Schlumberger

Contents
C1.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS ....................................................................................................1

C2.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE BHC SONIC TOOL...................................................3

C2.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................3
C2.2 POROSITY DETERMINATION ................................................................................................4
C2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC INTERPRETATION:................................................................7

C3.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE LITHO-DENSITY TOOL...........................................11

C3.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................11
C3.2 PRINCIPLE...........................................................................................................................11
C3.3 POROSITY FROM A DENSITY LOG.....................................................................................13
C3.4 LITHOLOGY FROM THE PE MEASUREMENT......................................................................17
C3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING DENSITY LOG:................................................................................20

C4.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL.........................21

C4.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................21
C4.2 PRINCIPLE ...........................................................................................................................21
C4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CNL LOGS.......................................................................................23

C5.0 TOTAL POROSITY DETERMINATION .......................................................................................29

C6.0 GR LOG.....................................................................................................................................31
C6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................31
C6.2 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS ........................................................................................31
C6.3 NATURAL GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY TOOL...............................................................34

C7.0 BOREHOLE GEOMETRY BY CALIPER MEASUREMENT .........................................................37

C7.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.....................................................................................................37
Single-Arm Caliper Configuration................................................................................................40
Two-Arm Caliper Configurations .................................................................................................40
Three-Arm Caliper Configurations...............................................................................................41
Four-Arm Caliper Configuration ..................................................................................................41

C8.0 WORK SESSION.......................................................................................................................43

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96)
 Schlumberger

C1.0 Porosity Measurements

C1.1 INTRODUCTION
Total porosity may consist of primary and For example, the formula for a density log
secondary porosity. Effective porosity is the measurement including all these variables can
total porosity after the shale correction is ap- be written as
plied. Rock porosity can be obtained from the
sonic log, density log or neutron log. For all ρ b = φe × Sw × ρf + φe (1 – Sw) ρhy + Vsh ρsh +
these devices, the tool response is affected by (1 – φe – Vsh ) ρma .
the formation porosity, fluid and matrix. If the
fluid and matrix effects are known or can be Solving for porosity in this case would not
determined, the tool response can be deter- be easy because there are several unknowns
mined and related to porosity. Therefore, these and only one measurement. However, when
devices are usually referred to as porosity logs. we compare other porosity and log measure-
ments, we can solve for these unknowns.
All three logging techniques respond to the
characteristics of the rock immediately adjacent
to the borehole. Their depth of investigation is
shallow—only a few centimeters or less—and
therefore generally within the flushed zone.

As well as porosity, the logs are affected by

- volume and nature (lithology) of ma-
trix material
- amount and nature of pore space con-
tents (pore geometry, water, hydrocar-
bons)
- volume and nature of shales.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-2
 Schlumberger

C2.0 Porosity Measurements

from the BHC Sonic Tool

C2.1 INTRODUCTION
In its simplest form, a sonic tool consists of
a transmitter that emits a sound pulse and a
receiver that picks up and records the pulse as
it passes the receiver.
The computer also integrates the transit time
readings to obtain total traveltimes (see Figures
C1 and C2).

The sound emanated from the transmitter

impinges on the borehole wall. This estab-
lishes compressional and shear waves within
the formation, surface waves along the bore-
hole wall and guided waves within the fluid
column.

The sonic log is simply a recording versus

depth of the time, tcomp, required for a compres-
sional sound wave to traverse 1 m of forma-
tion. Known as the interval transit time, transit
time, ∆t or slowness, tcomp is the reciprocal of
the velocity of the sound wave. (For the re-
mainder of this document, tcomp is known as
∆t.) The interval transit time for a given for-
mation depends upon its lithology and poros-
ity. This dependence upon porosity, when the
lithology is known, makes the sonic log useful
as a porosity log. Integrated sonic transit times
are also helpful in interpreting seismic records.
The sonic log can be run simultaneously with
many other services.

The borehole-compensated (BHC) tool trans-

mitters are pulsed alternately, and ∆t values are
read on alternate pairs of receivers. The ∆t val-
ues from the two sets of receivers are averaged
automatically by a computer at the surface for
borehole compensation.
Figure C1: Schematic of BHC sonde, showing
ray paths for the two transmitter-receiver sets.
Averaging the two ∆t measurements cancels er-
rors from the sonde tilt and hole-size charges.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging
Sometimes the first arrival, although strong
enough to trigger the receiver nearer the trans-
mitter, may be too weak by the time it reaches
the far receiver to trigger it. Instead, the far re-
ceiver may be triggered by a different, later
arrival in the sonic wave train, and the travel
time measured on this pulse cycle will then be
too large. When this occurs, the sonic curve
shows an abrupt, large excursion towards a
higher ∆t value; this is known as cycle skip-
ping. Such skipping is more likely to occur
when the signal is strongly attenuated by un-
consolidated formations, formation fractures,
gas saturation, aerated muds or rugose or en-
larged borehole sections.
9.8 m
2.25 m
Figure C2: BHC Sonic—GR tool distances
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The sonic log is run with ∆t presented on a
linear scale in tracks 2 and 3 with a choice of
two scales:
500–100 and 300–100 µsec/m.
A three-arm caliper curve representing the
average borehole diameter and a gamma ray
(GR) curve are recorded simultaneously in
track 1 (See Figure C3).
The gamma ray curve measures the natural
radioactivity of potassium, uranium and tho-
rium in the formation and is usually represen-
tative of the amount of shale present. This is
because radioactive elements tend to concen-
trate in clays and shales. Later, we will use the
GR to compute volume of shale (Vsh ).
C2.2 POROSITY DETERMINATION
a) Wyllie Time-Average Equation
After numerous laboratory determinations,
M.R.J. Wyllie proposed, for clean and con-
solidated formations with uniformly distrib-
uted small pores, a linear time-average or
weighted-average relationship between poros-
ity and transit time (see Figure C4):
tLOG = φtf + (1 – φ)tma (C1)
tLOG – tma
or φ = (C2)
tf – tma
where
tLOG is the reading on the sonic log in
µsec/m
tma is the transit time of the matrix mate-
rial
 Schlumberger

BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC

FILE 2

BS
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

CALI
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

GR DT
0.0000 (GAPI) 150.0000 500.0000 (US/M) 100.0000

600

Figure C3 : Borehole-Compensated Sonic Log

(05/96) C-5
Introduction to Openhole Logging

tf is the transit time of the saturating fluid t - tma 1

(about 620 µsec/m for freshwater mud sys- φSVcor = × (C3)
tems) tf - tma CP
φ is the porosity or volume occupied by
pores
The value of Cp is given approximately by
1 − φ is the volume of the matrix.
dividing the sonic velocity in nearby shale beds
by 328. However, the compaction correction
Typical Values: factor is best determined by comparing φ SV , as
obtained from Equations 1 and 2, with the true
Sand ∆tmatrix = 182 µsec/m porosity obtained from another source.
Lime ∆tmatrix = 156 µsec/m
b) Raymer-Hunt
Dolomite ∆tmatrix = 143 µsec/m
Over the 25 years since acoustic velocity
Anydrite ∆tmatrix = 164 µsec/m well logging was introduced, deficiencies have
been noted in the transform of transit time ∆t
When the formations are not sufficiently to porosity φ.
compacted, the observed ∆t values are greater
than those that correspond to the porosity ac- Based on extensive field observations of
cording to the time-average formula, but the φ transit times versus porosity, the new empiri-
versus t relationship is still approximately lin- cal Raymer-Hunt transform was derived. The
ear. In these cases, an empirical correction new transform equation is too complicated to
factor, Cp, is applied to Equation 2 to give a be presented in this course. An approximation
corrected porosity, φSVcor (Equation 3): of the transform is given in Equation C4 and
the exact transform is presented in the chart
books as the red lines on all sonic charts.

tLOG - tma
φsv = C (C4)
tLOG

The value of the constant C has a range of

Figure C4: Components of the Wyllie
Time-Average Equation
0.625 to 0.7 depending upon the investigator.
Chart Por-3m (Figure C6) uses 0.7 for C: this
was the value originally proposed. However,
more recent transit time-to-porosity compari-
sons indicate that a value of 0.67 is more ap-
propriate.

(05/96) C-6
 Schlumberger

For the case of a gas-saturated reservoir rock, Raymer-Hunt (approximation):

C becomes 0.6. It should be used when the
rock investigated by the sonic tool contains an 5(352 - 182)
appreciable amount of hydrocarbon in the φ= ≅ 30%
gassy (vapor) phase. Because of the shallow 8(352)
depth of investigation, this condition normally
exists only in higher porosity sandstones
(greater than 30%). Chart Por-3m (Figure C6) solves this equa-
tion graphically. Enter tlog of 352 µsec/m on
From the example sonic log (Figure C3) at abscissa and project upward until the appropri-
593 m we read 352 µsec/m. Given ∆tma =182 ate ∆tma line is reached (Vma = 5500 m/sec). If
µsec/m we can solve for φ: different values of Vma are used, we get differ-
ent values of φ.
Wyllie:
With a ∆tlog = 250µsec/m we would get
352 - 182
φ= ≅ 39%
620 - 182 Raymer-
Wyllie Hunt
Vma F F
V ma ∆tm a V ma
Sandstone (5500 m/sec) 16% 18.5%
(m/sec) (µ sec/m) (m/sec) Limestone (6400 m/sec) 21% 24%
Range of
Values
Dolomite (7010 m/sec) 26% 28.5%
Sandstone 5486 182 5486–5944
Limestone 6400 156 6400–7010
Dolomites 7010 143 7010–7925 C 2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC
Anhydrite 6096 164 6100 INTERPRETATION
Salt 4572 219 4566
Lithology
Casing (iron) 5334 187 5348
Lithology must be known to obtain the cor-
rect Vma . An incorrect choice of Vma will pro-
Fluid Transit Time: V1 = 1615 m/sec
duce erroneous calculations.
∆tf = 620 microsec/m for fresh muds
= microsec/m for salt muds Shale
Shale content generally causes ∆t to read too
high for a porosity calculation because of the
Figure C5: Chart showing values used for common bound water in the shale. The sonic reads pri-
reservoir rocks
mary porosity, which may be affected by
shale.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Porosity Evaluation from Sonic

Svf = 1615 m/s

vf = 1615 m/sec
50 50

Time average
Field observation

1.1
40 40

1.2

1.3
ite
om ne
1.4
sto
l
Do

te
30 lc i nd 1.5 30
Ca sa
φ, porosity (p.u.)

φ, porosity (p.u.)
r tz 1.6
ua
Q

Bcp
e
ton
ds

20 20
e san
ite

ton tz
Qu em Calc lom

ds ar

vma (ft/sec)
z s te d e
an qu
Do
n it
00
80

e
59 640 00

ar t
C
70
0

10 10
50
00
55

0 0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
t, interval transit time (µsec/m)

EXAMPLE: t = 76 µs/ft (249 µs/m)

SVma = 19,500 ft/s (5950 m/s) - Sandstone
Thus, φ = 18% (by either weighted average or empirical transform)

SVma (ft/S) tma (µs/ft) SVma (m/s) tma (µs/m)

Sandstones 18,000 - 19,500 55.5 - 51.3 5486 - 5944 182 - 168
Limestones 21,000 - 23,000 47.6 - 43.5 6400 - 7010 156 - 143
Dolomites 23,000 - 26,000 43.5 - 38.5 7010 - 7925 143 - 126

