UNIT 3: Problem Solving and Reasoning (6 hours)

INTRODUCTION

Everyday in our life , whether we’re students, a parent, an ordinary person, a business
person, or the president of the country, we always face so many problems that need
solving. For example, you want to buy your favorite pair of shoes but you don’t have
enough money, or you want to travel from one place to another by taking the shortest
distance , if possible. Whether the problem is big or small, we all set our objectives for
ourselves, face hardships, and make every effort to overcome them. But you might not
know is there’s an easy way to arrive repeatedly at effective and satisfying solutions.
There is a common and essential way to answering problems, and that is through
problem solving.

But why do we really need to learn problem solving?

In this chapter, problem solving, its benefits and the different strategies that can be
used to solve problems will be discussed.

Problem solving begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an

exploration of patterns (in nature and the environment) and as an application of
inductive and deductive reasoning. By exploring these topics, students are encouraged
to go beyond the typical understanding of mathematics as merely a bunch of formulas,
but as a source of aesthetics in patterns of nature, for example, and a rich language in
itself (and of science) governed by logic and reasoning.

Learning outcomes

Upon the completion of this unit, you are expected to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about mathematics and
mathematical concepts.
2. Write clear and logical proofs.
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four step.
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.
 TOPIC 1: Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

1. define inductive and deductive reasoning;

2. use different types of reasoning;
3. write clear and logical proofs.

Presentation of contents

Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
What kind of thinking is used when solving problems?
Inductive or deductive?

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining

specific examples.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according
to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.

Example 1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in each of the
following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the most probable next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3.
It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than
the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next
number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

EXAMPLE No. 2

If the original number is 2, then 2 x 9 + 15 - 5 = 6 which is three times the original number.
3
If the original number is 7, then 7 x 9 + 15 – 5 = 21 which is three times the original number.
3
If the original number is – 12 then - 12 x 9 + 15 - 5 = 36 which is three times the original number.
3
It appears, by inductive reasoning, that the procedure produces a number that is three times the original number.

Solution:
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) used inductive reasoning to
discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum,
depends on the length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums in
“heartbeats.” The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. For the sake of
convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.
Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats
1 1
4 2
9 3

Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning.

Specific Examples Conclusion

The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or
may not be correct.
Examples

1. A baby cries, then cries, then cries to get a milk.

We conclude that if a baby cries, he/she gets a milk.

2. Here is a sequence of numbers: 3, 6, 9, 12 ____ What is the 5th number?

We can easily conclude that the next number is 15.

You are asked to find the 6th and 7th term in the sequence:
1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ______ , _____
The first two numbers differ by 2. The 2nd and 3rd numbers differ by 3. The next difference is 4, then 5. So, the
next difference will be 6 and Thus the 6th term is 15+ 6 = 21 while the 7th is21 + 7 = 28.
Take note!
1. Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list.
2. We use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure.
Make a conjecture about the example 2 and 3 in the previous example…

Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement if and only if it is true in all cases. If you can find
one case for which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement
is a false statement. In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false statement
by finding a counterexample for each.

Topic 2. Polya’s four steps in problem solvin

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

1. define the terms and concept in problem solving;
2. identify the four steps of Polya in problem solving;

Presentation of Content
What is a problem?
Generally, it is a situation you want to change!
A problem is a situation that conforms the learner, that requires resolution, and for which the path of the answer
is not immediately known. There is an obstacle that prevents one from setting a clear path to the answer.
What is a Problem Solving
Problem Solving has been defined as higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of
more routine or fundamental skills" (Goldstein & Levin, 1987).

A. Understanding Reasoning
Mathematical reasoning refers to the ability of a person to analyze problem situations and construct logical
arguments to justify his process or hypothesis, to create both conceptual foundations and connections, in
order for him to be able to process available information

Pólya’s How to Solve It

George Pólya was a great champion in the field of teaching effective problem solving skills. He was born in Hungary
in 1887, received his Ph.D. at the University of Budapest, and was a professor at Stanford University (among other
universities). He wrote many mathematical papers along with three books, most famously, “How to Solve it.” Pólya
died at the age 98 in 1985.1

1. Image of Pólya by Thane Plambeck from Palo Alto, California (Flickr) [CC

In 1945, Pólya published the short book How to Solve It, which gave a four-step method for solving mathematical
problems:
First, you have to understand the problem.
Second, After understanding, then make a plan.
Third, Carry out the plan.
Fourth, Look back on your work. How could it be better?
This is all well and good, but how do you actually do these steps?!?! Steps 1. and 2. are particularly mysterious!
How do you “make a plan?” That is where you need some tools in your toolbox, and some experience to draw
upon.
Much has been written since 1945 to explain these steps in more detail, but the truth is that they are more art
than science. This is where math becomes a creative endeavor (and where it becomes so much fun). We will
articulate some useful problem solving strategies, but no such list will ever be complete. This is really just a start to
help you on your way. The best way to become a skilled problem solver is to learn the background material well,
and then to solve a lot of problems!

