Chapter 5

Motion Control

1 @VLC-2019
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
Point to point motion is applied for some kinds of robots such
as: point welding, packaging,… In this type of motion, we
only take into account the position of the beginning, ending
points and time of motion.
➢ Problem:
𝑞
We have to determine the rule of
𝑞𝑓
change of the angular q between
the initial position 𝑞𝑖 and the
𝑞𝑖 finally position 𝑞𝑓 in the time
interval 0, 𝑡𝑓 .
0 𝑡𝑓 𝑡

Assuming that 𝐽𝑀 : inertial moment of motor

2 @VLC-2019
𝑇𝑀 : torque of motor
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
Note that the problem has plenty of solutions. Therefore, we
include an optimal criterion: the least consuming energy
➢ Mathematic description:
𝐽𝑀 𝜔ሶ = 𝑇𝑀
𝑡 (5.1)
where ‫׬‬0 𝑓 𝜔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞𝑖
𝑡𝑓
subjec to: ‫׬‬0 TM 2𝑑𝑡 → 𝑀𝐼𝑁
The general solution has the following form:
𝜔 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝑏𝑡 + 𝑐 (5.2)
Then the motion trajectory will be the third order form:
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑎3 𝑡 3 + 𝑎2 𝑡 2 + 𝑎1 𝑡 + 𝑎0 (5.3)
3 @VLC-2019
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
The velocity will follow the second order form:
𝑞ሶ 𝑡 = 3𝑎3 𝑡 2 + 2𝑎2 𝑡 + 𝑎1 (5.4)
And the acceleration changes w.r.t. the first order rule
𝑞ሷ 𝑡 = 6𝑎3 𝑡 + 2𝑎2 (5.5)

We need to determine 4 coefficients: 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 . We have

the following equations:
𝑎0 = 𝑞𝑖
𝑎1 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑖
(5.6)
𝑎3 𝑡𝑓3 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑓2 + 𝑎1 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎0 = 𝑞𝑓
3𝑎3 𝑡𝑓2 + 2𝑎2 𝑡𝑓 + 𝑎1 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑓

4 @VLC-2019
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
For example: 𝑞𝑖 = 0, 𝑞𝑓 = 𝜋, 𝑡𝑓 = 1 ; the initial and final
velocity 𝑞ሶ 𝑖 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑓 = 0
From the above equations, we find the solutions:
𝑎0 = 𝑎1 = 0
𝑎2 = 3𝜋, 𝑎3 = −2π

The velocity gets the its maximum value:

𝑞ሶ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3𝜋/2, when 𝑡 = 1/2

And the acceleration gets its the maximum value:

𝑞ሷ 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 6𝜋, when 𝑡 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 1

The disadvantage of this rule is the maximum accelerations at

5 the initial and final point.
@VLC-2015
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑞

3𝜋 𝑞𝑓
𝑞𝑚

0 𝑞𝑖
0
𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 0 1
𝑞ሶ
𝑡𝑐 𝑡𝑚 𝑡𝑓

3𝜋/2 3𝜋/2

𝑞ሶ 𝑐

𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 1 𝑞ሷ 𝑡𝑐 𝑡𝑓
𝑞ሷ 𝑐
6𝜋
𝑡𝑓
𝑡𝑐
6 −6𝜋 −𝑞ሷ 𝑐
@VLC-2019
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
The famous trajectory that is usually used in most industrial
controllers is Blended Polynomial with the trapezoidal
velocity.
Assuming that 𝑞ሶ 𝑖 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑓 = 0 , the time of acceleration and
deceleration is equal. We have:
𝑞𝑚 = (𝑞𝑓 +𝑞𝑖 )/2, at 𝑡𝑚 = 𝑡𝑓 /2 (5.7)

In order to guarantee the trajectory is continuous, the velocities

at the transition points have to be smooth. That means:
𝑞𝑚 − 𝑞𝑐 (5.8)
𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡𝑐 =
𝑡𝑚 − 𝑡𝑐
where, 𝑞𝑐 is the position at the time 𝑡𝑐 when the motor
accelerates at 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2 )
7 @VLC-2019
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
We have:
1 (5.9)
𝑞𝑐 = 𝑞𝑖 + 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡𝑐 2
2

From Eq. (4.8) & (4.9), we got:

𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡𝑐2 − 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡𝑓 𝑡𝑐 + 𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞𝑖 = 0 (5.10)

Given 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 , 𝑡𝑓 , 𝑞𝑖 , 𝑞𝑓 , finding 𝑡𝑐 ≤ 𝑡𝑓 /2, we have:

𝑡𝑓 1 𝑡𝑓2 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 − 4(𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞𝑖 ) (5.11)

𝑡𝑐 = −
2 2 𝑞ሷ 𝑐
4 𝑞𝑓 −𝑞𝑖
where, 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 ≥ (5.12)
𝑡𝑓2
4 𝑞𝑓 −𝑞𝑖 𝑡𝑓 (5.13)
It is obvious that if 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 = , 𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑚 =
8 @VLC-2015 𝑡𝑓2 2
 5.1 Point-to-Point Control
Therefore, given 𝑞𝑖 , 𝑞𝑓 and 𝑡𝑓 , from Eq. (4.12) we calculate
and choose 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 , then calculate 𝑡𝑐 from Eq. (4.11). Finally, the
trajectory is determined by a piecewise function
1
𝑞𝑖 + 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡 2 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑐
2
𝑡𝑐
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑖 + 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡𝑐 𝑡 − 𝑡𝑐 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑐 (5.14)
2
1 2
𝑞𝑓 − 𝑞ሷ 𝑐 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑐 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡𝑓
2
Example: Determine the Blended Polynomial trajectory in
order to control the position of the motor in 20 rounds within
2s. The rated speed is 2000 (RPM).

9 @VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
❖ Step motor
The motor step angle: 𝛼; position: 𝜃; and speed 𝜔 are given by
2𝜋
𝛼= (𝑟𝑎𝑑)
𝑝𝑝𝑟
𝜃 = 𝑛𝛼 (𝑟𝑎𝑑) (5.15)
𝛼
𝜔= (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
𝜏𝑑
where 𝑛 is the number of pulses
𝜏𝑑 is the delay time
To rotate a stepper motor at a constant speed, pulses must be
generated at a steady rate
10 @VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
➢ Linear speed ramp
To start and stop the stepper motor in a smooth way, control of
the acceleration and deceleration is needed. Figure in previous
section shows the relation between acceleration, speed and
position.
The time delay 𝜏𝑑 between the stepper motor pulses controls
the speed. These time delays must be calculated in order to
make the speed of the stepper motor follow the speed ramp as
closely as possible.
Discrete steps control the stepper motor motion, and the
resolution of the time delay between these steps is given by
the frequency of the timer.
11 @VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
ω

Assuming that the time

delay is generated by a
timer with a frequency
1
𝑓𝑡 (Hz), 𝜏𝑡 = (s)
𝑓𝑡

0 𝜏𝑑0 t1 𝜏𝑑1 t2 𝜏 t3 t4 t
𝑑2

We have: 𝜏𝑑0 = 𝑐0 𝜏𝑡
𝜏𝑑1 = 𝑐1 𝜏𝑡 (5.16)

12 @VLC-2019
𝜏𝑑2 = 𝑐2 𝜏𝑡
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
The position at the time 𝑡 is given by equation:
𝑡
1 2
𝜃 𝑡 = න 𝜔ሶ 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝜔𝑡
ሶ
0 2
Assuming that 𝜃 𝑡 is corresponding to the n’th pulse, then
1 2
𝜃 𝑡 = 𝜔𝑡 ሶ 𝑛 = 𝑛𝛼
2
2𝑛𝛼
⇒ 𝑡𝑛 = (5.17)
𝜔ሶ
And the time delay between two steps is:
2𝛼 (5.18)
𝑐𝑛 𝜏𝑡 = 𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 = ( 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛)
13 @VLC-2019 𝜔ሶ
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
Finally the expression for the counter delay is found:
1 2𝛼 (5.19)
𝑐𝑛 = ( 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛)
𝜏𝑡 𝜔ሶ

When 𝑛 = 0:
1 2𝛼
𝑐0 =
𝜏𝑡 𝜔ሶ (5.20)

⇒ 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐0 ( 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛)

In order to reduce the burden of calculations, we use the Taylor

series approximation
14 @VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
𝑐𝑛 𝑐0 ( 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛) 4𝑛 − 1
= ≈
𝑐𝑛−1 𝑐0 ( 𝑛 − 𝑛 − 1) 4𝑛 + 1
Finally,
2𝑐𝑛−1
⇒ 𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑛−1 − (5.21)
4𝑛 + 1

This calculation is much faster than the double square root, but
introduces an error at n =1. A way to compensate for this error
is by multiplying 𝑐0 with 0,676.