Por-3m
Figure C6

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Fluid Type
The depth of investigation of the sonic is
shallow; therefore, most of the fluid seen by
the sonic will be mud filtrate.
Oil
Oil usually has no effect.
Water
There is usually no effect from water except
where the drilling fluid is salt saturated, and
then a different Vf should be used, usually 607
µsec/m.
Gas
Residual gas causes ∆tlog to read too high
when the formation is uncompacted. The gas
between the sand grains slows down the com-
pressional wave resulting in a long ∆t. In
compacted sands, the wave will travel from
one sand grain to another and the gas effect
will be reduced.
Compaction
The value of ∆tlog will read too high in un-
compacted sand formations. Compaction cor-
rections can be made if the compaction factor
(Bcp ) is known.
Schlumberger
An approximate Bcp is obtained from the sur-
rounding shales (Bcp = ∆tsh/328). Bcp can also
be obtained by comparing the porosity ob-
tained from another source (core, density log,
neutron log, computed log porosity) to that
obtained from the sonic log in a clean water
zone. (For example, if the neutron log in a
clean water zone reads 20% and the sonic log
reads 25%, then Bcp = 25%/20% = 1.25.)
Secondary Porosity
The sonic generally ignores secondary po-
rosity. For example, in vugular porosity, the
traveltime through the formation matrix is
faster than the time through fluid in the vugs,
because ∆tf is about 3 to 4 times the value of
∆tma .
Borehole Effect
The compensated sonic is unaffected by
changing hole size except in the case of ex-
tremely rough, large holes where the formation
signal is severely affected by the noise of the
mud signal and formation damage.
Mudcake
Mudcake has no effect on the BHC sonic be-
cause the traveltime through the mudcake is
compensated.
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Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-10

C3.0 Porosity Measurements from the
Litho-Density Tool
C3.1 INTRODUCTION
Litho-Density logs are primarily used for po-
rosity and lithology measurements. Other uses
include the identification of minerals in
evaporite deposits, detection of gas, determi-
nation of hydrocarbon density, evaluation of
shaly sands and complex lithologies, determi-
nation of oil-shale yield and calculation of
overburden pressure and rock mechanical
properties.
C3.2 PRINCIPLE
A radioactive source, applied to the borehole
wall in a shielded sidewall skid (Figure C7),
emits medium-energy gamma rays (662 keV)
into the formation.
Figure C7: Schematic Drawing of the Dual Spacing
Litho-Density Logging Device
Classical GR interactions by energy level are
shown in Figure C8. Because of the medium-
energy GR emission, only points 2 and 3 oc-
cur with respect to Litho-Density operation.
Schlumberger
These gamma rays may be thought of as high-
velocity particles that collide with the electrons
in the formation. At each collision, a gamma
ray loses some, but not all, of its energy to the
electron and then continues with diminished
energy. This type of interaction is known as
Compton scattering. The scattered gamma rays
reaching the detector, at a fixed distance from
the source, are counted as an indication of
formation density.
The number of Compton-scattering colli-
sions is related directly to the number of elec-
trons in the formation. Consequently, the re-
sponse of the density tool is determined
essentially by the electron density (number of
electrons per cubic centimeter) of the forma-
tion. Electron density is related to the true bulk
density ρb, which, in turn, depends on the den-
sity of the rock matrix material, formation po-
rosity and density of the fluids filling the
pores.
(GR energy > 1.02 MeV)
(over entire GR energy range)
( ρe )
(low-energy GR)
(Z)
Figure C8: Classical GR— Matter Interactions
by Energy Level
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Introduction to Openhole Logging

In addition to the bulk density measurement, The gamma ray spectrum at the near detector
the tool also measures the photoelectric ab- is used only to correct the density measure-
sorption index of the formation, Pe . Photelec- ment from the far detector for the effects of
tric absorption can be related to lithology; mudcake and borehole rugosity.
whereas the ρb measurement responds primar-
ily to porosity and secondarily to rock matrix
and pore fluid, the Pe measurement responds
primarily to rock matrix (lithology) and secon-
darily to porosity and pore fluid.

At a finite distance from the source, such as

the far detector, the energy spectrum may look
as illustrated in Figure C9. The number of
gamma rays in the higher energy region
(region of Compton scattering) is inversely
related only to the electron density of the for-
mation (i.e., an increase in the formation den-
sity decreases the number of gamma rays).
The number of gamma rays in the lower en-
ergy region (region of photoelectric effect) is
inversely related to both the electron density
and the photoelectric absorption. By compar-
ing the counts in these two regions, the pho- 7m
toelectric absorption index can be determined.

4.5 m

E (keV)

Figure C10: Basic SGT- CNT- LDT

Figure C9: Variations in Spectrum forFormation Tool Configuration
with Constant Density but Different Z

(05/96) C-12
 Schlumberger

This can be written as

ρ ρf ρma – ρb
ma
φD =
(1 – φ) φ ρma – ρfl
where:
ρma depends on lithology
ρ
b ρb is measured by the density log
Figure C11: Components of Density ρfl depends on fluid type in pore
Porosity Calculation
volumes.

The equation for ρb can be proven mathe-

C 3.3 POROSITY FROM A DENSITY
LOG
For a clean formation of known matrix den-
sity ρma , with a porosity φ that contains a fluid
of average density ρf ,, the formation bulk den-
sity ρb, will be (Figure C11):
ρ b = φρ f + (1 – φ) ρma (clean wet zone)
where:
ρb is the measured bulk density (from
Litho-Density tool)
ρma is the density of the matrix
ρf is the density of the fluid
φ is the percent volume of pore space
(1 – φ) is the percent volume of matrix.
matically, unlike the sonic equation, which is
an empirical relationship. Values of ρb are used
for common reservoir rocks (zero porosity)
(Figure C12).
From the example Litho-Density log (Figure
C13) at 593 m we read ρb = 2180 kg/m3.
Given ρf = 1000 kg/m3, ρma = 2650 kg/m3, we
can solve for φD :
2650 − 2180
φD = = 28.5%
2650 − 1000
Chart Por-5 (Figure C14) solves this equa-
tion graphically. For ρb = 2180 kg/m3 solving
for porosity using other matrix values gives:

ρma = 2710 kg/m3 φ D = 31%

ρma = 2870 kg/m3 φ D = 36.9%

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

ρb Values for Common Reservoir Rocks and Fluids

Actual ρa
Compound Formula Density (as seen by
ρ tool)

