UNIT 1

CHAPTER 1 – FUNDAMENTALS OF DIGITAL LOGIC

Laws of Boolean Algebra

Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates and circuits. We can use these
“Laws of Boolean” to both reduce and simplify a complex Boolean expression in an attempt to
reduce the number of logic gates required. Boolean Algebra is therefore a system of mathematics
based on logic that has its own set of rules or laws which are used to define and reduce Boolean
expressions.

The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible values, a logic “0” and a logic
“1” but an expression can have an infinite number of variables all labelled individually to represent
inputs to the expression, for example, variables A, B, C etc, giving us a logical expression of A + B = C,
but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or a 1.

Examples of these individual laws of Boolean, rules and theorems for Boolean Algebra are given in
the following table.

Truth Tables for the Laws of Boolean

Boolean Equivalent Boolean Algebra

Description
Expression Switching Circuit Law or Rule

A in parallel with
A+1=1 Annulment
closed = “CLOSED”

A in parallel with
A+0=A Identity
open = “A”

A in series with
A.1=A Identity
closed = “A”
 A in series with
A.0=0 Annulment
open = “OPEN”

A in parallel with
A+A=A Idempotent
A = “A”

A in series with
A.A=A Idempotent
A = “A”

NOT NOT A
NOT A’ = A   Double Negation
(double negative) = “A”

A in parallel with
A + A’ = 1 Complement
NOT A = “CLOSED”

A in series with
A . A’ = 0 Complement
NOT A = “OPEN”

A in parallel with B =

A+B = B+A Commutative
B in parallel with A

A in series with B =

A.B = B.A Commutative
B in series with A
 invert and replace OR with
A’+B’ = A’.B’ AND
  de Morgan’s Theorem

invert and replace AND with

A’.B’ = A’+B’ OR
  de Morgan’s Theorem

The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to the Commutative Law allowing a change in position
for addition and multiplication, the Associative Law allowing the removal of brackets for addition
and multiplication, as well as the Distributive Law allowing the factoring of an expression, are the
same as in ordinary algebra.

Each of the Boolean Laws above are given with just a single or two variables, but the number of
variables defined by a single law is not limited to this as there can be an infinite number of variables
as inputs too the expression. These Boolean laws detailed above can be used to prove any given
Boolean expression as well as for simplifying complicated digital circuits.

A brief description of the various Laws of Boolean is given below with A representing a variable
input.

Description of the Laws of Boolean Algebra

Annulment Law – A term AND ‘ed with a “0” equals 0 or OR ‘ed with a “1” will equal 1

A . 0 = 0 - A variable AND ’ed with 0 is always equal to 0

A+1=1- A variable OR ‘ed with 1 is always equal to 1

Identity Law – A term OR ‘ed with a “0” or AND ‘ed with a “1” will always equal that term

A + 0 = A - A variable OR ’ed with 0 is always equal to the variable

A . 1 = A - A variable AND ‘ed with 1 is always equal to the variable

Idempotent Law – An input that is AND ‘ed or OR ‘ed with itself is equal to that input

A + A = A - A variable OR ‘ed with itself is always equal to the variable

A . A = A - A variable AND ‘ed with itself is always equal to the variable

Complement Law – A term AND ‘ed with its complement equals “0” and a term OR ‘ed with its
complement equals “1”

A . A’ = 0 - A variable AND ‘ed with its complement is always equal to 0

A + A’ = 1 - A variable OR ‘ed with its complement is always equal to 1

Commutative Law – The order of application of two separate terms is not important

A . B = B . A - The order in which two variables are AND ‘ed makes no difference

A+B=B+A - The order in which two variables are OR ‘ed makes no difference

Double Negation Law – A term that is inverted twice is equal to the original term

A’’ = A - A double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable

de Morgan’s Theorem – There are two “de Morgan’s” rules or theorems,

(1) Two separate terms NOR ‘ed together is the same as the two terms inverted (Complement) and
AND ‘ed for example: A’+B’ = A’. B’

(2) Two separate terms NAND ‘ed together is the same as the two terms inverted (Complement) and
OR ‘ed for example: A’. B’ = A’ + B’

Other algebraic Laws of Boolean not detailed above include:

 Boolean Postulates – While not Boolean Laws in their own right, these are a set of
Mathematical Laws which can be used in the simplification of Boolean Expressions.