FOUR STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

How do we perform Problem Solving?
To be able to solve problem systematically, we follow the four basic steps enunciated by George Polya in
1945 though all of these steps where known already and used well before then. The ancient Greek mathematicians
like the Euclid and Pythagoras certainly knew how it was done.
Four Steps in Problem Solving
1. Understand the Problem
First you have to understand the problem. Study the essential mathematical concepts by considering the
terminology and notation used in the problem. Rephrase the problem in your own words, if needed. Then
write down specific example of the condition given in the problem. Ask yourself these questions:
a. What kind of a problem is it?
b. What is the known?
c. What information is given?
d. What do the terms mean?
e. Is this enough information or is more information needed?
f. What is or are the conditions in the problem? Is possible to satisfy the condition/s? Is/Are the
condition sufficient to determine the unknown?

2. Devise a Plan
First find the link between the data and the unknown. You must start somewhere, so try something. But if
an immediate connection cannot be found, then it would be necessary to consider more problems. You
should obtain eventually a plan of the solution. Think of ways on how you are going to attack the
problem, that is, try using strategies that could help you solve the problem.

Here are some of the possible strategies that can used:

1. Identify a Sub-goal
2. Making a Table
3. Make an organized List (Tree Diagram, Venn Diagram)
4. Making an illustration/Drawing
5. Eliminating Possibilities
6. Writing an Equation/ Using a Variable
7. Solving a simpler version of the problem
8. Trial and Error / Guest and Check
9. Work Backwards
10. Look for a Pattern/s

3. Carry out the Plan

As soon as you have an idea for the solution of the problem, write it down instantly then carry out
your plan of the solution. Just make sure that each step in the solution is logically correct. However, if the
plan does not seem to be working well, then start over again then try another strategy. Sometimes, the
first approach will not work. But do not worry because if the strategy does not work, it does not mean you
did wrong. It could be that there is more appropriate strategy that you can use for the particular
problem. Remember, the secret here is to keep trying until something works.
 4. Look Back
Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works. Ask the following to yourself:
1. Did you answer the question?
2. Is your result reasonable?
Then, double check your solution to make sure that all of the conditions related to a problem
are satisfied. Make sure that any computation involved in finding your solution is correct. If you find that
your solution does not work or satisfy the problem, there may only be a simple mistake. Try to fix or
modify your existing solution before disregarding it. Remember what you tried- I is likely that at least part
of it will end up useful.
Another way of checking your solution is to make of another concepts or formulas or given
strategies to solve the problem.
If the answer that you will get using that new concept, formula or strategy is the same as you first
attempt, then it means that your answer is right. Remember, there are different way of solving a
problem

3. Problem solving strategies

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

a. understand the problem ;
b. make a plan to a problem ;
c. carry out the plan; and
d. looking back of the problem;
e. Solve problems involving problem solving strategies.

Problem solving strategies

Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
Ancient mathematicians such as Euclid and Pappus were interested in solving mathematical
problems, but they were also interested in heuristics, the study of the methods and rules of discovery and
invention. In the seventeenth century, the mathematician and philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650)
contributed to the field of heuristics. He tried to develop a universal problem-solving method. Although he did not
achieve this goal, he did publish some of his ideas in Rules for the Direction of the Mind and his better-known work
Discourse de la Methode.
Another mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646– 1716), planned to write a book on
heuristics titled Art of Invention. Of the problem solving process, Leibnitz wrote, “Nothing is more important than
to see the sources of invention which are, in my opinion, more interesting than the inventions themselves.” One of
the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985). He was
born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated
consisted of the following four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. looking back of the problem or review the solution.
HERE WE GO!
Problem Solving Strategy 1 (Guess and Test)
Make a guess and test to see if it satisfies the demands of the problem. If it doesn't, alter the guess appropriately
and check again. Keep doing this until you find a solution.
Example 1:
Mr. Jones has a total of 25 chicken and cows on his farm. How many of each does he have if all together there are
76 feet?

Step 1: Understanding the problem

We are given in the problem that there are 25 chickens and cows.
All together there are 76 feet.
Chickens have 2 feet and cows have 4 feet.
We are trying to determine how many cows and how many chickens Mr. Jones has on his farm.

