Airspace Airspace and air traffic management, Categories of airspace-separation minima, airspace

sectors-capacity, demand and delay. Evolution of air traffic control system-procedural ATC system,
procedural ATC with radar assistance, first generation 'automated' ATC system, current generation radar
and computer-based ATC systems. ICAO future air-navigation system.

Classification of Airspace

The two categories of airspace are: regulatory and nonregulatory. Within these two categories, there
are four types: controlled, uncontrolled, special use, and other airspace. The categories and types of
airspace are dictated by the complexity or density of aircraft movements, nature of the operations
conducted within the airspace, the level of safety required, and national and public interest. Figure 15-1
presents a profile view of the dimensions of various classes of airspace.

Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace and defined
dimensions within which air traffic control (ATC) service is provided in accordance with the airspace
classification. Controlled airspace consists of:

• Class A

• Class B

• Class C

• Class D

• Class E

Description
There are five different classes of controlled airspace: A, B, C, D, and E airspace. A pilot requires
clearance from ATC prior to entering Class A and B airspace, and two-way ATC communications
are required before flying into Class C or D airspace.
ATS airspace is classified and designated in accordance with the following:

Class A Airspace: Class A airspace is generally the airspace from 18,000 feet mean sea level
(MSL) up to and including flight level (FL) 60,000 feet MSL or flight level 600, including the
airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles (NM) of the coast of the 48 contiguous
states and Alaska. Unless otherwise authorized, all operation in Class A airspace is conducted
under instrument flight rules (IFR).

 IFR flights only are permitted, all flights are provided with air traffic control service and
are separated from each other.

Class B Airspace: Class B airspace is generally airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL
surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in terms of airport operations or passenger
enplanements. The configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored, consists
of a surface area and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down
wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft
enters the airspace. ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, and all
aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services within the airspace.
 IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all flights are provided with air traffic control
service and are separated from each other.

Class C Airspace: Class C airspace is generally airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the
airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control
tower, are serviced by a radar approach control, and have a certain number of IFR operations or
passenger enplanements. Although the configuration of each Class C area is individually
tailored, the airspace usually consists of a surface area with a five NM radius, an outer circle
with a ten NM radius that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation.
Each aircraft must establish two-way radio communications with the ATC facility providing air
traffic services prior to entering the airspace and thereafter must maintain those
communications while within the airspace.

IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all flights are provided with air traffic control service
and IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and from VFR flights. VFR flights are
separated from IFR flights and receive traffic information in respect of other VFR flights.

Class D Airspace: Class D airspace is generally airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above the
airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control
tower. The configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and, when
instrument procedures are published, the airspace is normally designed to contain the
procedures. Arrival extensions for instrument approach procedures (IAPs) may be Class D or
Class E airspace. Unless otherwise authorized, each aircraft must establish two-way radio
communications with the ATC facility providing air traffic services prior to entering the airspace
and thereafter maintain those communications while in the airspace.

 IFR and VFR flights are permitted and all flights are provided with air traffic control
service, IFR flights are separated from other IFR flights and receive traffic information in
respect of VFR flights, VFR flights receive traffic information in respect of all other
flights.

Class E Airspace: Class E airspace is the controlled airspace not classified as Class A, B, C, or D
airspace. A large amount of the airspace over the United States is designated as Class E
airspace. 15-3 Figure 15-2. An example of a prohibited area, P-40 around Camp David. This
provides sufficient airspace for the safe control and separation of aircraft during IFR operations.
Chapter 3 of the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) explains the various types of Class E
airspace. Sectional and other charts depict all locations of Class E airspace with bases below
14,500 feet MSL. In areas where charts do not depict a class E base, class E begins at 14,500
feet MSL. In most areas, the Class E airspace base is 1,200 feet AGL. In many other areas, the
Class E airspace base is either the surface or 700 feet AGL. Some Class E airspace begins at an
MSL altitude depicted on the charts, instead of an AGL altitude. Class E airspace typically
extends up to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL (the lower limit of Class A airspace). All
airspace above FL 600 is Class E airspace.
 IFR and VFR flights are permitted, IFR flights are provided with air traffic control service
and are separated from other IFR flights. All flights receive traffic information as far as is
practical. Class E shall not be used for control zones.
Class F.: IFR and VFR flights are permitted, all participating IFR flights receive an air
traffic advisory service and all flights receive flight information service if requested.

Class G: When approaching to land at an airport without an operating control tower in Class G
airspace: 1. Each pilot of an airplane must make all turns of that airplane to the left unless the
airport displays approved light signals or visual markings indicating that turns should be made
to the right, in which case the pilot must make all turns to the right. 2. Each pilot of a helicopter
or a powered parachute must avoid the flow of fixed-wing aircraft.

Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from,
through, or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio
communications are maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications
must be established within four nautical miles from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet
AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight, the PIC may operate that aircraft and land if
weather conditions are at or above basic VFR weather minimums, visual contact with the tower
is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. If the aircraft radio fails in flight under IFR,
the pilot should continue the flight by the route assigned in the last ATC clearance received; or,
if being radar vectored, by the direct route from the point of radio failure to the fix, route, or
airway specified in the vector clearance. In the absence of an assigned route, the pilot should
continue by the route that ATC advised may be expected in a further clearance; or, if a route
had not been advised, by the route filed in the flight plan.

Uncontrolled Airspace It is possible for some airports within Class G airspace to have a control
tower (Lake City, FL, for example). Be sure to check the Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly
Airport/Facility Directory) to be familiar with the airport and associated airspace prior to flight.

Ultralight Vehicles No person may operate an ultralight vehicle within Class A, Class B, Class C,
or Class D airspace or within the lateral boundaries of the surface area of Class E airspace
designated for an airport unless that person has prior authorization from the ATC facility having
jurisdiction over that airspace

Unmanned Free Balloons Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an
unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface within the lateral boundaries of
Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport. (See 14 CFR part 101.)
Unmanned Aircraft Systems Regulations regarding unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) are
currently being developed and are expected to be published by summer 2016 as 14 CFR part
107. Parachute Jumps No person may make a parachute jump, and no PIC may allow a
parachute jump to be made from an aircraft, in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D
airspace without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility
having jurisdiction over the airspace.

Unmanned Free Balloons Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an
unmanned free balloon below 2,000 feet above the surface within the lateral boundaries of
Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E airspace designated for an airport.

Unmanned Aircraft Systems Regulations regarding unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) are
currently being developed and are expected to be published by summer 2016 as 14 CFR part
107.
Parachute Jumps No person may make a parachute jump, and no PIC may allow a parachute
jump to be made from an aircraft, in or into Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D airspace
without, or in violation of, the terms of an ATC authorization issued by the ATC facility having
jurisdiction over the airspace.

 Class G. IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight information service if

requested.

The services provided and flight requirements for different classes of airspace are shown in the
table below.

Subject
Typ
Separati Radio to an
Clas e of Speed
on Service Provided communication ATC
s flig limitation*
Provided requirement clearanc
ht
e

IFR All Air traffic control Not Continuous

A Yes
only aircraft service applicable two-way

All Air traffic control Not Continuous

IFR Yes
aircraft service applicable two-way
B
All Air traffic control Not Continuous
VFR Yes
aircraft service applicable two-way

IFR from
IFR Air traffic control Not Continuous
IFR IFR from Yes
service applicable two-way
VFR

1) Air traffic
control service
C
for separation
from IFR 250 kts IAS
VFR from 2) VFR/VFR traffic below Continuous
VFR Yes
IFR information 10000 ft two-way
service (and
amsl
traffic avoidance
advice on
request)
 Air traffic control
service, traffic
250 kts IAS
information
IFR from below Continuous
IFR about VFR flights Yes
IFR 10000 ft two-way
(and traffic
amsl
avoidance advice
D on request)
(1)
IFR/VFR and
VFR/VFR traffic 250 kts IAS
information (and below Continuous
VFR Nil Yes
traffic avoidance 10000 ft two-way
advice on amsl
request)

Air traffic control

service and, as 250 kts IAS
IFR from far as practical below Continuous
IFR Yes
IFR traffic 10000 ft two-way
information amsl
E
about VFR flights
(2)

250 kts IAS
Traffic
below
VFR Nil information as No No
10000 ft
far as practical
amsl

IFR from Air traffic 250 kts IAS

IFR as far advisory service; below Continuous
IFR No
as flight information 10000 ft two-way
practical service amsl
F
250 kts IAS
Flight
below
VFR Nil information No No
10000 ft
service
amsl
 250 kts IAS
Flight
below Continuous
IFR Nil information No
10000 ft two-way
service
amsl
G
250 kts IAS
Flight
below
VFR Nil information No No
10000 ft
service
amsl

* When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 10,000 ft amsl, FL100 should be
used in lieu of 10000 ft
Important Notes:

(1): In Class D airspace, both IFR and VFR traffic are required to follow ATC clearances; however,
ATC are only responsible for IFR against IFR separation.

(2): In Class E airspace, ATC does not provide separation between IFR and VFR traffic; IFR traffic
shares responsibility for separation from uncontrolled VFR traffic with that traffic.