Quartz SiO2 2654 2648

Calcite CaCO3 2710 2710
Dolomite CaCO3MgCO3 2870 2876
Anhydrite CaSO4 2960 2977
Sylvite KCI 1984 1863
Halite NaCI 2165 2032

Actual ρa
Compound Formula Density (as seen by
ρ tool)

Fresh Water H2O 1000 1000

Salt Water 200,00ppm 1146 1135
Oil n(CH2) 850 850
Gas C1.1 H4.2 ρg 1.325 ρg-0188

Figure C12

(05/96) C-14
 Schlumberger

LITHOLOGY DENSITY
FILE 2

BS
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

CALI DRHO
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000 -250.0000 (K/M3) 250.0000

GR RHOB
0.0000 (GAPI) 150.0000 2000.0000 (K/M3) 3000.0000

600

Figure C13

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Formation Density Log Determination of Porosity

ρf 1.0 0.9 0.8

1.1
1.2

)
ite
40

om
ol

)
ne
(d

sto
87

)
te
2.

nd
lci
83
=

sa
(c
2.
a
m

rtz
71
=
ρ

ua
a

2.

8
m
ρ

.6

(q
=
2
30

65
a
a =
m
ρ

2.
m
ρ

a =
m
ρ
φ, porosity, (p.u.)

ρma – ρb
20 φ=
ρma – ρf

10

0
2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 2.0
2.31
ρb, bulk density (g/cm3)

Bulk density, ρb, as recorded with the FDC* or LDT density logs, is converted to porosity with this chart. To
use, bulk density, corrected for borehole size, is entered in abscissa; go to the appropriate reservoir rock type
and read porosity on the appropriate fluid density, ρf. scale in ordinate. (ρf is the density of the fluid saturat-
ing the rock immediately surrounding the borehole - usually mud filtrate.)

EXAMPLE: ρb = 2.31 Mg/m3 in limestone lithology

ρma = 2.71 (limestone)
ρ f = 1.1 (salt mud)

Therefore φD = 25 pu
Por-5

Figure C14

(05/96) C-16
 Schlumberger

C3.4 LITHOLOGY FROM P e Typical Litho-Density responses for com-

MEASUREMENT
The Pe curve is a good matrix indicator. It is
slightly influenced by formation porosity and
the presence of gas, but responds mainly to
lithology (Figure C15). Hence, a safe interpre-
tation of matrix lithology can be made for
simple lithologies (one-mineral matrix). In
conjunction with other log data, more complex
mineral combinations can be analyzed.
mon minerals are presented in Figure C16.
The Pe measurement is used
1. alone as a matrix indicator (the lithol-
ogy curve)
2. in combination with density ρb to ana-
lyze two-mineral matrices and deter-
mine porosity

Pe φt

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Figure C15: Photoelectric Absorption Index as a Function of Porosity and Fluid Content

(05/96) C-17
Introduction to Openhole Logging
3. In combination with the density and
neutron to analyse more complex
lithologies (solutions to three-mineral
matrices and porosity).
A direct benefit from the more accurate de-
scription of the matrix is a more reliable dis-
tinction between gas and oil.
In this section of the course, we use the Pe
curve as a matrix indicator in simple litholo-
gies. Using Pe for more advanced applications
Pe
0 0
Figure C16: Typical Litho-Density Responses for Common Sedimentary Rocks
(05/96) C-18
(complex lithology identification and heavy
mineral-detection) is covered in Section H,
Porosity in Complex Lithologies.
Examples of the direct use of the Pe curve
for lithology identification are shown in Figure
C17. In the case of an anhydrite, Pe is equal to
that of limestone. Anhydrite is positively iden-
tified by the bulk density or density porosity
values.
ρb ρe
0
0
 Schlumberger

Figure C17: Lithology Identification with the CNT, Litho-Density and Pe

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Introduction to Openhole Logging
C3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE
DENSITY LOG
Lithology
The correct ρma must be known to get correct
porosity.
Shale
The density of shale in sands can range from
2200 to 2650 but is usually close to 2650, the
same as sandstone. In shaly sands, the density
usually gives a good value of effective porosity
regardless of the shale content. The shale ap-
pears as matrix to the density tool.
ρb = ρf φ e + ρma (1 – φe – Vsh ) + ρsh Vsh
collecting terms:
ρb = ρf (φ e ) + ρma (1 – φe ) + Vsh (ρsh – ρma )
if ρsh = ρma , the last term is zero.
Fluid Type
The depth of investigation is quite shallow:
usually most of the formation fluid is flushed
away from the wellbore and the density tool
sees drilling fluid or filtrate in the pore space.
Hence, the values of ρf to use is that of the
drilling mud filtrate rather than the formation
water density.
Oil
Residual oil will make density porosities
slightly high, because oil is lighter than drilling
mud filtrate.
Water
Water density is proportional to the amount
of salt content. The value of ρf is selected in the
computer for porosity determination.
(05/96) C-20
Gas
The ρf of gas is 100–300 kg/m3. Porosity
determination in gas zones may be high if
there is residual gas near the borehole. Usually
most of the gas is flushed and little effect is
seen on the density log.
Compaction
The density tool is unaffected by lack of
compaction.
Secondary Porosity
The density reads intercrystalline, vugular
and fractured porosity. The porosity measured
is therefore total porosity.
Borehole Effect
Density gives good values for smooth holes
up to 381 mm in diameter. The tool compen-
sates for minor borehole rugosity, but a rough
hole causes the density to read too low densi-
ties (high porosities) because the skid-to-for-
mation contact is poor.
Mudcake
For normal mudcake thickness, there will be
no effect because the tool automatically com-
pensates for mudcake.
However for a ∆ρ correction of 100 kg/m3
and greater (i.e., ∆ρ > 100 kg/m3), the tool
compensation may be insufficient and the ρb
no longer representative of the formation den-
sity. In this case, the density should obviously
not be used for porosity calculations.