15 @VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
❖ DC servo motor
A trajectory generation algorithm is essential for optimum
motion control. A linear piecewise velocity trajectory is
implemented in this application.
▪ For a position move, the velocity is incremented by a
constant acceleration value until a specified maximum
velocity is reached.
▪ The maximum velocity is maintained for a required amount
of time and then decremented by the same acceleration
(deceleration) value until zero velocity is attained.
▪ The velocity trajectory is therefore trapezoidal for a long
move and triangular for a short move where maximum
velocity was not reached.
16
@VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
velocity

velocity
long
limit
short move
Slope = move
Accel. time
limit

▪ The SetMove subroutine is invoked once at the beginning of

a move to calculate the trajectory limits.
▪ The DoMove routine is then invoked at every sample time
to calculate new “desired” velocity and position values as
follows (from Eq. (4.14))
17
@VLC-2019
 5.2 Application for Step and DC motors
𝑣𝑘 = 𝑣𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙. 𝑇
1 (5.22)
𝑞𝑘 = 𝑞𝑘−1 + 𝑣𝑘−1 𝑇 + 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙. 𝑇 2
2
In position mode, the actual shape of the velocity profile
depends on the values of velocity, acceleration, and the size of
the movement.
The block diagram of position controller

Trajectory 1
Kp PI DC
Generator 𝑠

Velocity feedback

Position feedback
18
@VLC-2019
 5.3 Continuous Path Motion
In many applications, the servo systems (Robots, CNC) have
to be controlled in a predefined continuous path.
𝑞

𝑞2 𝑞𝑁 = 𝑞𝑓
Π2 ⋯
Π1 𝑞3 Π3

𝑞1 = 𝑞𝑖 ⋯

𝑡1 = 0 𝑡2 𝑡3 𝑡𝑁 = 𝑡𝑓
The problem is to determine the trajectory that goes through N
path points with the constraint conditions. There are three
19
cases that usually use in trajectory generator:
@VLC-2019
 5.3 Continuous Path Motion
▪ The velocities, 𝑞ሶ 𝑡 , at the path points are predetermined
▪ The velocities, 𝑞ሶ 𝑡 , at the path points are calculated by a
specific criterion.
▪ Guarantee the continuity of acceleration, 𝑞ሷ 𝑡 , at the path
points.
For example, in the case of the velocities are predetermined
Assuming that the trajectory has N path points, then the third
order polynomial is adopted to interpolate two adjacent points
( 𝑞𝑘 , 𝑞𝑘+1 ) . Each polynomial has to satisfy the following
conditions:
Π𝑘 𝑡𝑘 = 𝑞𝑘
Π𝑘 𝑡𝑘+1 = 𝑞𝑘+1 (5.23)
Πሶ 𝑘 𝑡𝑘 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑘
20 Πሶ 𝑘 𝑡𝑘+1 = 𝑞ሶ 𝑘+1
@VLC-2019
 5.4 Interpolation
5.4.1 Introduction
A CNC machine generally has more than two controlled axes
to machine complex shapes. Two kinds of control can be
carried out:
▪ The point-to-point control method is used to move along
the axis to the desired position
▪ The contour control method is used to move along an
arbitrary curve

In order to execute these control methods successfully, tool

movement should be divided into components corresponding
to each axis; the locus of the tool is created through
combining the individual displacement for the axis.
21
@VLC-2019
 5.4.1 Introduction

For example, if a tool move

The basis concept of an interpolator
from point 𝑃1 to 𝑃2 at feed-
rate 𝑉𝑓 in the X-Y plane, the
interpolator divides the
overall movement into
individual displacements
along the X, Y axes based
on the pre-defined feed-rate.

