apparatus:
Bomb Calorimeter, Thermometer, Stop Watch, Analytic Balance, Fuse Wire, Water Container
etc.

Description:
The so called bomb calorimeter is used to determine the heating value of fuel when burned at
constant volume. The fuel whose heating values is desired is placed in the fuel pan (crucible). A
coil of fine wire dips in the pan. The bomb is charged with oxygen under pressure. When an
electric current is passed through the wire, it ignites the fuel. Surrounding the bomb is a bucket
containing water to absorb the heat released as the fuel burn. The bomb has an outer jacket, and a
dead-air space surrounds the bucket to minimize heat losses to the surroundings. Although the
water in the bucket absorbs the major portion of the heat, this heat is not the heating value of the
fuel, for the following reasons:

1. The bomb itself absorbs some heat

2. There is heat exchange with the outer jacket
3. The ignition wire liberates some energy
4. The product of combustion are not cooled to the original temperature
5. Because combustion takes place in oxygen, high temperature is attained resulting in the
formation of nitric and sulfuring acid, which would not be formed in the normal
combustion process.

It is true that the products of combustion are not cooled to the original temperature. However, the
final and original temperatures are so close that the error is only a small fraction of 1%.
Furthermore the error is almost entirely offset when the bomb is standardized. The “water
equivalent” of the bomb is furnished by the manufacturer. This is the amount of water having the
same thermal capacity as the bomb is furnished by the manufacturer. This is the amount of water
having the same thermal capacity as the bomb and its bucket (empty). When there is a doubt
about the validity of this value, the bomb should be standardized.

The exchange of heat with outer jacket is minimized by maintaining a minimum temperature
difference between the two. Corrections are made for small amount of heat transfer which occurs
due to radiation. Corrections are also made for the heat liberated by the ignition wire by
determining the amount actually burned. In the absence of exact heating value to the fuse wire, a
value of 2.3 cal/cm of wire may be used.

ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 2

41
Operations:
1. Weigh the calorimeter bucket empty. Put into calorimeter 1900 gm of water, having a
temperature of about 3C below the temperature in the jacket (It is assumed that the
jacket is at room temperature)
2. Make certain that interior of the bomb is clear. Clean up the holdes in the removable
lining with those in the bomb. Place the lower half of the bomb in the iron plate holder.
3. Insert the tapered pin and its crucible holder.
4. Obtain a true sample of coal and place approximately 1 gm of coal in the crucible, weigh
and place it in the bomb.
5. Select the proper type of fuse wire, measure the length and install it in the form of a coil.
The coil should touch the coal but not the crucible.
6. Add a few drops (about 0.5 ml) of water at the bottom of the bomb to saturate the space.
This will cause complete condensation of the water vapor of combustion and the heating
value obtained will be the higher heating value.
7. Place the gasket in place making certain that there is no dirt present. Assemble the bomb
and tighten the cap. Be careful not to spill the fuel out of the crucible by tipping or
jarking the bomb.
8. Charge the bomb with oxygen to a pressure of approximately 300 psi. Open the charging
valve very slowly to avoid blowing of coal from the crucible.
9. Immerse the bomb in water; preferably in a glass jar, to see whether there are any leaks.
The bomb should be dried with a cloth and placed it in the bomb jacket. The thermometer
and stirrer should be installed. The thermometer should be immersed in at least 3 inch. Of
water and should not be no closer than ½ inch to the bomb.
10. Start the stirrer. After 3 to 4 min for temperature equalization of water in the bucket, take
temperature readings every minute for 5 min. These temperature readings are required for
calculating the heat exchange with the jacket.
11. Switch on the firing switch for an instant.
12. Record the temperature according to data sheet until the maximum temperature is
reached. The observer of the thermometer must be alert, because a rapid temperature rise
occurs shortly after firing occurs.
13. After reaching the maximum temperature, temperature should be read every minute for 5
min. These temperatures are required in accounting for the heat exchange with the jacket
water.
14. Remove the bomb from calorimeter, release the gases, and disassemble bomb. Collect
and measure the length of the fuse wire which remains.
15. When accurate results are required, the bomb should be washed with distilled water and
the washing should be titrated to obtain the amount of acid formed.

Heat loss by radiation from the calorimeter is minimized by starting the determination with the
water in the calorimeter enough below room temperature so that the final temperature after
combustion will be slightly above room temperature. Thus the radiation from the room before
ignition will tend to compensate that to the room after the temperature rise. Since an appreciable
amount of time elapses before the rise in temperature is completed, there will be some heat
transfer in spite of this precaution.

ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 3

42
The Dickinson method of correction for radiation is prescribed by the ASTM. The rate of
temperature change in degree per minute is determined over a 5 min. period just before ignition
and again after ignition when the maximum temperature has been reached. The time of ignition
(time a), the temperature at ignition, the thermometer reading taken when the temperature change
has become uniform after attaining a maximum and the time at this maximum temperature (time
c) are recorded. Time b is defined as the time at which six-tenths of the temperature rise from a
to c has taken place. The ignition temperature is then corrected by adding (b-a).r1, where r1 is the
rate in degrees per minute at which the temperature was rising before ignition. The final
temperature is corrected by adding (c-b).r2, where r2 is the rate of temperature decrease after the
maximum was reached. The temperature rise used for calculating the energy liberated is the
difference between the corrected ignition and final temperatures. The corrected temperatures are
to be indicated in figure.