C4.0 Porosity Measurements from the
Compensated Neutron Tool
C4.1 INTRODUCTION
Neutron logs are used principally for the de-
lineation of porous formations and determina-
tion of their porosity. They respond primarily
to the amount of hydrogen in the formation.
Thus, in clean formations that have pores filled
with water or oil, the neutron log reflects the
amount of liquid-filled porosity.
Gas zones can often be identified by com-
paring the neutron log with another porosity
log or a core analysis. A combination of the
neutron log with one or more other porosity
logs yields even more accurate porosity values
and lithology identification—even an evalua-
tion of shale content.
3 3 /8-in. DIAMETER
Figure C18: Schematic Drawing of the Dual
Spacing Compensated Neutron Tool
Schlumberger
C4.2 PRINCIPLE
Neutrons are electrically neutral particles,
each with a mass almost identical to the mass
of a hydrogen atom. High-energy (fast) neu-
trons are continuously emitted from a radioac-
tive source in the sonde. These neutrons collide
with the nuclei of the formation materials in
what may be thought of as elastic billiard-ball
collisions. With each collision, the neutron
loses some of its energy.
The amount of energy lost per collision de-
pends on the relative mass of the nucleus with
which the neutron collides. A greater energy
loss occurs when the neutron strikes a nucleus
of practically equal mass (i.e., a hydrogen nu-
cleus). Collisions with heavy nuclei do not
slow the neutron much. Thus, the slowing of
neutrons depends largely on the amount of hy-
drogen in the formation.
Within a few microseconds, the neutrons
have been slowed by successive collisions to
thermal velocities, corresponding to energies
of about 0.025 eV. They then diffuse ran-
domly, without losing more energy, until they
are captured by the nuclei of atoms such as
chlorine, hydrogen or silicon.
The capturing nucleus becomes intensely ex-
cited and emits a high-energy gamma ray of
capture.
(05/96) C-21
Introduction to Openhole Logging
When the hydrogen concentration of the
material surrounding the neutron source is
large, most of the neutrons are slowed and
captured within a short distance of the source.
On the contrary, if the hydrogen concentration
is small, the neutrons travel farther from the
source before being captured. Accordingly, the
counting rate at the detector increases for de-
creased hydrogen concentrations and vice
versa. Thus, the neutron tool responds to the
hydrogen index of the formation. The hydro-
gen index is a measurement of the amount of
hydrogen per unit volume of formation (HI of
water = 1).
Neutron logging tools include the GNT
(Figure C19) tools series (no longer in use),
Figure C19: Neutron Energy Travel History
(05/96) C-22
sidewall neutron porosity (SNP) tools (in lim-
ited use) and the CNL tool series, which in-
cludes the compensated neutron and DNL*
Dual-Energy Neutron Log. The current tools
use americium-beryllium (AmBe) sources to
provide neutrons with initial energies of sev-
eral million electron volts.
1) SNP
- detects epithermal neutrons
- utilizes a skid mounted single detector
- can be run in open hole only, either liq-
uid-filled or empty
- most corrections are automatically ap-
plied during logging
- limited availability.

2) CNL tool
detects thermal neutrons
- The CNL tool uses a two-detector sys-
tem that depth and resolution matches
each count rate before the ratio is com-
puted. The ratio value is then converted
to porosity on a linear scale (Figure
C20), based on the matrix selected for
the computation (limestone, sandstone
or dolomite).
- Conversion from one porosity assump-
tion to another can be done using Chart
Por-13b (Figure C22). Por-13b con-
verts curves labelled "NPHI" that are
not environmentally corrected and also
converts for curves labelled "TNPH"
and "NPOR," which are environmen-
tally corrected.
- The CNL tool is especially designed for
use in combination with other devices.
- The CNL tool can be run in liquid-filled
holes, either open or cased, but not
empty holes (i.e., air- or gas-filled
holes.)
3) DNL tool
detects thermal and epithermal neutrons
- The DNL tool incorporates two
epithermal neutron detectors in addition
to the two thermal neutron detectors.
Two separate porosity measurements
are obtained, one from each pair of de-
tectors.
- Improves the response to gas and en-
hances interpretation in the presence of
thermal neutron absorbers.
- In shaly formations containing a large
number of thermal neutron absorbers,
the porosity measured by the epithermal
Schlumberger
detectors reads lower and agrees more
closely with density-derived porosity.
- As with the CNL tool, the DNL tool is
especially designed for use in combina-
tion with other devices. In addition, the
DNL tool can be run in liquid-filled
holes, air/gas-filled holes (epithermal
porosity only) and open or cased holes.
C4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CNL
LOGS
Lithology
A single known matrix must be present to
accurately determine porosities. Large errors
can occur if the matrix selection is incorrect.
Shale
The presence of hydrogen in chemically
bound water causes the CNL/DNL tool to read
high porosities in shales or shaly formations.
Fluid Type
Water: Fresh water has no effects. Saline
water has a reduced hydrogen content and the
CNL/DNL tool will read low porosity; the
correction is in the chart book.
Liquid Hydrocarbons: If the hydrogen con-
tent is close to that of water, there is little or no
effect.
Gas: If the hydrogen concentration is low,
the CNL/DNL tool reads low porosity.
Compaction
All neutron logs are unaffected by compac-
tion.
(05/96) C-23
Introduction to Openhole Logging

COMPENSATED NEUTRON LITHODENSITY (NO PEF CURVE)

FILE 2

BS
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

CALI DPHI
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000 0.6000 (K/M3) 0.0000

GR NPHI
0.0000 (GAPI) 150.0000 0.6000 (V/V) 0.0000

600

Figure: C20

(05/96) C-24

Secondary Porosity
All neutron equipment measures total poros-
ity (including primary and secondary).
Borehole Effect
The effects of rough hole are minimized by a
large depth of investigation obtained by the use
of a high-yield source and the two-detector
system.
When run in combination with the density
tool, an automatic caliper correction system is
accurate to [356 mm]. Normally there is zero
standoff correction.
Schlumberger
Mudcake
Corrections for mudcake, fluid (mud and
formation) salinity, mud weight, pressure and
temperature are in Charts Por-14(a) and 14(b),
in the Log Interpretation Chart Book, but are
not discussed in this course.
The average net correction is usually between
one and three porosity units. Hence, for calcu-
lations by hand, the correction is usually not
done.
(05/96) C-25
Introduction to Openhole Logging

Neutron Porosity Equivalence Curves

Sidewall Neutron Porosity (SNP), Compensated Neutron Log (CNL*)

40
φ, True Porosity for Indicated Matrix Material

30

20
e
on
st
nd

ne
Sa

s to
e
m
Li ite
m
lo
Do

10

SNP
CNL

©Schlumberger
0
0 10 20 30 40
φSNPcor, Apparent Limestone Neutron Porosity (p.u.)
φCNLcor, Apparent Limestone Neutron Porosity (p.u.)

