Creative Writing

Creative Writing 1
UNIT 1
BRIEF HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM
Definition
Literary criticism is a view or opinion on what a particular written work means. It is

about the meanings that a reader finds in an author's literature. It is an attempt to
evaluate and understand the creative writing, the literature of an author. Literature
includes plays, essays, novels, poetry, and short stories. Literary criticism is a
description, analysis, evaluation, or interpretation of a particular literary work or an
author's writings as a whole. Literary criticism is usually expressed in the form of a
critical essay. In-depth book reviews are also sometimes viewed as literary criticism.
Literary theory and literary criticism are interpretive tools that help us think more deeply
and insightfully about the literature that we read. Over time, different schools of literary
criticism have developed, each with its own approaches to the act of reading.
BASIC TYPES OF LITERARY CRITICISM
Traditional Criticism
In traditional criticism, you examine how the author’s life, his or her biographical
information, is reflected in the work. You research all facets of his background and find
traces of his or her experiences shown in the text. Question how the work shows pieces
of the author’s past, his/her interests, biases, etc.
Sociological Criticism
This type of criticism can include discussions of society, of social relationships, and of
historical events which might affect society during the time period of the work.
In Sociological criticism, you should examine all types of politics--for example Marxism,
feminism, totalitarianism, primitivism--not just conservatism and liberalism.
Concentrate on how society in the various political “isms” distinguishes between
members of various races, social
classes, sexes, or cultures. The sociological critic looks for themes of oppression and
liberation; such themes may concern an individual, a family, a small group, or an entire
society.
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Below is a list of a few questions--but certainly not all--that you might want to consider
as sociological critics:
What world events play a role in the plot. In other words, what was occurring
during this time period, in general society or in the political realm, that is
developed in the work?What do individual characters say? How does the opinion of
the individuals differ from that of the author?
What does it say about primitive societies?
Who is actually "civilized" in the book? Who are the most primitive?
What different society groups are in the book? What is the relationship between
each of them? How is it reflected? Why do they behave towards each other the way
they do? How do the different groups affect the political "ism" in society?
How does this work comment on war, hunger, sex, religion, education, ethics?
What view of the family is given? Do the relationships of the family members
change in the work?
How different is the society of the novel from our society? How similar is it?
Mythological/Archetypal Criticism
Mythological criticism deals with instinctual, deep chords in human nature that are
touched by certain types of events, character situations, conflicts, etc. Based on
communal beliefs, mythology is affiliated with religion, anthropology, and cultural
history. An archetype is a motif (theme) or image which is found in myths of peoples
widely separated by time or place. Because of this, it has universal significance.
Situations, conflicts, and characters can be archetypal.
For Mythological/Archetypal Criticism you might want to ask yourselves--among other

questions--the following:
Are there any strong Communal Beliefs?
1. Belief in Supreme Being(s) creator, judge, prime mover, religion,

fate
2. Belief in power of nature--Mother Nature, natural disasters, magical places
(holy wells, sacred rocks, etc.)

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What images are used
1. Water : birth, death, resurrection; life cycle; eternity
2. Colors
red : blood; sacrifice; violence

green : hope, fertility; death, decay
black : the unknown; death; evil
blue : virginal, Mary
3. Numbers
three : spiritual unity; male

four : life cycle; four seasons; four elements; female
seven : powerful because it unites three and four; perfect
4. Garden : paradise; innocence; unspoiled beauty
5. Tree : immorality; inexhaustible life
What Motifs are used:

1. Creation
2. Immortality
3. Wise Old Man (Woman) [savior, guru]: appears when hero is desperate
4. Woman: birth, protection; witch, whore, danger
5. Hero archetypes
The quest: hero undertakes journey and performs impossible task to

save his/her people
Initiation: hero undergoes ordeals to achieve maturity. phases: separation,

transformation, and return
Sacrificial scapegoat: the hero must die to save his/her people Victim
What archetypal situations, conflicts, and characters do you see?

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Formalist Criticism
This type of criticism concerns itself with the parts of a text and how the parts fit
together to make a whole. Because of this, it does not bring in any information outside of
the text: biography of the author, historical or literary allusions, mythological patterns,
or the psychoanalytical traits of the characters (except those traits specifically described
in the text.)
The formalist critic examines each part of the text: the 46 chapters, the 15 parts, the
characters, the settings, the tone, the point of view, the diction, the fictional world in
which the characters live. After analyzing each part of the text, the critic then describes
how they work together.
When exploring a work using Formalist Criticism, you will look at the parts, and then
you will discuss the craft of putting these parts together. In preparing your presentation,
you might want to ask yourself--among many other questions the following:
Do you see each part (or chapter) as "a novel in miniature)? Does each chapter
(part) describe only one major event?
How much time is devoted to each setting? Is the book evenly divided between the
different settings, or is one setting given more space? Why would the author do
this?
What point of view is used? Does this help or hinder the reader's understanding of
the novel? Who do you think the author chose this point of view? Is the narrator
reliable?
Imagine if the author chose another character to narrate the story; choose one
character who might be a good narrator of the story.
What would not get told? What would be told in greater detail? Would anything be
changed? Would that character be a reliable narrator? Spend a few minutes
rewriting a section of the text from another point of view. Discuss the implications
and results.
How are the characters developed? How do you learn about them--through direct
description,the narration of events, or another character's comments? Or is it a
combination of methods? Is
this effective? Why?
Does the fictional world mirror the actual world, or is it total fantasy? Could it
happen? Why?
Are there too many coincidences? Are there recognizable links between causes and
effects, or is there just a series of unrelated incidents?
Does the ending give you a sense of closure? What is the significance of the
ending?