The interpolator can be classified as either a hardware

interpolator or a software interpolator by considering the
implementation method.
22
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
In this section, the concepts and the flowcharts for the DDA
algorithm, the Stairs Approximation algorithm, and the Direct
Search algorithm will be addressed. These are typical
algorithms for the reference-pulse method.
❖ DDA Interpolator
DDA Interpolator bases on the principle of a numerical
integration. The concept of integration is shown below
𝑉 Given the velocity function
𝑉(𝑡)
𝑉(𝑡), the displacement 𝑆(𝑡)
can be approximated by
∆𝑉
summing the areas of the thin
𝑡 rectangles beneath the
23 ∆𝑡 velocity curve:
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
𝑡 𝑘

𝑆 𝑡 = න 𝑉 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 ≅ ෍ 𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑡 (5.24)
0 𝑖=1

If the displacement at time 𝑡 = 𝑘∆𝑡 is defined as 𝑆𝑘 , we have:

𝑘−1

𝑆𝑘 = ෍ 𝑉𝑖 ∆𝑡 + 𝑉𝑘 ∆𝑡 (5.25)
𝑖=1
Or: 𝑆𝑘 = 𝑆𝑘−1 + ∆𝑆𝑘 (5.26)
where, ∆𝑆𝑘 = 𝑉𝑘 ∆𝑡 (5.27)
➢ DDA interpolation
DDA interpolation calculates the displacement and velocity of
24 each axis based on part shape and command velocity.
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
𝑌
End point 𝑃1 (𝐴, 𝐵) Flowchart of linear
interpolation
𝐵
𝐴
Starting point
𝑋
Linear interpolation

𝐿= 𝐴2 + 𝐵 2
𝑄1 = 0, 𝑄2 = 0

25
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
𝑌
End point
Flowchart of circular
interpolation
R

𝐴 𝐵
Starting point
𝑋
Circular interpolation
(𝑋 − 𝑅)2 +𝑌 2 = 𝑅2
𝑋 = 𝑅 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 , 𝑌 = 𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 : the center position when the
start point of the circle is the origin of
26
the coordinate system
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator

Result of interpolation
using DDA algorithm

❖ Stairs Approximation Interpolator

Given a curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with the initial point 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and
the final point 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥𝑛 , 𝑦𝑛 ). According to X axis, the curve will
27
be divided into 𝑛 − 1 parts equally as the following figure:
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
𝑦
𝑃𝑛
At the i’th increment in
𝑃2 𝑃3
𝑦2 direction of X axis, the
𝑃1 corresponding increment
𝑦1 𝑦𝑛−1 𝑦𝑛
in direction of Y axis is:
∆𝑦𝑖 = 𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦𝑖 (4.28)
𝑥
∆𝑥
The error of this approximation is the sum of the areas of the
thin triangles beneath the trajectory f(x)
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝐴 = σ𝑛−1𝑖=1 (𝑦𝑖+1 − 𝑦 𝑖 ) = (𝑦𝑛 − 𝑦1 ) (5.29)
2 2

28
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
In this section, the Stars Approximation interpolator for a
circle will be addressed and the algorithm for a line can be
easily determined from the algorithm for a circle.
Assuming the the tool reaches
the position (𝑋𝑘 , 𝑌𝑘 ) after the
𝑘 𝑡ℎ iteration. In this algorithm,
the variable 𝐷𝑘 is calculated by:
𝐷𝑘 = 𝑋𝑘2 + 𝑌𝑘2 − 𝑅2 (5.30)

The direction of a step is determined based on 𝐷𝑘 . For

example, if the circular movement is carried out in a clockwise
direction in the first quadrant, the executed algorithm is:
29
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
1. 𝐷𝑘 < 0: this case mean that the position (𝑋𝑘 , 𝑌𝑘 ) is located
on the inside of a circle and, in this case, the step moves in
the positive direction of X-axis.
2. 𝐷𝑘 > 0: this case mean that the position (𝑋𝑘 , 𝑌𝑘 ) is located
on the outside of a circle and, in this case, the step moves
in the negative direction of Y-axis.
3. 𝐷𝑘 = 0: One of the above rules can be arbitrarily selected
and applied

After one step is completed, the position (𝑋𝑘+1 , 𝑌𝑘+1 ) is

updated and the procedure repeated until the tool reaches the
final point (𝑋𝑓 , 𝑌𝑓 )
30
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
The following table shows the displacement values for the
eight cases of the Stairs Approximation algorithm.