When the SNP or CNL log is recorded in limestone porosity units, this chart is used to find porosity in sandstones
or dolomites. For the SNP log, first correct for mudcake thickness. (Chart Por-15 is used for SNP mudcake
corrections.)
For the CNL log, simply enter the chart in abscissa with the apparent limestone neutron porosity; go to the ap-
propriate matrix line, and read true porosity on the ordinate. (Chart Por-14 is used for CNL environmental
corrections.)
EXAMPLE: Sandstone bed Giving, hmc = 1/4 in.
øSNP = 13 pu (apparent limestone porosity) øSNP = 11 pu (corrected for mudcake)
Bit Size = 77/8 in. And, øSNP (sandstone) = 14 pu
SNP caliper = 75/8 in.

This chart can also be used to find apparent limestone porosity (needed for entering the various CP-crossplot
charts) if the SNP or CNL recording is in sandstone or dolomite porosity units. This chart should be used for CNL
values labeled NPHI—it should not be used for CNL values labeled TNPH or NPOR.

Por-13a

Figure C21

(05/96) C-26
 Schlumberger

Neutron Porosity Equivalence Curves

Compensated Neutron Log (CNL*)

40

Formation salinity
0 kppm

250 kppm TNPH

NPHI
φ, true porosity for indicated matrix material

30
e
on

20 e)
st

on
nd

t
es
sa

m
rtz

( li it e
ua

ci
te lom
Do
Q

l
a
C

10

0
0 10 20 30 40
φCNLcor, apparent limestone neutron porosity (p.u.)

*Mark of Schlumberger

Por-13b

Figure C22

(05/96) C-27
Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-28

C5.0 Total Porosity Determination
We have seen that porosity measurements
are inferred from measurements of bulk den-
sity, hydrogen index and acoustic traveltimes.
We have also seen that each measurement
provides the necessary input to calculate po-
rosity under the following conditions:
– Porosity type is intergranular, not frac-
tured or secondary (vuggy, moldic,
etc.).
– Matrix type is known and constant.
– Rock is clean, (i.e., no shale present).
– Porosity is filled with fluid.
Violations of any of these conditions will
cause the different porosity measurements to
disagree in one fashion or another. This can be
used to determine lithology, primary and sec-
ondary porosity and gas vs. liquid content. The
question to be answered here is: Which poros-
ity measurement should be used?
In a sand-shale sequence, for initial compu-
tations,
Schlumberger
a) if φD is available, use φTOTAL = φ D
b) if φN and ∆t are available, use φTOTAL
= φS with compaction corrections
applied.
In a carbonate, for initial computations
(limestone matrix),
a) if φN and φ D are available in sandstone
and limestone units, then use φTOTAL :
φ N + φD
φT =
2
b) if only ∆t is available, use φTOTAL :
φ T = φS + estimate φVUGS .
If gas is present in the reservoir, additional cor-
rections to φN and φD must be applied, as dis-
cussed in Section F.
Porosity calculations in complex lithologies shall
are discussed in Section H.
(05/96) C-29
Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure C23: Porosity Comparison between the LDT, CNT and SLT

(05/96) C-30
 Schlumberger

C6.0 GR Log

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The GR log is a measurement of the natural
radioactivity of the formations. In sedimentary
formations the log normally reflects the shale
content of the formations. This is because the
radioactive elements tend to concentrate in
clays and shales. Clean formations usually
have a very low level of radioactivity, unless
radioactive contaminant such as volcanic ash
or granite wash is present or the formation
waters contain dissolved radioactive salts.
Each of these elements emits gamma rays,
the number and energies of which are distinc-
tive for each element. Figure C24 shows the
energies of the emitted gamma rays: potas-
sium (K40) emits gamma rays of a single en-
ergy at 1.46 MeV, whereas the uranium and
thorium series emit gamma rays of various
energies.

"Clean"
Formation GR Reading
Sands 15 to 30 API
Limestones 10 to 20 API
Dolomites 8 to 15 API

The GR log can be recorded in cased wells,

which makes it very useful as a correlation
curve in completion and workover operations.
It is frequently used to complement the SP log
and as a substitute for the SP curve in wells
drilled with salt mud, air or oil-base muds. In
each case, it is useful for the location of shales
and nonshaly beds and, most importantly, for
general correlation.

6.2 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS

Gamma rays are bursts of high-energy elec-
tromagnetic waves that are emitted spontane-
ously by some radioactive elements. Nearly all Figure C24: Gamma Ray Emission Spectra
of Radioactive Minerals
the gamma radiation that occurs in the earth is
emitted by the radioactive potassium isotope of
atomic weight 40 (K40) and by the radioactive
elements of the uranium and thorium series.