o 0 . 0 = 0    A 0 AND ‘ed with itself is always equal to 0

o 1 . 1 = 1    A 1 AND ‘ed with itself is always equal to 1

o 1 . 0 = 0    A 1 AND ’ed with a 0 is equal to 0

o 0 + 0 = 0    A 0 OR ‘ed with itself is always equal to 0

 o 1 + 1 = 1    A 1 OR ’ed with itself is always equal to 1

o 1 + 0 = 1    A 1 OR ‘ed with a 0 is equal to 1

o 1 = 0    The Inverse (Complement) of a 1 is always equal to 0

o 0 = 1    The Inverse (Complement) of a 0 is always equal to 1

 Distributive Law – This law permits the multiplying or factoring out of an expression.

o A(B + C) = A.B + A.C    (OR Distributive Law)

o A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + C)    (AND Distributive Law)

 Absorptive Law – This law enables a reduction in a complicated expression to a simpler one
by absorbing like terms.

o A + (A.B) = (A.1) + (A.B) = A(1 + B) = A  (OR Absorption Law)

o A(A + B) = (A + 0).(A + B) = A + (0.B) = A  (AND Absorption Law)

 Associative Law – This law allows the removal of brackets from an expression and regrouping
of the variables.

o A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C    (OR Associate Law)

o A (B.C) = (A.B)C = A . B . C    (AND Associate Law)

Boolean Algebra Functions

Using the information above, simple 2-input AND, OR and NOT Gates can be represented by 16
possible functions as shown in the following table.

Function Description Expression

1. NULL 0

2. IDENTITY 1

3. Input A A

4. Input B B
5. NOT A A’

6. NOT B B’

7. A AND B (AND) A . B

8. A AND NOT B A . B’

9. NOT A AND B A’ . B

10. NOT AND (NAND) A ‘. B’

11. A OR B (OR) A + B

12. A OR NOT B A + B’

13. NOT A OR B A’ + B

14. NOT OR (NOR) A’ + B’

15. Exclusive-OR A . B’ + A’ . B

16. Exclusive-NOR A . B + A’ . B’

Laws of Boolean Algebra Example No1

Using the above laws, simplify the following expression:  (A + B)(A + C)

Q= (A + B).(A + C)  

  A.A + A.C + A.B + B.C  – Distributive law

  A + A.C + A.B + B.C  – Idempotent AND law (A.A = A)

  A(1 + C) + A.B + B.C  – Distributive law

  A.1 + A.B + B.C  – Identity OR law (1 + C = 1)

  A(1 + B) + B.C  – Distributive law

  A.1 + B.C  – Identity OR law (1 + B = 1)

Q= A + (B.C)  – Identity AND law (A.1 = A)

Then the expression: (A + B)(A + C) can be simplified to A + (B.C) as in the Distributive Law.

EXAMPLE 2

Y = BAC’+B’AC’+B.C’

Y = AC’(B+B’) +BC’

Y = AC’ (1) + BC’

Y = AC’+BC’

Y = (A+B).C’ // DISTRIBUITVE LAW

EXAMPLE 3

Y = AB+AB’

Y = A (B+B’)

Y = A (1)

Y=A
EXAMPLE 4

Y = AB+AB’C+AB’C’

Y = A(B+B’C+B’C’)

Y = A(B+C) + B’C’) // USING DISTRIBUTIVE LAW

Y = A(B+C’+C) // USING DISTRIBUITVE LAW

Y = A(B+1)

Y=A

Sum of Product

The Sum of Product expression is equivalent to the logical AND function which Sums two or more
Products to produce an output.

AND Gate (Product)

Unlike conventional mathematics which uses a Cross (x), or a Star (*) to represent a multiplication

action, the AND function is represented in Boolean multiplication by a single “dot” (.). Thus the
Boolean equation for a 2-input AND gate is given as: Q = A.B, that is Q equals both A AND B. For a
product term these input variables can be either “true” or “false”, “1” or “0”, or be of a
complemented form, so A.B, A.B or A.B are all classed as product terms.

The Product (AND) Term

So we now know that in Boolean Algebra, “product” means the AND’ing of the terms with the
variables in a product term having one instance in its true form or in its complemented form so that
the resulting product cannot be simplified further. These are known as minterms. So how can we
show the operation of this “product” function in Boolean Algebra.

A product term can have one or two independent variables, such as A and B, or it can have one or
two fixed constants, again 0 and 1. We can use these variables and constants in a variety of different
combinations and produce a product result as shown in the following lists.

Boolean Algebra Product Terms

Variable only

 A . 0 = 0

 A . 1 = A

 A . A = A

 A . A = 0
 Constants Only

 0 . 0 = 0

 0 . 1 = 0

 1 . 0 = 0

 1 . 1 = 1

Note that a Boolean “variable” can have one of two values, either “1” or “0”, and can change its
value. For example, A = 0, or A = 1 whereas a Boolean “constant” which can also be in the form of a
“1” or “0”, is a fixed value and therefore cannot change.

Then we can see that any given Boolean product can be simplified to a single constant or variable
with a brief description of the various Boolean Laws given below where “A” represents a variable
input.

 Annulment Law – A term AND ‘ed with 0 is always equal to 0 (A.0 = 0)

 Identity Law – A term AND ‘ed with 1 is always equal to the term (A.1 = A)

 Idempotent Law – A term AND ‘ed with itself is always equal to the term (A.A = A)

 Complement Law – A term AND ‘ed with its complement is always equal to 0 (A.A’ = 0)

 Commutative Law – The order in which two terms are AND ‘ed is the same (A.1 = 1.A)

The Sum (OR) Term

While the AND function is commonly referred to as the product term, the OR function is referred to

as a sum term. The OR function is the mathematical equivalent of addition which is denoted by a
plus sign, (+). Thus a 2-input OR gate has an output term represented by the Boolean expression
of A+B because it is the logical sum of A and B.

OR Gate (Sum)

This logical sum is known commonly as Boolean addition as an OR function produces the summed
term of two or more input variables, or constants. We will look at the OR function and Boolean
addition in more detail in the next tutorial, but for now we will remember that an OR function
represents the Sum Term.

Sum of Products

So, we have seen that the AND function produces the logical product of Boolean multiplication, and
that the OR function produces the logical sum of Boolean addition. But when dealing with
combinational logic circuits in which AND gates, OR gates and NOT gates are connected together,
the expressions of Sum-of-Products and Product-of-Sums are widely used.
The Sum of Product (SOP) expression comes from the fact that two or more products (AND) are
summed (OR) together. That is the outputs from two or more AND gates are connected to the input
of an OR gate so that they are effectively OR ‘ed together to create the final AND-OR logical output.
For example, the following Boolean function is a typical sum-of-product expression:

Sum of Product Expression

Q = (A.B) + (B’.C) + (A.1)

and also

(A.B.C) + (A.C) + (B’.C’)

However, Boolean functions can also be expressed in nonstandard sum of products forms like that
shown below but they can be converted to a standard SOP form by expanding the expression. So:

Q = A.B’(C’ + C) + ABC

Becomes in sum-of-product terms:

Q = A.B’.C’ + A.B’.C + ABC

Actually, this large SOP expression can be reduced further using the laws of Boolean algebra to give
a reduced SOP expression of:

Q = A.B + A.C

Converting an SOP Expression into a Truth Table

We can display any sum-of-product term in the form of a truth table as each input combination that
produces a logic “1” output is an AND or product term as shown below.

Consider the following sum of product expression:

Q = A.B.C’ + A.B’.C + A’.B.C 

We can now draw up the truth table for the above expression to show a list of all the possible input
combinations for A, B and C which will result in an output “1”.

Sum of Product Truth Table Form

Inputs Output Product

C B A Q  

0 0 0 0  

0 0 1 0  

0 1 0 0  
 0 1 1 1 A.B.C’

1 0 0 0  

1 0 1 1 A.B’.C

1 1 0 1 A’.B.C

1 1 1 0  

Then we can clearly see from the truth table that each product row which produces a “1” for its
output corresponds to its Boolean multiplication expression with all of the other rows having a “0”
output as a “1” is always outputted from an OR gate.

Clearly the advantage here is that the truth table gives us a visual indication of the Boolean
expression allowing us to simplify the expression. For example, the above sum-of-product term can
be simplified to: Q = A.(B + B’.C) if required.

Sum-of-Product Example

The following Boolean Algebra expression is given as:

Q = A’(B’C + BC + BC’) + ABC

1. Convert this logical equation into an equivalent SOP term.

2. Use a truth table to show all the possible combinations of input conditions that will produces an
output.

SOLUTION 

1. Convert to SOP term

Q = A.B.C + A’.B’.C + A’.B.C + A’.B.C’

2. Truth Table

Sum of Product Truth Table Form

Inputs Output Product

C B A Q  

0 0 0 0  

0 0 1 0  
 0 1 0 1 A’.B.C’

0 1 1 0  

1 0 0 1 A’.B’.C

1 0 1 0  

1 1 0 1 A’.B.C

1 1 1 1 A.B.C

  

Then we have seen in this tutorial that the Sum-of-Products (SOP) expression is a standard Boolean
expression that “Sums” two or more “Products” and that for a digital logic circuit an SOP expression
takes the output of two or more logic AND gates and OR’s them together to create the final (AND-
OR) output.

Types of Sum Of Product (SOP) Forms

There are few different forms of Sum of Product.

1. Canonical SOP Form

2. Non-Canonical SOP Form
3. Minimal SOP Form

Canonical SOP Form

This is the standard form of Sum of Product. It is formed by O Ring the minterms of the function for
which the output is true. This is also known as Sum of Min terms or Canonical disjunctive normal
form (CDNF). It is just a fancy name. “canonical” means “standardized” and “disjunctive” means
“Logical OR union”.

Canonical SOP expression is represented by summation sign ∑ and minterms in the braces for which
the output is true.

For example, a functions truth table is given below.

Canonical SOP truth table

For this function the canonical SOP expression is

F = ∑( m1, m2, m3, m5 )

Which means that the function is true for the min terms {1, 2, 3, 5}.

By expanding the summation, we get.

F = m1 + m2 + m3 + m5

Now putting min terms in the expression

F = A̅ B̅C + A̅ BC̅ + A̅ BC + AB̅ C

Canonical form contains all inputs either complemented or non-complemented in its product terms.

Non-Canonical SOP Form

As the name suggests, this form is the non-standardized form of SOP expressions. The product terms
are not the min terms but they are simplified. Let’s take the above function in canonical form as an
example.

F = A̅ B̅C + A̅ BC̅ + A̅ BC + AB̅ C

F = A̅ B̅C + A̅ B(C̅ + C) + AB̅ C

F = A̅ B̅C + A̅ B(1) + AB̅ C

F = A̅ B̅C + A̅ B + AB̅ C

This expression is still in Sum of Product form but it is non-canonical or non-standardized form.
Minimal SOP Form

This form is the most simplified SOP expression of a function. It is also a form of non-canonical form.
Minimal SOP form can be made using Boolean algebraic theorems

Minimal SOP form is preferred because it uses the minimum number of gates and input lines. it is
commercially beneficial because of its compact size, fast speed, and low fabrication cost.

Let’s take an example of the function given above in canonical form.

Example

A B C F MIN TERMS
(small m)
0 0 0 0 M0
0 0 1 0 M1
0 1 0 1 M2
0 1 1 0 M3
1 0 0 1 M4
1 0 1 1 M5
1 1 0 1 M6
1 1 1 1 M7

SOP form for high values

A’BC’+AB’C’+AB’C+ABC’+ABC

Minterm is F (A,B,C) = m2+m4+m5+m6+m7

F= A’BC’+AB’C’+AB’C+ABC’+ABC

F= A’BC’+AB’ (C+C’)+AB (C+C’)

F=A’BC’+AB’+AB

F=A’BC’+A(B’+B)

F= A’BC’+A

F=A+BC’ - MINIMAL SOP FORM

Product of Sum

The Product of Sum expression is equivalent to the logical OR-AND function which gives the AND
Product of two or more OR Sums to produce an output

In POS we can also take the outputs of two or more OR gates and connect them as inputs to an AND
gate to produce a “Product of the Sum” (OR-AND logic) output.

In Boolean Algebra, the addition of two values is equivalent to the logical OR function thereby
producing a “Sum” term when two or more input variables or constants are “OR ‘ed” together. In
other words, in Boolean Algebra the OR function is the equivalent of addition and so its output state
represents the “Sum” of its inputs.

Product of Sum expressions are Boolean expressions made up of sums consisting of one or more
variables, either in its normal true form or complemented form or combinations of both, which are
then AND’ed together. If a Boolean function of multiple variables is expressed in Product-of-Sum
terms, then each term is called the max term. That is the variable is taken as a logic “0” as we will
see later. But first let us understand more what represents a Sum Term.

The Sum (OR) Term

While the AND function is commonly referred to as the Product term, the OR function is referred to
as a sum term. The OR function is the mathematical equivalent of addition which is denoted by a
plus sign, (+). Thus a 2-input OR gate has an output term represented by the Boolean expression of
A+B because it is the logical sum of A and B.

OR Gate (Sum)

This logical sum is known commonly as Boolean addition as an OR function produces the summed
term of two or more input variables, or constants. Thus, the Boolean equation for a 2-input OR gate
is given as: Q = A+B, that is Q equals both A OR B. For a sum term these input variables can be either
“true” or “false”, “1” or “0”, or be of a complemented form, so A+B, A+B or A+B are all classed as
sum terms.
So, we now know that in Boolean Algebra, “sum” means the OR’ing of the terms with the variables
in a sum term having one instance in its true uncomplemented form or in its complemented form so
that the resulting sum expression cannot be simplified any further. These sum terms are known as
maxterms, that is a max term is a complete sum of all the variables and constants with or without
inversion within the Boolean expression. So how can we show the operation of this “sum” function
in Boolean Algebra.

A sum term can have one or two independant variables, such as A and B, or it can have one or two
fixed constants, again 0 and 1. We can use these variables and constants in a variety of different
combinations producing a sum result as shown in the following lists.

Boolean Algebra Sum Terms

Variable

A+0=A

A+1=1

A+A=A

A+A=1

Constants Only

0+0=0

0+1=1

1+0=1

1+1=1

Note that a Boolean “variable” can have one of two values, either “1” or “0”, and can change its
value. For example, A = 0, or A = 1 whereas a Boolean “constant” which can also be in the form of a
“1” or “0”, is a fixed value and therefore cannot change.

Then we can see that any given Boolean sum can be simplified to a single constant or variable with a
brief description of the various Boolean Laws given below where “A” represents a variable input.

Identity Law – A term OR ‘ed with 0 is always equal to the term (A+0 = A)

Annulment Law – A term OR ‘ed with 1 is always equal to 1 (A+1 = 1)

Idempotent Law – A term OR ‘ed with itself is always equal to the term (A+A = A)

Complement Law – A term OR ‘ed with its complement is always equal to 1 (A+A’ = 1)

Commutative Law – The order in which two terms are OR ‘ed is the same (A+1 = 1+A)

The Product (AND) Term

While the OR function is commonly referred to as the sum term, the AND function is referred to as
the product term. The AND function is the mathematical equivalent of multiplication which is
denoted by a Cross (x), or a Star (*) sign. Thus a 2-input AND gate has an output term represented by
the Boolean expression of A.B because it is the logical product of A and B.
AND Gate (Product)

This logical product is known commonly as Boolean multiplication as the AND function produces the
multiplied term of two or more input variables, or constants. But for now, we will remember that
the AND function represents the Product Term.

Product of Sum

So, we have seen that the OR function produces the logical sum of Boolean addition, and that
the AND function produces the logical sum of Boolean multiplication. But when dealing with
combinational logic circuits in which AND gates, OR gates and NOT gates are connected together,
the expressions of Product-of-Sum is widely used.

The Product of Sum (POS) expression comes from the fact that two or more sums (OR’s) are added
(AND ‘ed) together. That is the outputs from two or more OR gates are connected to the input of
an AND gate so that they are effectively AND ‘ed together to create the final (OR AND) output. For
example, the following Boolean function is a typical product-of-sum expression:

Product of Sum Expressions

Q = (A + B).(B’ + C).(A + 1)

and also

(A + B + C).(A + C).(B + C) 

However, Boolean functions can also be expressed in nonstandard product of sum forms like that
shown below but they can be converted to a standard POS form by using the distributive law to
expand the expression with respect to the sum. Therefore:

Q = A + (B’C)

Becomes in expanded product-of-sum terms:

Q = (A + B’)(A + C)

Another nonstandard example is:

Q = (A + B’) + (A.C)

Becomes as an expanded product-of-sum expression:

Q = (A + B’ + A)(A + B’ + C)

which can, if required be reduced using distributive law and absorption law too:

Q = (A + B)(A + B + C)
Q = A + B’ + C

Q = A + B’

Converting an POS Expression into a Truth Table

We can display any product-of-sum term in the form of a truth table as each input combination that
produces a logic “0” output is an OR or sum term as shown below.

Consider the following product of sum expression:

Q = (A + B’ + C)(A + B’ + C)(A + B’ + C’)

We can now draw up the truth table for the above expression to show a list of all the possible input
combinations for A, B and C which will result in an output “0”

Product of Sum Truth Table Form

Inputs Output Product

C B A Q  

0 0 0 0 A + B + C

0 0 1 1  

0 1 0 0 A + B’ + C

0 1 1 1  

1 0 0 1  

1 0 1 1  

1 1 0 0 A + B’ + C’

1 1 1 1  

Then we can clearly see from the truth table that each row which produces a “0” for its output
corresponds to its Boolean addition expression with all of the other rows having a “1” output. The
advantage here is that the truth table gives us a visual indication of the Boolean expression allowing
us to simplify the expression remembering that a sum term produces a “0” output when all of its
inputs are equal to “0”. So, to make a sum term row equal to “0”, the we must invert all the inputs
which are equal to “1”.
Product-of-Sum Example

The following Boolean Algebra expression is given as:

Q = (A + B + C)(A + B’ + C)(A’ + B + C’)(A + B’ + C’)

1. Use a truth table to show all the possible combinations of input conditions that will produces a “0”
output.

1. Truth Table

Product of Sum Truth Table Form

Inputs Output Product

C B A Q  

0 0 0 0 A + B + C

0 0 1 1  

0 1 0 0 A + B’ + C

0 1 1 1  

1 0 0 1  

1 0 1 0 A’ + B + C’

1 1 0 0 A + B’ + C’

1 1 1 1  

Then we have seen in this tutorial that the Product-of-Sum (POS) expression is a standard Boolean
expression that takes the “Product” of two or more “Sums”. For a digital logic circuit, the POS
expression takes the output of two or more logic OR gates and AND’s them together to create the
final OR-AND logic output.

Max Term
Max term means the term or expression that is true for a maximum number of input combinations
or that is false for only one combination of inputs.

Since OR gate also gives false for only one input combination. So Maxterm is OR of either
complemented or non-complemented inputs.

Max terms for 3 input variables are given below.

Types of Product of Sum Forms

There are different types of Product of Sum forms.

 Canonical POS Form

 Non – Canonical Form

 Minimal POS Form

Canonical POS Form

It is also known as Product of Max term or Canonical conjunctive normal form (CCNF). Canonical
means standard and conjunctive means intersection.

In this form, Maxterms are AND together for which output is false.

Canonical POS expression is represented by ∏ and Maxterms for which output is false in brackets as
shown in the example given below.
F              =             ∏ (M0, M4, M6, M7)

Expanding the product

F              =             M0.M4.M6.M7

Putting Max terms

F              =             (A+B+C)(A̅+B+C)(A̅+B̅+C)(A̅+B̅+C)̅

The canonical form contains all inputs either complemented or non-complemented in its each Sum
term.

Non – Canonical Form

The product of sum expression that is not in standard form is called non-canonical form.

Let’s take the above-given function as an example.

F              =             (A+B+C)(A̅+B+C)(A̅+B̅+C)(A̅+B̅+C)̅

F              =             (B+C) (A̅+B̅+C)(A̅+B̅+C)̅

Same but inverted terms eliminate from two Max terms and form a single term to prove it here is an
example.

= (A+B+C) (A̅+B+C)

= AA̅+AB+AC+A̅B+BB+BC+A̅C+BC+CC

= 0+AB+AC+A̅B+A̅C+B+BC+C

= A(B+C)+A̅(B+C)+B(1+C)+C

= (B+C)(A+A̅)+B(1)+C

= (B+C)(0)+B+C
= B+C

The expression achieved is still in Product of Sum form but it is non-canonical form.

Minimal POS Form

This is the most simplified and optimized form of a POS expression which is non-canonical. Minimal
Product of Sum form can be achieved using Boolean algebraic theorems like in the non-canonical
example given above. Another method of achieving minimal POS form is by using Karnaugh map
which is comparatively easier than using Boolean algebraic theorems.

Minimal POS form uses less number of inputs and logic gates during its implementation, that’s why
they are being preferred over canonical form for their compact, fast and low-cost implementation.

Let’s take the above-given function as example

K-map of the function

Minimal expression using K-map

F = (B+C) (A̅+B̅)

The achieved expression is the minimal product of sum form.

SOLVED EXAMPLES ON K MAP

1) F=A+BC’

A B C C’ BC’ A+BC’
0 0 0 1 0 0 m0
0 0 1 0 0 0 m1
0 1 0 1 1 1 m2
0 1 1 0 0 0 m3
1 0 0 1 0 1 m4
1 0 1 0 0 1 m5
1 1 0 1 1 1 m6
1 1 1 0 0 1 m7
F= A’BC’+AB’C’+AB’C+ABC’+ABC

F= A’BC’+AB’(C’+C) + AB (C’+C)

F= A’BC’+AB’ (1) + AB (1)

F=A’BC’ + AB’+ AB

F= A’BC’ + A (B’+B)

F= A’BC’ + A (1)

F= A’BC’ + A // (Using Distributive Law Neglect A’)

F= A+BC’

BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 10 11
0 m0 m1 m2 m3

 For m0 and m1 only C is changing whereas A and B is zero for both, in adjacent cell only
one variable is changing.
 We cannot take m2 since both the variables B and C are changing.
 So that’s why we first consider m0, m1 then m3 should come since only B is changing and
C is constant; after m3 we need to place m2 since only C is changing.

BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 11 10
0 m0 m1 m3 m2
1 m4 m5 m7 m6

Here A = MSB and BC = LSB

From the table A+BC’ the K Map will be as follows

A BC BC BC BC
00 01 11 10
0 0 (m0) 0 (m1) 0 (m3) 1 (m2)
1 1 (m4) 1 (m5) 1 (m7) 1 (m6)

Here we will pair two 1’s, four 1’s, eight 1’s, sixteen 1’s

Highlighted in yellow is the 1st pair and highlighted in red is the 2nd pair

F= I+II (GROUP OF ONE’S WHICH IS ALSO KNOWN AS IMPLICANTS)

F=A+BC’

For 1st group A is same throughout all the cells so we write A as it is, B is same in 1 st and 2nd
cell but it is changing in 3rd cell so we cannot write B and same goes for C as well.
For 2nd group A is changing but BC is constant that’s why we write A+BC’
2) f (A, B, C) = Summation m (1,3,5,7)

SOLUTION

Here A = MSB AND C = LSB

m (1,3,5,7) indicates m1, m3, m5, m7

No. of variables (n) = 3 (A, B, C)

No. of cells in K map will be 2^3 = 8 cells

A BC BC BC BC
00 01 11 10
0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 0

Here we can group four no of 1’s together which can be considered as our 1 st pair

If we observe in the cells highlighted above, we can see that A is changing and B is also
changing its value from one cell to another but C is constant therefore F will be equal to C.

F=I
F=C

3) f (A, B, C) = Summation m (0,1,2,4,7)

SOLUTION

Here A = MSB AND C = LSB

m (0,1,2,4,7) indicates m0, m1, m2, m4, m7

No. of variables (n) = 3 (A, B, C)

No. of cells in K map will be 2^3 = 8 cells

A BC BC BC BC
00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1
1 1 1

Here 1st pair is highlighted by Yellow,2nd Pair highlighted by Orange,3rd Pair is highlighted by
Blue and 4th pair is highlighted by Gray.

F= I+II+III+IV
F= B’C’+A’B’+ABC+A’C’ (For 4th pair we compare ABC (000) and ABC (010) and we observe
that B is changing so that’s why we write A’C’)
3) f= (A, B, C) = Summation m (1,3,6,7)

SOLUTION

Here A = MSB AND C = LSB

m (1,3,6,7) indicates m1, m3, m6, m7

No. of variables (n) = 3 (A, B, C)

No. of cells in K map will be 2^3 = 8 cells

A BC BC BC BC
00 01 11 10
0 1 1
1 1 1

Here 1st pair is highlighted by PINK,2nd pair is highlighted by YELLOW and 3rd pair is
highlighted by Green.

F= I+II+III
F=AB+A’C+BC

4) f (A, B, C) = Summation m (0,1,5,6,7)

SOLUTION

Here A = MSB AND C = LSB

m (0,1,5,6,7) indicates m0, m1, m5, m6, m7

No. of variables (n) = 3 (A, B, C)

No. of cells in K map will be 2^3 = 8 cells

A BC BC BC BC
00 01 11 10
0 1 1
1 1 1 1

Here 1st pair is highlighted by PINK,2nd pair is highlighted by YELLOW and 3rd pair is
highlighted by BLUE and III’ is highlighted by TURQUOISE

F= I+II+III
F= AB+A’B’+B’C

OR
F = I+II+III’
F= AB+A’B’+AC