Step 2: Devise a plan

Going to use Guess and test along with making a tab
Many times the strategy below is used with guess and test.
Make a table and look for a pattern:
Procedure: Make a table reflecting the data in the problem. If done in an orderly way, such a table will often reveal
patterns and relationships that suggest how the problem can be solved.

Step 3: Carry out the plan:

Chickens Cows Number of chicken feet Number of cow feet Total number of feet

20 5 40 20 60

21 4 42 16 58

Notice we are going in the wrong direction! The total number of feet is decreasing!
19 6 38 24 62

Better! The total number of feet are increasing!

15 10 30 40 70

12 13 24 52 76

Step 4: Looking back:

Check: 12 + 13 = 25 heads
24 + 52 = 76 feet.
We have found the solution to this problem. I could use this strategy when there are a limited number of possible
answers and when two items are the same but they have one characteristic that is different.

Example 2: illustrate the technique of using an organized list.

Apply Polya’s Strategy (make an organized list)
A baseball team won two out of their four games. In how many different orders could they have two win and two
losses in four games?
Solution
Understand the Problem there are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games and lost
the last two(WWLL). Or they may lost the first two games and won the last two(LLWW). Of course there are other
possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a Plan we will make an organized list of all possible orders. An organized list is a list that is produce using a
system that ensures that each of the different order will be listed once and only once.
Carry out the Plan Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a strategy that makes sure
each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will
produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W. Then and only then
do we write L.This strategy produces the six different orders shown below.
1. WWLL(start with two wins)
2. WLWL(Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL(Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW(Start with two losses)
Review the Solution we have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list consider all possibilities,
so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly win two out of four
games.
Example 3. Magic Square Problem (magic squares are squares grids which are to be arrangement of numbers in
them. These numbers are special because every row, column and diagonal adds up to the same number.)
Arrange the numbers from 1 to 9 in a 3x3 magic square so that the sum of every row, column and diagonal adds up
to the same number.
Solution:
Sep 1: Understanding the Problem
Remember that we have the number 1 to 9 which are to be arranged in square subdivided into nine
smaller squares, where each small square contains a different number. Then we have to make sure that the sum of
every row, column and diagonal adds up to the same number.
Step 2: Devising a Plan
Take note that for the square to be a magic square, we must first know what the common sum is. Thus,
our subgoal is to find that common sum. (Therefore, the strategy that we will use here is identifying a subgoal
strategy.)
Step 3: Carrying Out the Plan
First, we find the common sum. Note that the sum of the nine numbers is 45.
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 45
Notice also that 45 is 3 times the sum of one row or column. (why do you think so?)
Next, we find the common sum by dividing the sum of the nine numbers, 45, by 3. So, we get 15 as the
common sum.
Then we decide as to what number is to be placed in each square. Try dividing the common sum by 3
(Oops, this is not true for all magic squares). Now place this at the center most square(figure a). Next, place the
other numbers in the remaining squares such that the even numbers will occupy the corner squares(figure b) and
the odd numbers, the middle squares (figure c). You can do trial and error on this. So our magic square would look
like this (figure d):
2 6 7 2 7 6
5 5 9 5 1 9 5 1
4 8 3 4 3 8

( Note :There are other possible answers here. Try finding the others.)
Step 4; Looking back
Now we have to check if our answer is reasonable. To do this , we have to examine if the sum of the
numbers in each row, column and diagonal adds up to 15. Hence we have,
 ROW COLUMN DIAGONAL

2 + 7 + 6 = 15 2 + 9 + 4 = 15 2 + 5 + 8 = 15

9 + 5 + 1 = 15 7 + 5 + 3 = 15 6 + 5 + 4 = 15

4 + 3+ 8 = 15 6 + 1 + 8 = 15

Since all rows, column, and diagonals sum up to 15, then this means that our answer is correct
and reasonable.

Topic 3. Mathematical problems Involving patterns

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

a. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational
Problems.

PRESENTATION OF CONTENTS
Definition: A sequence is a pattern involving an ordered arrangement of numbers.
We first need to find a pattern.
Ask yourself as you search for a pattern – are the numbers growing steadily larger? Steadily smaller? How is each
number related?

Example 1: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13…

Find the next 2 numbers. The pattern is each number is increasing by 3. The next two numbers would be 16 and
19.

Example 2: 1, 4, 9, 16 … find the next 2 numbers. It looks like each successive number is increase by the next odd
number. 1 + 3 = 4.
4+5=9
9 + 7 = 16
So the next number would be
16 +9 = 25
25 + 11 = 36

Example 3: 10, 7, 4, 1, -2… find the next 2 numbers.

In this sequence, the numbers are decreasing by 3. So the next 2 numbers would be -2 -3 = -5
-5 – 3 = -8

Example 4: 1, 2, 4, 8 … find the next two numbers.

This example is a little bit harder. The numbers are increasing but not by a constant. Maybe a factor?
1x2=2
2x2=4
4 x 2 =8
So each number is being multiplied by 2.
8 x 2 = 16
16 x 2 = 32

Problem Solving Strategy 6 (Make a List)

Example 1: Can perfect squares end in a 2 or a 3?
List all the squares of the numbers 1 to 20.
1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 225 256 289 324 361 400.
Now look at the number in the ones digits. Notice they are 0, 1, 4, 5, 6, or 9. Notice none of the perfect squares
end in 2, 3, 7, or 8. This list suggests that perfect squares cannot end in a 2, 3, 7 or 8.
Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as
5, 14, 27, 44, 65, . . .
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas arethe terms of the sequence. In
the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the secondterm, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is
the fifth term. The three dots “ ” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last written term. It
is customary to use the subscript notation to designate the nth term of a sequence. That is,
a1 represents the first term of a sequence.
a2 represents the second term of a sequence.
a3 represents the third term of a sequence.
.

an represents the nth term of a sequence.

In the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, …, n2 + n,…

a1 =2, a2 =6, a3 =12, a4 =20 , a5 =30, and an = n2 + n,

When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

■ What is the next term?
■ What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

To answer these questions we often construct a difference table, which shows the differences between
successive terms of the sequence. The following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14,…

Sequence: 2 5 8 11 14 …

First difference 3 3 3 3 … (1)

Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the two closest numbers just above it (upper
right number minus upper left number). The differences in row (1) are called the first differences of the
sequence. In this case the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the above difference table to predict
the next number in the sequence, we predict that is the next term of the sequence. This prediction might be
wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first differences seems to indicate that each successive term is 3 larger
than the preceding term.
The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …

sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 …
first differences: 9 13 17 21 … (1)

second differences: 4 4 4 … (2)

In this table the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is often helpful to compute the
successive differences of the first differences. These areshown in row (2). These differences of the first differences
are called the second differences. The differences of the second differences are called the third differences.
To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of differences. For instance, in the
following table, the second differences shown in blue are all the same constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues,
then a 4
would also be the next second difference, and we can extend the table to the right as shown.
sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 …

first differences: 9 13 17 21 … (1)

second differences: 4 4 4 … (2)

Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to produce the next first difference, 25.We then
add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90 is the next term in the sequence. This process can be
repeated to predict additional
terms of the sequence.

sequence: 5 14 27 44 65 90 …

first differences: 9 13 17 21 25 … (1)

second differences: 4 4 4 4 … (2)

EXAMPLE 1 ■ Predict the Next Term of a Sequence

Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207,…

Solution

Construct a difference table as shown below.

sequence: 2 7 24 59 118 207 332 …

first differences: 5 17 35 59 89 125 … (1)

second differences: 12 18 24 30 36 … (2)

third difference 6 6 6 6 … (3)

The third differences, shown in blue, are all the same constant, 6. Extending this row so that it includes an
additional 6 enables us to predict that the next second difference will be 36. Adding 36 to the first difference 89
gives us the next first difference, 125.Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields 332.Using the method of extending
the difference table, we predict that 332 is the next term in the sequence.
TAKE NOTE

Recall that the numbers 1, 2, 3, are called or .We will

often use the letter to represent an arbitrary natural number.

nth Term Formula for a Sequence

In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict the next term of a sequence. In some cases we can use patterns
to predict a formula, called an nth term formula, that generates the terms of a sequence. As an example, consider
the formula an =3n2 + n . This formula defines a sequence and provides a method for finding any term of the
sequence. For instance, if we replace n with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, then the formula an =3n2 + n generates the
sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the 40th term, replace each n with 40.

a40 = 3 (40)2 + 40 = 4840

In Example 2 we make use of patterns to determine an nth term formula for a

sequence given by geometric figures.

EXAMPLE 2 ■ Find an nth Term Formula

Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.
a. What is the nth term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles ?

Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the horizontal sections
and one tile between the horizontal sections. The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal section and two
tiles between the horizontal sections. The fourth figure has four tiles on each horizontal section and three tiles
between the horizontal sections.

Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n plus a group of n less one. That is,
an = 2n + ( n – 1 )
an = 3n – 1

b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 3 (8) – 1 =23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the equation
3n – 1 = 320

3n – 1 = 320
3n = 321 . Add 1 to each side
n = 107 . Divide each side by 3

The 107th figure is composed of 320 tiles.