(05/96) C-31
Introduction to Openhole Logging
In passing through matter, gamma rays ex-
perience successive Compton-scattering colli-
sions with atoms of the formation material,
losing energy with each collision. After the
gamma ray has lost enough energy, it is ab-
sorbed, by means of the photoelectric effect,
by an atom of the formation. Thus, natural
gamma rays are gradually absorbed and their
energies degraded (reduced) as they pass
through the formation. The rate of absorption
varies with formation density. Two formations
with the same amount of radioactive material
(05/96) C-32
per unit volume, but with different densities,
will show different radioactivity levels; the less
dense formations will appear slightly more
radioactive. (Figure C25).
GR uses:
1. definition of shale beds
2. indicator of shale content
3. detection of radioactive and non-
radioactive minerals
4. identification of formation tops.
 Schlumberger

Figure C25: Relative GR Response for Various Rocks/Formations

(05/96) C-33
Introduction to Openhole Logging
6.3 NGS NATURAL GAMMA RAY
SPECTROMETRY TOOL
Like the GR log, the NGS Natural Gamma
Ray Spectrometry tool measures the natural
radioactivity of the formations. Unlike the GR
log, which measures only the total radioactiv-
ity, this log measures both the number of
gamma rays and the energy level of each and
permits the determination of the concentrations
of radioactive potassium, thorium and uranium
in the formation rocks (Figure C27).
Physical Principle
Most of the gamma ray radiation in the earth
originates from the decay of three radioactive
isotopes: potassium (K40), uranium 238 (U238)
and thorium 232 (Th232).
Potassium-40 decays directly to the stable
argon-40 with the emission of a 1.46-MeV
gamma ray. However, uranium-238 and tho-
Figure C26: Potassium, Thorium and Uranium Response Curves (NAl Crystal Detector)
(05/96) C-34
rium-232 decay sequentially through a long
sequence of various daughter isotopes before
arriving at stable lead isotopes. As a result,
gamma rays of many different energies are
emitted and fairly complex energy spectra are
obtained, as Figure C26 shows. The charac-
teristic peaks in the thorium series at 2.62
MeV are caused by the decay of thallium-208
and bismuth-214 respectively.
It is generally assumed that formations are in
secular equilibrium; that is, the daughter iso-
topes decay at the same rate as they are pro-
duced from the parent isotope. This means that
the relative proportions of parent and daughter
elements in a particular series remain fairly
constant; so, by looking at the gamma ray
population in a particular part of the spectrum
it is possible to infer the population at any
other point. In this way, the amount of parent
isotope present can be determined.
 Schlumberger

NATURAL GAMMA SPECTROMETRY

ACCUMULATED INTEGRATION VALUES SUMMARY:

Integrated Hole Volume: 2.07418 M3 FROM 209.87 M TO 1995.07 M

TENS(N )
50000. 0.0
SGR(GAPI)
0.0 150.00
POTA THOR(PPM ) POTA
0.0 .09370 0.0 40.000 0.0 .10000
CGR(GAPI) URAN(PPM )
0.0 150.00 -10.00 30.000

THORIUM

POTASSIUM

CP 32.6 FILE 3 00- -1941 00:39

INPUT FILE(S) CREATION DATE

61 02-JUN-1992 15:15

1/240

2000

2025

TENS---
---SGR
---URAN
---THOR
---POTA
---POTA
---CGR
CGR

Figure C27
(05/96) C-35
Introduction to Openhole Logging

Once the parent isotope population is known, Applications:

the amount of nonradioactive isotope can also - identification of radioactive sands that
be found. The ratio of potassium-40 to total may be misinterpreted as shales
potassium is stable and constant on the earth, - identification of different types of
whereas, apart from thorium-232, the thorium shales/clays (see Figure C28)
isotopes are rare and so can be neglected. The - depth correlation (same as GR)
relative proportions of the uranium isotopes - complex lithology analysis.
depend somewhat on their environment, and
there is also a gradual change because of their
different half-lives; at present, the ratio of ura-
nium-238 to uranium-235 is about 137.

Figure C28: Classification of Radioactive Minerals as a Function of the Th and K Values

(05/96) C-36
 Schlumberger

C7.0 Borehole Geometry

by Caliper Measure

C7.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The hole diameter is usually recorded in The readings given by different calipers in
conjunction with the following surveys: the same hole may be different depending on
the caliper design and the hole cross section.
- Sonic logs (BHC versions, ASI Array
Seismic Imager, DSI Dipole Shear Figure C29 shows the characteristics of the
Sonic Imager) different calipers:
- Microresistivity logs (microlog, Micro-
SFL, EPT Electromagnetic Propagation
logs)
- Litho-Density logs
- Dipmeter logs (Dual Dipmeter Forma-
tion MicroScanner, FMI Formation
MicroImager tools)
- Borehole geometry log

No. of Phasing of the

Caliper tool Maximum Diameter Remarks
Arms Arms (Degrees)
3 arms coupled
Sonic tool 3 120 16 in. [406 mm] 1 reading
1 arm
Microlog tool 1 0 20 in. [508 mm] 1 reading
1 arm
Micro-SFL tool 1 0 16 in. [406 mm] 1 reading
(option A)
4 arms coupled 2 × 2
Micro-SFL tool 4 90 22 in. [558 mm] 2 paired readings
(option B)
Short Arm 16 in. [406 mm] 1 arm
Density tool 1 0 Long Arm 21 in. [533 mm] 1 reading
4 arms coupled 2 × 2
Dipmeters 4 90 FMS/FMI 22 in. [558 mm] 2 independent readings
Standard 30 in. [762 mm] 4 arms coupled 2 × 2
Borehole Geometry 4 90 Special 40 in. [1016 mm] 2 independent readings
tool
2 arms coupled
Dual Axis 2 180 16 in. [406 mm] 1 reading

