Chapter 12

The Laws of Thermodynamics

Chapter Outline
12.1 Work in Thermodynamic Processes (p. 402)
KEY TERMS: work, isobaric process, PV diagram
Example 12.1: Work Done by an Expanding Gas (p. 404)
Example 12.2: Work and PV Diagrams (p. 405)
12.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics (p. 406)
KEY TERMS: first law of thermodynamics, molar specific heat at constant
volume
Example 12.3: Heating a Gas (p. 407)
12.3 Thermal Processes (p. 408)
Table 12.1: Molar Specific Heats of Various Gases (p. 409)
Isobaric Processes (p. 409)
Example 12.4: Expanding Gas (p. 410)
Adiabatic Processes (p. 411)
Example 12.5: Work and an Engine Cylinder (p. 412)
Example 12.6: An Adiabatic Expansion (p. 412)
Isovolumetric Processes (p. 413)
KEY TERMS: isovolumetric process
Example 12.7: An Isovolumetric Process (p. 413)
Isothermal Processes (p. 414)
Example 12.8: An Isothermally Expanding Balloon (p. 415)
General Case (p. 416)
Example 12.9: A General Process (p. 416)
Table 12.2: The First Law and Thermodynamic Processes (Ideal Gases) (p.
417)
12.4 Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics (p. 417)
KEY TERMS: heat engine, cyclic process, thermal efficiency (e)
Example 12.10: The Efficiency of an Engine (p. 419)
Example 12.11: Analyzing an Engine Cycle (p. 419)
Refrigerators and Heat Pumps (p. 421)
Example 12.12: Cooling the Leftovers (p. 422)
The Second Law of Thermodynamics (p. 423)
KEY TERMS: second law of thermodynamics
Reversible and Irreversible Processes (p. 423)
KEY TERMS: reversible process, irreversible process
The Carnot Engine (p. 424)
KEY TERMS: Carnot cycle, Carnot’s theorem, third law of thermodynamics
Example 12.13: The Steam Engine (p. 426)
12.5 Entropy (p. 426)
KEY TERM: entropy
Example 12.14: Melting a Piece of Lead (p. 427)
Example 12.15: Ice, Steam, and the Entropy of the Universe (p. 428)
Example 12.16: A Falling Boulder (p. 429)

41
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42 The Laws of Thermodynamics Chapter 12

Entropy and Disorder (p. 429)

KEY TERM: degradation of energy
Table 12.3: Possible Results of Drawing Four Marbles from a Bag (p. 430)
12.6 Human Metabolism (p. 432)
Measuring the Metabolic Rate ΔU/Δt (p. 432)
KEY TERM: metabolic rate (ΔU/Δt)
Table 12.4: Oxygen Consumption and Metabolic Rates for Various
Activities for a 65-kg Male (p. 433)
Metabolic Rate, Activity, and Weight Gain (p. 433)
KEY TERM: basal metabolic rate
Example 12.17: Fighting Fat (p. 433)
Physical Fitness and Efficiency of the Human Body as a Machine (p. 434)
Table 12.5: Physical Fitness and Maximum Oxygen Consumption Rate (p.
434)
Table 12.6: Metabolic Rate, Power Output, and Efficiency for Different
Activities (p. 434)

Chapter Objectives
In this chapter, students will investigate the relationship between heat exchange,
internal energy changes, and work done by a thermodynamic system.

12.1 Calculate the work done on an ideal gas during various thermodynamic
processes by analyzing PV diagrams.
12.2 Explain how the first law of thermodynamics is related to the principle of
conservation of energy. Use the first law of thermodynamics to describe and
calculate the relationship between internal energy and work. Describe degrees of
freedom and the molar specific heat of a gas.
12.3 Describe the four basic types of thermal processes, and be able to distinguish
each on a PV diagram.
12.4 Explain how a heat engine works and how the second and third laws of
thermodynamics guide the maximum efficiency of a heat engine. Distinguish
between reversible and irreversible processes. Describe the Carnot cycle, and
calculate the maximum efficiency of a Carnot engine between any two energy
reservoirs.
12.5 Define the principle of entropy, citing examples, and be able to calculate the
change in entropy for various physical systems.
12.6 Relate the laws of thermodynamics to human metabolism.

Lesson Plan for AP* Physics 1

AP* Physics 1 Curriculum Framework Components: Chapter 12

None.

The content from Chapter 12 is outside any specific components of the AP Physics 1
Curriculum Framework.

*AP and Advanced Placement Program are registered trademarks of the College Entrance Examination
Board, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.

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Chapter 12 The Laws of Thermodynamics 43

Suggested Time for AP Physics 1

None.

Lesson Plan for AP* Physics 2

AP* Physics 2 Curriculum Framework Components: Chapter 12

LO 5.B.2.1 [SPs 1.4 and 2.1]

LO 5.B.4.1 [SPs 6.4 and 7.2]
LO 5.B.5.6 [SPs 4.2 and 5.1]
LO 5.B.7.1 [SPs 6.4 and 7.2]
LO 5.B.7.2 [SP 1.1]
LO 5.B.7.3 [SPs 1.1, 1.4, and 2.2]
LO 7.B.1.1 [SP 6.2]
LO 7.B.2.1 [SP 7.1]

Suggested Time for AP Physics 2

10-12 traditional classes or 5-6 blocks. Students often times struggle with the theoretical
nature of chapter 12, so additional time may be required here for understanding. Plan to
emphasize various PV diagrams to get students comfortable using them, for they often
appear on the AP exam. Section 12.6 (Human Metabolism) is an application section that
may be omitted.

Assessment
Quick Quizzes:
12.1 (p. 404)
12.2 (p. 417)
12.3 (p. 425)
12.4 (p. 427)
12.5 (p. 431)

Quick Quiz answers: Text p. A.36 (answers with explanations, IM p. 402)

Warm-Up Exercises: Text pp. 437–438 (odd-numbered answers, Text p. A.36; answers
with explanations, IM pp. 402–406)

Conceptual Questions: Text p. 438 (odd-numbered answers, Text pp. A.36–A.37; even-
numbered answers, IM1 pp. 406–407)

Problems: Text pp. 438–444 (odd-numbered answers, Text p. A.37; even-numbered

answers, IM pp. 407–409; solutions, IM pp. 409–433)

Test Bank: Chapter 12 available on the Instructor's Companion Website

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44 The Laws of Thermodynamics Chapter 12

Study Tips
Tip 12.1 Work Done on Versus Work Done by
Work done on the gas is labeled W. That definition focuses on the internal energy of the
system. Work done by the gas, say on a piston, is labeled Wenv, where the focus is on
harnessing a system's internal energy to do work on something external to the gas. W
and Wenv are two different ways of looking at the same thing. It's always true that
W = −Wenv.

Tip 12.2 Dual Sign Conventions

Many physics and engineering textbooks present the first law as ΔU = Q − W, with a
minus sign between the heat and the work. The reason is that work is defined in these
treatments as the work done by the system rather than on the gas, as in our treatment.
Using our notation, this equivalent first law would read: ΔU = Q − Wenv.

Tip 12.3 Don’t Shop for a Carnot Engine

The Carnot engine is only an idealization. If a Carnot engine were developed in an effort
to maximize efficiency, it would have zero power output because for all of the processes
to be reversible, the engine would have to run infinitely slowly.

Tip 12.4 Entropy ≠ Energy

Don’t confuse energy and entropy. Although the names sound similar the concepts are
different.

Tip 12.5 Don’t Confuse the W’s

The symbol W used here is a probability, not to be confused with the same symbol used
for work.

2015 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or part.