TORA: Takeoff Run Available – The length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an
airplane taking off.
TODA: Takeoff Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway, if
clearway is provided.
(The clearway length allowed must lie within the aerodrome or airport boundary. According to
the Federal Aviation Regulations and Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) TODA is the lesser of TORA
plus clearway or 1.5 times TORA).
ASDA: Accelerate-Stop Distance Available – The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the
stopway, if stopway is provided.
LDA:Landing Distance Available – The length of runway that is declared available and suitable for the
ground run of an airplane landing.[11]
EMDA: Emergency Distance Available – LDA (or TORA) plus a stopway.
SEPARATION AND MINIMA

Description
National authorities lay down vertical and horizontal separation standards to facilitate the safe
navigation of aircraft in controlled airspace to reduce the risk of those aircraft colliding, as well
as prevent accidents due to secondary factors, such as collisions, wake turbulence. Separation
can also apply to terrain, obstacles, and controlled airspace, wherein an aircraft must stay at a
minimum distance from a block of airspace; as an example, all aircraft must be approved by the
controller who "owns" the airspace before the aircraft is approved to enter that sector.
Air traffic controllers apply rules, known as separation minima, to do this. Pairs of aircraft to
which these rules have been successfully applied are said to be separated: the risk of these
aircraft colliding is therefore remote. If separation is lost between two aircraft, they are said to
be in a conflict.
When an aircraft passes behind or follows another aircraft, wake turbulence minima are applied
due to the effect of the wingtip vortices of the preceding aircraft on the following aircraft.
These minima vary depending on the relative size of the two aircraft. This is acute on  final
approach with a smaller aircraft following larger aircraft.
Observance of these standards ensures

 safe separation from the ground

 from other aircraft and
 from protected airspace (see Loss of
Separation).

Separation standards may sometimes serve to

reduce exposure to Wake Vortex
Turbulence although there are many occurences of significant wake vortex encounter at
separations much greater than prevailing minimum separation.

National separation standards are based on the provisions of ICAO Doc 4444 (Procedures for Air
Traffic Management), especially Chapter 5. Differences from these standards (if any) are
published in nationalAIPs.

The methods used to achieve separation are varied and complex, depending on the phase of
flight and the relative trajectories of the aircraft involved. The examples quoted below illustrate
the more simple methods used for aircraft in the cruise.

Vertical Separation

Vertical separation is achieved by requiring aircraft to use a prescribed altimeter pressure

setting within designated airspace, and to operate at different levels expressed in terms of
altitude or flight level.

ICAO specify minimum vertical separation for IFR flight as 1000 ft (300 m) below FL290 and
2000 ft (600 m) above FL290, except where Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) apply.
Most national authorities follow a similar rule, but may specify a different level at which the
rule changes.

Lateral Separation

Lateral separation is achieved by various means, which include the following:

 By position reports which positively indicate the aircraft are over different geographic
locations (see Fig. 1).
 By requiring aircraft to fly on specified tracks which are separated by a minimum
angle. Both aircraft must be established on radials or tracks which diverge by a specified
amount depending on the type of navigation aid in use, and at least one aircraft must be
at a distance of 15 NM or more from the facility (see Fig. 2).

Longitudinal Separation

Longitudinal separation is applied so that the spacing between aircraft is never less than a
specified amount. For aircraft following the same or diverging tracks, longitudinal separation
may be achieved by requiring aircraft to make position reports and comparing the time of their
reports (see Fig. 3) and by speed control, ensuring that the speed of the following aircraft does
not exceed the speed of the leading aircraft. Reduced separation may apply if the leading
aircraft is maintaining a higher speed than the following aircraft.

Separation minima based on ATS surveillance systems

When surveillance systems are used (based on radar, ADS-B or MLAT) the minimum separation
prescribed by ICAO Doc 4444 is 5 nm (unless otherwise stated by the appropriate ATS
authority). This minimum may be reduced by the appropriate ATS authority but not below:

 3 nm when the surveillance systems' capabilities at a given location permit this;

 2.5 nm between succeeding aircraft which are established on the same final
approach track within 10 nm of the runway threshold. A number of additional criteria
must be met in order to apply this separation minimum (described in detail in ICAO Doc
4444, 8.7.3.2 b)).
The separation minimum or minima based on radar and/or ADS-B and/or MLAT systems to be
applied are to be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority based on the equipment used.
Therefore, higher than 5 nm horizontal separation minima may be applied in certain parts of
the airspace and/or at certain times.

Wake Vortex Turbulence

In addition to traffic separation standards applied to aircraft on approach to or taking off from
the same or closely spaced runways, more restrictive separation minima are defined
(see Mitigation of Wake Turbulence Hazard) to ensure that following aircraft, especially smaller
ones, are not hazarded by the effects of wake vortex turbulence generated by a preceding
aircraft.
Aircraft are categorised according to their MTOM (maximum take-off mass) and minimum
separation times or distances are applied to aircraft in sequence so that aircraft following a
higher MTOM aircraft are given greater spacing than those following a same or lower MTOM
category. Details of the separation applied depends on circumstances, for example whether
aircraft are using the same, parallel or crossing runways, and whether using the same or
different take-off commencement or touchdown positions.

Emergency Separation

If, during an emergency situation, it is not possible to ensure that the applicable horizontal
separation can be maintained, emergency separation of half the applicable vertical separation
minimum may be used. This means that a 1000 ft vertical separation minimum may be reduced
to 500 ft and 2000 ft vertical separation minimum may be reduced to 1000 ft. All flight crews
concerned must be advised if emergency separation is used.
Aircraft sectors: