Class 19 (Annotated) 21-11-24

Preliminaries Low-speed Turning Off-tracking Error Steady-state Handling
MECH 4006: Vehicle Engineering I
Lecture 12:
Cornering
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Carleton University

c R.G. Langlois
Sections in text: 5.0–5.2
1
Outline
Preliminaries
Low-speed Turning
Off-tracking Error
Steady-state Handling
2
Learning Outcomes
Students should be able to:

1. Understand and apply the concept of Ackerman geometry.
2. Calculate off-tracking error.
3. Understand the derivation of the various forms of the steady-state

handling equation.
4. Define and be able to evaluate the understeer coefficient and predict

the effect that changes in vehicle configuration and operating
conditions will have on the understeer coefficient.
3
Steering Geometry
T.D. Gillespie. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1992.
• At very low speed (e.g. parking manoeuvres) lateral accelerations on

the vehicle are relatively low
• Therefore, tires need not develop large lateral forces
• Tires roll with effectively no slip angles
• Cornering behaviour is governed by geometry 4
Steering Geometry
• Assume R L
• Inner wheel steer angle δi is
L L
tan δi = =
r R − B/2
• Outer wheel steer angle δo is
L L
tan δo = =
r +B R + B/2
• For small steer angles
L
δi ≈
R − B/2
L J.Y. Wong.Theory of Ground Vehicles. John Wiley &
δo ≈ Sons, Inc., New York, New York, United States, 3rd
R + B/2 edition, 2001.
5
Steering Geometry (cont’d)

• Recall trigonometry where if tan A = χ ⇒ cot A = 1
χ
• Similarly
R − B/2
cot δi =
L
R + B/2
cot δo =
L
• Subtraction of these two yields
B
cot δo − cot δi =
L
• When the steering angles of the front wheels exactly satisfy this
equation, no tire scrubbing or tread wear occurs and the condition is
called Ackerman steering or Ackerman geometry
6
Ackerman Geometry
• The Ackerman angle is the average of the two wheel steer angles
δ = (δo + δi )/2
L L
= ( + )/2
R + B/2 R − B/2
(R − B/2)L + (R + B/2)L
= /2
(R + B/2)(R − B/2)
RL − BL/2 + RL + BL/2
=
2(R 2 − B 2 /4)
2RL
=
2(R 2 − B 2 /4)
RL
=
R 2 − B 2 /4
• Recognizing that R 2 B 2 /4 results in simplification such that the

Ackerman angle is given by
L
δ = [rad]
R
180 L
δ = [deg]
π R 7
Ackerman Geometry (cont’d)
• Most practical steering linkages attempt to achieve Ackerman

geometry though this is never completely achieved with a
mechanical linkage
• Error curves can be constructed to show how closely δo follows the

ideal relationship for a complete range of δi
• Error between actual and ideal steering
• Does adversely affects tread wear
• Does not significantly affect directional response
• Does affect centring torque in the steering system
8

• Consider the case of parallel steer shown below
D.Bastow, G. Howard, and J.P. Whitehead.Car Suspension and Handling. Professional Engineering Publishing, London, United
Kingdom, 4th edition, 2004.
• Inner wheel operates at a negative slip angle and develops negative

cornering force thereby increasing turning radius
• Pneumatic trail of the outer wheel decreases with increasing steering
angle thereby resulting in a decreasing steering wheel torque 9
J.Y. Wong.Theory of Ground Vehicles. John Wiley & Sons,

Inc., New York, New York, United States, 3rd edition, 2001.
• Actual implementations of steering geometry usually achieves a

wheel steer angle relationship between the ideal Ackerman
relationship and parallel steer
• Parallel steer results in decreasing steering wheel torque at high steer
angles that is highly undesirable from a feedback and control
perspective
10
Off-tracking Error
• Off-tracking error ∆
indicates the distance
between inner and outer
wheel tracks while cornering
• From geometry
∆ = Rf − Rr
L
= Rf − Rf cos
R
L
= R 1 − cos
R
• Using a cosine expansion

2 4
cos A = 1 − A2! + A4! − . . .
∆ may be further simplified
T.D. Gillespie. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. Society of
2 Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1992.
L 1
∆ = R 1−1+
R 2
• Bigger vehicles (greater L)
L2
=
2R
/ have larger off-tracking error
11
Steady-state Handling
T.D. Gillespie. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1992.
• At moderate and high vehicle speeds, cornering is affected by the

centrifugal force acting on the vehicle (but not the inertia moment
as this only applies to transient behaviour)
• All tires must develop slip angles and resulting cornering forces to
generate the required lateral acceleration 12
Bicycle Model
• Consider a bicycle model of a four-wheel vehicle where the two front
wheels are represented by a single wheel having twice the cornering
stiffness and similarly with the rear wheels
J.Y. Wong.Theory of Ground Vehicles. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, New York, United States, 3rd edition, 2001. 13
Bicycle Model (cont’d)