Because a portion o the fuse wire will be found to have burnt to the oxide, a correction for the
energy liberated by this reaction must be subtracted from the observed heating value of the
sample. This is best accomplished by knowing the heat of combustion of the fuse wire per unit
length and the length of the original and unburned portions of the wire.
When extreme accuracy is required, the ASTM test procedure should be consulted for the
method to be used in correcting the observed heating value for the formation of HNO 3 and
H2SO4.

Since the water vapor resulting from the combustion of hydrogen in the fuel sample is condensed
because of the low bomb temperature, the heating value obtained is known as the higher heating
is known as the higher heating value. The lower heating value is determined by subtracting from
the higher heating value a quantity equal to the product of the weight of water vapor formed by
combustion and the latent heat of vaporization of the water.

Calculations:
Temperature Rise
t = tc – ta – r1(b – a) – r2(c – b)
where,
t = corrected temperature rise
ta = temperature at time of firing
tc = temperature at time, c
r1 = rate (temperature units per min.) at which temperature was rising during 5 min
period before firing.
r2 = rate (temperature units per min.) at which temperature was falling during the 5
min period after time, c.

Temperature at time b, tb = ta + 0.6 (tc – ta)

Heating value = Heat absorbed by calorimeter – Heat from fuse wire

( )
=

ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 4

43
 AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional
Experiment No.: 7 1
Name of the Experiment:
Determination of Heating Value of Coal by Bomb Calorimeter
Name of the student:
Student ID:
Date:
Data & Result Sheet
Calorimeter: Parr Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter
Manufactured by Parr Instrument Company
Moline, Illinois, USA

Weight of empty pan : __________ gm Total length of fuse wire used : 10 cm

Weight of pan + coal : __________ gm Length of remaining fuse wire: _________ cm
Weight of coal : __________ gm Fuse wire actually burnt : __________ cm
Weight of water : 1900 gm Calorimeter value of fuse
Water equivalent of Wire : 2.3 cal/cm
Calorimeter : 526 gm Room Temperature : __________ ºC

Time (min.) Thermometer Reading C Time (min.) Thermometer Reading C

0 8:30
1 9
2 9:30
3 10
4 10:30
5 (Ignition) 11
5:15 12
5:30 13
5:45 14
6 15
6:15 16
6:30 17
6:45 18
7 19
7:15 20
7:30 21
7:45 22
8 23

Calorific value of coal : _____________________________ cal/gm

_____________________________ Btu/lb

ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 5

44
Experiment No.: 83(a)
Study of Psychrometer and determination of humidity of air using
Sling Psychrometer
Objectives:
To find relative humidity, absolute humidity, dew point and enthalpy of air using psychrometer
and psychrometric chart.

Procedure:
The sling psychrometer is used to determine the humidity of air. This instrument has two similar
thermometer mounted on a frame, one to read dry bulb temperature and the other wet-bulb
temperature. The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is covered with a wick wetted with distilled
water. The thermometer and wetted wick is whirled in the air, the water evaporate into the
surrounding unsaturated air, causing the general conditions around the wet thermometer bulb to
be similar to. and closely approximate to, those of adiabatic saturation. After sufficient whirling
the thermometer reach equilibrium conditions. The both temperature should be read quickly in
order to get dependable readings.

The sling psychrometer should be rotated at a speed of 10 to 15 fps or 100 to 200 rpm. It is
important that clean wawter should be used, since the slightest trace of oil on the wick cause
errors. The wick should be kept fully wet when reading are being made.

Definition of Different Terms:

Absolute Humidity
This is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air in a given volume of the
mixture.

Relative Humidity
This is the ratio of the actual water vapor pressure in the air to the vapor pressure which would
exist in a saturated mixture at the temperature of the air.

Dew Point Temperature

The temperature at which the water vapor in the air is saturated.

Operations:
1. Wet the wick of the wet bulb thermometer and whirl the psychrometer for about a
minute.
2. Note the reading of the wet bulb thermometer quickly with the help of a magnifying
glass. Then read the dry bulb temperature. This will correspond to thermometer
temperature.
3. Located the point on the psychrometeric chart which corresponds to the measured dbt and
wbt.
4. Find (i) Relative Humidity (ii) Absolute Humidity (iii) Dew Point and (iv) Enthalpy
using the psychrometric chart.

ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 12

45
ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 10

46
AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional
Experiment No.: 83
Name of the Experiment:
Study of Psychrometer and determination of humidity of air using Sling
Psychrometer
Name of the student:
Student ID:
Date:

Data Sheet
Wet Bulb Temperature : _____________ ºC
Dry Bulb Temperature : _____________ ºC

Relative Humidity : _____________ %

Absolute Humidity : _____________ kgw/kgda
Dew Point Temperature : _____________ ºC
Enthalpy : _____________ kJ/Kg

Teacher’s Signature

ME 2102: Basic Thermodynamics Sessional 14

47