Figure C29: Caliper Specifications for Different Devices Statedon the Logs

(05/96) C-37
Introduction to Openhole Logging
1) Mudcake is a good reason to have dif-
ferent calipers reading different values:
- If the arm of the caliper is the blade
type, it will cut into the cake and
this arm will ignore the thickness
of the mudcake.
- If the arm is of the pad type, it will
skid over the cake and the mudcake
thickness will be taken into account.
2. Assuming no mudcake, the readings of
different calipers in a perfectly round
hole will be identical.
But holes are not always round. In
clearly ovalized holes, two- three- and
four-arm calipers will read different
hole diameter values, mostly because of
the way these arms are coupled to-
gether.
If the logging tool is fairly free to rotate
inside the hole:
- Two-arm calipers will ride using
the larger diameter of the hole.
- Four-arm calipers will ride with
one pair of coupled arms using the
larger diameter of the hole.
3) In deviated wells, calipers may par-
tially collapse under their own weight
and give readings that are too low.
The following example (Figure C30)
shows different calipers in an ovalized
hole:
(05/96) C-38
- The sonic caliper (three arms linked
together) shows an average hole di-
ameter.
- The density caliper (one arm) is ap-
plied on the wall with strength. Its
back-up arm will cut into the mud-
cake. If no small-axis hardware is
used, it will orient itself to read the
largest diameter. If small-axis
hardware is used, the Litho-Density
tool tracks the smoother, short axis
of the hole (if ovality exists).
- The microlog caliper (one arm) will
probably orient itself to read the
larger diameter. Its pad will skid on
any mudcake. This is the case in the
upper part and lower part of this
section.
- Most calipers are designed to rec-
ord accurate hole diameters in cy-
lindrical boreholes. When bore-
holes are noncylindrical and
depending on caliper configura-
tions, a tool string will orient itself
in some preferential direction. This
can effect both caliper readings and
log responses.
Using Figure C31, consider the caliper
responses in a 200- × 400-mm oval
borehole for the various caliper types,
configurations and preferred tool orien-
tations. 100 m of 200- × 400-mm hole
has a volume of 6.28m3.
 Schlumberger

Figure C30: Comparison of Various Caliper Responses

(05/96) C-39
Introduction to Openhole Logging

Single-Arm Caliper Configuration:

• records one borehole diameter = 400
mm
• calculated 100 m hole volume = 12.57
m3 (+100% error)
• tool examples:
- Litho-Density log
(No short-axis hardware)
- MicroSFL tool (option A)
- EPT Electromagnetic Propa-
gation tool.

Two-Arm Caliper Configurations:

a. Unidirectional
• records one borehole diameter = 400
mm
• calculated 100 m hole volume = 12.57
m3 (+100% error)
• tool example:
- MicroSFL tool (option B).

b. Bidirectional Long Axis

• records one borehole diameter = 195
mm
• records a second diameter = 195 mm
• calculated 100 m hole volume = 2.9 m3
( −53%).

c. Bi-directional Short Axis

• Records one borehole diameter = 273
mm
• Records a second diameter = 273 mm
• Calculated 100m hole volume = 5.85m3
(−7%).

Figure C31: Caliper Responses Under

Various Hole Conditions

(05/96) C-40
 Schlumberger

Three-Arm Caliper Configurations:

a. Centered
• records one borehole diameter = 260
mm
• calculated 100 m hole volume = 5.31m3
(−15%)
• tool example:
- sonic log.

b. 90- Degree Offset

• records one axis diameter = 200 mm
• records a second diameter = 382 mm
• calculated 100m hole volume = 6.00 m3
(−4%)
• tool examples:
- CNL Compensated Neutron
log
- Litho-Density log (short-axis
hardware applied).

Four-Arm Caliper Configuration:

• records one-axis diameter = 200 mm
• records a second diameter = 400 mm
• calculated 100-m hole volume = 6.28
m3 (0%)
• tool examples:
- borehole geometry log
- Dual-Dipmeter tool Figure C31 (Continued)
- Formation MicroScanner
- FMI Formation MicroImager.

(05/96) C-41
Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-42
 Schlumberger

C8.0 Work Session

1a. For the example logs of Figures C32 – C34, calculate the following:

(Formation = Sandstone)
581 m 600 m
a. RILD

b.Rt

c. ∆t

d.φ S

e. φ D

f. φ N

2. Using the sonic log of Figure C34, calculate the sonic porosity at 586 m.

∆tf = 620 µsec/m

∆tma = 182 µsec/m

∆t - ∆tma
φs = =
∆tf - ∆tma

5(∆t - ∆tma )
φs = =
8∆t

b. Using Chart Por-3m (Figure C6)

φs Wyllie Time-Average =
φs Field Observation =

(05/96) C-43
Introduction to Openhole Logging

3a. On the CNT–Litho-Density log of Figure C35, what effect is seen at 1941 to 1946 m?

b. Using the Pe , what is the lithology in this zone?

c. Convert the log readings (φN and φD ) to equivalent sandstone values.

d. Explain the effect identified in question 3a.

(05/96) C-44
 Schlumberger

DUAL INDUCTION - SP/SFL

FILE 2

ILM
0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000

ILD
0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000

SP SFLU
-150.0000 (MV) 0.0000 0.2000 (OHMM) 2000.0000

600

Figure C32

(05/96) C-45
Introduction to Openhole Logging

COMPENSATED NEUTRON LITHODENSITY (NO PEF CURVE)

FILE 2

BS SANDSTONE
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

CALI DPHI
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000 0.6000 (V/V) 0.0000

GR NPHI
0.0000 (GAPI) 150.0000 0.6000 (V/V) 0.0000

600

Figure C33

(05/96) C-46
 Schlumberger

BOREHOLE COMPENSATED SONIC

FILE 2

BS
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

CALI
125.0000 (MM) 375.0000

GR DT
0.0000 (GAPI) 150.0000 500.0000 (US/M) 100.0000

600

Figure C34

(05/96) C-47
Introduction to Openhole Logging

COMPENSATED NEUTRON - LITHO DENSITY (WITH PE)

C2(MM ) DRHO(K/M3)
125.00 375.00 -250.0 250.00
BS1 PEF
125.00 375.00 0.0 10.000
CALI(MM ) NPHI(V/V )
125.00 375.00 .45000 -.1500
GR(GAPI) DPHI(V/V )
0.0 150.00 .45000 -.1500

LIMESTONE

CP 32.6 FILE 4 05-JUN-1992 11:42

INPUT FILE(S) CREATION DATE

1 05-JUN-1992 08:58

1/240

1925

DRHO---
---PEF
NPHI---
DPHI---
---BS1
---CALI
---GR

1950

Figure C35
(05/96) C-48