The above algorithm need numerous iterations. Therefore, an

improved algorithm is proposed by adding one more index
into Eq. (4.30)
𝐷𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑋𝑖2 + 𝑌𝑗2 − 𝑅2 (5.31)
where i, j denote the number of steps along the X-axis and
31 Y-axis respectively
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
When one step is added along the X-axis, we have:

𝐷𝑖+1,𝑗 = (𝑋𝑖 +1)2 + 𝑌𝑗2 − 𝑅2

= 𝐷𝑖,𝑗 + 2𝑋𝑖 + 1
= 𝐷𝑖,𝑗 + ∆𝑋𝑖 (5.32)
∆𝑋𝑖+1 = ∆𝑋𝑖 + 2 (5.33)

Flowchart for Stairs Approximation

interpolation algorithm
32
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
Example:

𝑋0 , 𝑌0 = (0,10)
𝑋𝑓 , 𝑌𝑓 = (10,0)
𝐷𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑋𝑖2 + 𝑌𝑗2 − 102
33
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
❖ Direct Search
One of the weaknesses of the Stairs Approximation algorithm
is that plenty of iterations are required. Furthermore, possible
error conditions are not considered when the interpolated
position is decided.
The Direct Search algorithm carries out optimal interpolation
because the algorithm searches through all possible directions
and finds a direction with the minimum path error.
Basically, the Direct Search algorithm is very similar to the
Stairs Approximation. However, the Direct Search algorithm
considers the simultaneous movement of axes based on path
error
34
@VLC-2019
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
The 𝐷𝑖,𝑗 for each case is
evaluated and the case with
smallest absolute value is
selected for movement. The
flowchart of the Direct
Search for clockwise
circular movement in the
first quadrant.
Increasing 1 BLU for X-axis
Decreasing 1 BLU for Y-axis
Increasing 1 BLU for X-axis
and simultaneously decreasing
35
1 BLU for Y-axis
 5.4.2 Reference Pulse Interpolator
Example:

𝑋0 , 𝑌0 = (0,10)
𝑋𝑓 , 𝑌𝑓 = (10,0)
𝐷𝑖,𝑗 = 𝑋𝑖2 + 𝑌𝑗2 − 102
36
@VLC-2019
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
In the Sampled-Data interpolation method, the interpolation is
executed in two stages:
▪ In the first stage, an input contour is segmented into straight
line segments within an allowable tolerance (rough
interpolation)
▪ In the second stage, the approximating line segments are
interpolated and the interpolation result sent to the related
axis (fine interpolation)
The Euler method, Taylor method, and Tustin method are
typical algorithms for rough interpolation.
The Sampled-Data method is typical for modern CNC due to
its adequacy for high speed machining.
37
@VLC-2019
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
❖ Reference Word Interpolator for Lines
In the reference word algorithm, linear interpolation is very
simple compared to circular interpolation. The concept and
flowchart for linear interpolation are illustrated as follow:

38
@VLC-2015
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
The fundamental idea of this algorithm is segmentation of the
path by the interpolation time, 𝑇𝑖𝑝𝑜 . At each sampling time the
interpolated point can be defined:
𝑥𝑖+1 = 𝑥𝑖 + ∆𝑥 𝑦𝑖+1 = 𝑦𝑖 + ∆𝑦 (5.34)
where, 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑥𝑠
∆𝑥 = ∆𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ∆𝐿 (5.35)
𝐿
𝑦𝑒 − 𝑦𝑠
∆𝑦 = ∆𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ∆𝐿 (5.36)
𝐿
∆𝐿 = 𝑉𝑇𝑖𝑝𝑜 (5.37)
The total number of iterations for the interpolation is defined:
𝐿 (5.38)
39
𝑁 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡
@VLC-2019 ∆𝐿
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
❖ Reference Word Interpolator for Circles
During circular interpolation, tangential velocity, V should be
held on the circular path. The individual velocity of the axes is
defined by equations:
𝑉𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(𝑡) (5.39)
𝑉𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑡) (5.40)
where,
𝑉𝑡
𝜃(𝑡) = (5.41)
𝑅
In the reference word interpolator for a circle, a circular path
is approximated by small line segments. The larger the
number of line segments, the better the accuracy of
40 interpolation (the more computation power and iteration)
@VLC-2019
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator

The iteration step can be

expressed using the angle 𝛼 .
The size of this angle is a key
factor for interpolation.
Therefore, various algorithms
have been proposed to
determine angle 𝛼