• Assume R L
• Consider geometry to determine inscribed angle θ
θ = αr + δf − αf
• Solve for the Ackerman steer angle (i.e. front steer angle)
δf = θ + αf − αr
• An alternative expression for θ can be found from
L
L = Rθ ⇒ θ=
R
• Upon substitution
L
δf = + αf − αr [rad] J
R | {z }
rad
¡6-¿or
L
δf = 57.3 + αf − αr [deg] J
R | {z }
deg 14

• The steer angle δf = f (L, R, αf , αr ) where αf and αr themselves
depend upon the lateral acceleration
• Consider yaw equilibrium about the rear wheel
X W V2
MA +ve = 0 ⇒ −LFyf + l2 =0
g R
W V 2 l2 l2
⇒ Fyf = = may (1)
g R L L
• Consider yaw equilibrium about the front wheel

X
MB +ve = 0
W V 2 l1 l1
⇒ Fyr = = may (2)
g R L L
15

• Consider vertical-plane equilibrium
• Note Wf & Wr apply to each of two wheels per axle

• Use a moment balance about the rear wheel to determine the front
wheel vertical load
X
MC +ve = 0 ⇒ 2Wf L − l2 W = 0
l2 W l2 2Wf
⇒ Wf = or = (3)
2L L W
• Repeat about the front wheel to determine the rear wheel load
l1 W l1 2Wr
Wr = or = (4)
2L L W
16

• Substituting Equation 3 into Equation 1 results in the front
cornering force
W V 2 2Wf V2
Fyf = = 2Wf (5)
g R W gR
• Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 2 results in the rear cornering

force
W V 2 2Wr V2
Fyr = = 2Wr (6)
g R W gR
• Recall that for small slip angles the linear relationship between
cornering force and slip angle exists such that
2 wheels
z }| {
Fyf = 2Cαf αf (7)
Fyr = 2Cαr αr (8)
17

• Combining expressions for Fyf (Equations 5 and 7) leads to
V2 Wf V 2
2Wf = 2Cαf αf ⇒ αf = (9)
gR Cαf gR
• Combining expressions for Fyr (Equations 6 & 8) leads to
V2 Wr V 2
2Wr = 2Cαr αr ⇒ αr = (10)
gR Cαr gR
where
Wf
Cαf is the front cornering compliance
Wr
Cαr is the rear cornering compliance
V2
gRis the lateral acceleration in units of g
• Cornering compliance is a measure of the slip angle per g of lateral
acceleration
18

• Substitution of Equations 9 and 10 into the expression for δf
L
δf = + αf + αr
R
L Wf V 2 Wr V 2
= + −
R C f gR C gR
| α{z } | αr{z }
αf αr
2
L Wf Wr V
= + − [rad] (11)
R Cαf Cαr gR
| {z } |{z}
ay
Kus g

N lbf
where Cαf has units of rad or rad
• Alternatively stated
Wr V 2

L Wf
δf = 57.3 + − [deg ] (12)
R Cαf Cαr gR

N lbf
where Cαr has units of deg or deg 19

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Preliminaries Low-speed Turning Off-tracking Error Steady-state Handling

MECH 4006: Vehicle Engineering I

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Sections in text: 5.0–5.2

Students should be able to:

2. Calculate off-tracking error.

3. Understand the derivation of the various forms of the steady-state

4. Define and be able to evaluate the understeer coefficient and predict

• At very low speed (e.g. parking manoeuvres) lateral accelerations on

Steering Geometry (cont’d)

• Subtraction of these two yields

• Recognizing that R 2  B 2 /4 results in simplification such that the

Ackerman Geometry (cont’d)

• Most practical steering linkages attempt to achieve Ackerman

• Error curves can be constructed to show how closely δo follows the

• Error between actual and ideal steering

• Does adversely affects tread wear

• Does not significantly affect directional response

• Does affect centring torque in the steering system

Ackerman Geometry (cont’d)

• Inner wheel operates at a negative slip angle and develops negative

Ackerman Geometry (cont’d)

J.Y. Wong.Theory of Ground Vehicles. John Wiley & Sons,

• Actual implementations of steering geometry usually achieves a

• Using a cosine expansion

• At moderate and high vehicle speeds, cornering is affected by the

Bicycle Model (cont’d)

Bicycle Model (cont’d)

• Consider yaw equilibrium about the front wheel

Bicycle Model (cont’d)

• Note Wf & Wr apply to each of two wheels per axle

Bicycle Model (cont’d)

• Substituting Equation 4 into Equation 2 results in the rear cornering

Bicycle Model (cont’d)

• Combining expressions for Fyr (Equations 6 & 8) leads to

Bicycle Model (cont’d)

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• Recognizing that R 2 B 2 /4 results in simplification such that the