The mathematical relationship between two successive

interpolated points:
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖 + 1 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(𝑖)
41
(5.42)
@VLC-2019 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 + 1 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑖)
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
where,
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
(5.43)
𝜃 𝑖+1 =𝜃 𝑖 +𝛼
The final position of the segment 𝑋 𝑖 + 1 , 𝑌 𝑖 + 1 can be
approximated as equations:
𝑋 𝑖 + 1 = 𝑅 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(𝑖 + 1)
(5.44)
𝑌 𝑖 + 1 = 𝑅 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃(𝑖 + 1)
From Eq. (4.42) & (4.44), we have:
𝑋 𝑖 + 1 = 𝐴𝑋 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑌(𝑖)
(5.45)
𝑌 𝑖 + 1 = 𝐴𝑌 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑌(𝑖)
42
@VLC-2019
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
Reference word interpolation algorithms depend on the above
equations and the differences between algorithms are the
methods used to determine angle 𝛼 and how to approximate A
and B
Using Eq. (4.45), the length of the line segment and the
velocities are computed:
𝐷𝑋 𝑖 = 𝑋 𝑖 + 1 − 𝑋 𝑖 = (𝐴 − 1)𝑋 𝑖 − 𝐵𝑌(𝑖)
(5.46)
𝐷𝑌 𝑖 = 𝑌 𝑖 + 1 − 𝑌 𝑖 = 𝐴 − 1 𝑌 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑋(𝑖)
𝐷𝑋(𝑖) 𝐷𝑌(𝑖)
𝑉𝑥 (𝑖) = 𝑉 𝑉𝑦 (𝑖) = 𝑉 (5.47)
𝐷𝑆(𝑖) 𝐷𝑆(𝑖)
where,
43
@VLC-2015
𝐷𝑆 𝑖 = 𝐷𝑋 2 𝑖 + 𝐷𝑌 2 (𝑖)
 4.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
➢ Radial Error (ER) and Chord Height Error (EH)
Two kind of an error occur when a circle is approximated by
line segments, as show in the below figure:

𝐸𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑅 𝑖 − 𝑅 (5.48)
= 𝑋2 𝑖 + 𝑌2 𝑖 − 𝑅
ER error is accumulated with
iteration. At the 𝑖𝑡ℎ iteration, ER
can be computed approximately
using:
𝐸𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝐶 − 1 𝑅
(5.49)
where, C = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2
44
@VLC-2015
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
➢ Radial Error (ER) and Chord Height Error (EH)
Unlike ER, chord height error, EH, is not accumulated. EH is
computed using:
𝐸𝐻 𝑖 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑖 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 (5.50)
1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 1+𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 = =
2 2
Then,
1+𝐴
𝐸𝐻 𝑖 = 𝑅 − 𝑅(𝑖) (5.51)
2
Based on the above equations, 𝛼 should be determined such
45 that the value of ER or EH does not exceed 1 BLU
@VLC-2019
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator
➢ Euler Algorithm
In Euler algorithm, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 are approximated by first-
order Taylor series expansion. Then,
𝐴 = 1, 𝐵 = 𝛼 (5.52)
𝜋
𝐸𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 + 𝛼2 − 1 𝑅
2𝛼
𝜋
(5.53)
𝐸𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≅ 𝛼𝑅 (for small 𝛼)
4
➢ Taylor Algorithm
1 2 (5.54)
𝐴 = 1 − 𝛼 ,𝐵 = 𝛼
2
𝜋 1 4
𝐸𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1 + 𝛼 − 1 𝑅 ≅ 𝜋𝑅𝛼 3 /16 (5.55)
46
@VLC-2019 2𝛼 4
 5.4.3 Sampled-Data Interpolator

1 4 𝛼2
𝐸𝐻(𝑖) = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑖 1 − 𝛼 = 𝑅 − 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑅(𝑖) (5.56)
4 8
𝛼2 (5.57)
𝐸𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝑅
8
➢ Tustin Algorithm

1 − 𝛼 Τ2 2 𝛼
𝐴= 2
,𝐵 = 2
(5.58)
1 + 𝛼 Τ2 1 + 𝛼 Τ2
𝐸𝑅 𝑖 = 0 (5.59)
𝑅
47
𝐸𝐻 𝑖 = 𝑅 − (5.60)
@VLC-2019 1 + 𝛼 Τ2 2