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Is the title appropriate? Why or why not?

How do all these parts fit together?
What literary devices does the author use to unite the parts into a whole?
What are the symbols and allusions, for example, that contribute to the total effect
of the work?
Psychoanalytic Criticism
Since this type of criticism is based on Freudian principles, it is best explained by briefly
discussing--and simplifying--some terminology used.
Oedipus complex:
It is an attachment (usually in early childhood) of a boy to his mother. This is
usually accompanied by hostility and aggression toward the father, for the father
is seen as a rival. The Oedipus complex is to a boy's relationship toward his
mother and father as the Electra
complex is to a girl and her relationship toward her father and mother.
Aggressive phase:
It urges rebellion against those in authority. For the young, this authority may be
the father; for the mature, it may be a boss, the police, a government official, etc.
Because such aggressiveness must be controlled, it often causes a conflict
between a person's desires and duty and can result in severe guilt. Therein often
lies the main conflict in a novel.
Reaction formation:
An undesirable attitude is suppressed and replaced by an extreme form of its
opposite. Hate is replaced by love; cruelty, by gentleness; stubbornness, by
compliance.
Denial:
It is the refusal to admit an unpleasant reality.
Projection:
It is attributing a desire or feeling to another person.
Psychic zones:
They are
Id : insistent, lustful, selfish, amoral, pleasure-seeking
Ego : rational; helps regulate the id, particularly in the
individual's relation to his/her society and with its
members
Superego: the conscience, values gleaned from parents and
society
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This approach, therefore, concentrates on basic human drives and the confusion they
can produce. Psychoanalytic critics often see all imagery as having sexual implications,
but this can narrow our interpretation of a text.
For psychoanalytical Criticism you might want to ask yourselves the following:
• What truth(s) do each of the main characters have to endure? Do they indeed
endure the truth? Or do they ignore it? Are their reactions true to their
characters? If you were the characters would you react in the same way? Why?
Structuralist
Emphasis:
How works can be understood, the conventions that enable readers to make sense of
them. Examine how the work is built, constructed.
There are "rules" that govern interpretation of texts. Look at exposition, flashbacks,
foreshadowing, syntax, diction. Ask yourself, “How is the work put together to develop
meaning?
To be a skilled reader means that one knows the conventions of meaning which allow a
person to make sense of it
Feminist Criticism
•Women readers bring different perceptions/expectations to literary experience

•Challenge to the "canon"--the whole body of texts that make up the tradition
•Concerned with literary representations of the female...exclusion of the female voice
from literature, criticism, theory
•Stereotypes of women
•Images of women in literature...exclusion of women from literary history in patriarchal
societies...connection between social and literary mistreatment of women...
• Females obscured by "patriarchal” values...Search for the "female imagination," the
"female plot"
•Challenging of the most basic assumptions

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The following chart explains many types of literary criticism briefly but thoroughly. This
is a good place to start for a beginner in understanding the different schools of criticism.
Approach Literature is its purpose methodology Implications
autonomous aesthetic bracket off revolutionized

object; appreciation outside the study of
Formalism
of verbal art contexts; literature;
unified in terms and focus on helped create
New
of form and
Criticism technique. structure and literature as a
meaning;
Literature elements of serious object of
features irony, valued as a the work, inquiry; became
paradox, and high art especially official way to
complexity whose how form and teach literature-
meaning can meaning are -anyone could
has a single valid transcend related. learn to do a
interpretation time. Identify and formalist
state central explication--
tension or didn't need to
paradox in research social,
the poem and biographical,
relate and historical
elements of contexts.
poem to it.
Establish
unity of the
work through
interrelation
of all its
parts.
Genre organized by Purpose and Identify Literary work

Studies categories and value characteristic can't be read
derives meaning depends on s of different out of the
through its the genre. genres of context of other
relationship to For literature works similar to
other works with Aristotle, and it. Authors write
similar the purpose categorize within certain
characteristics. of tragedy individual traditions and
Constitutes a was works. Look conventions,

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"contract" catharsis, for patterns even if they

between reader the purging of thought break with
and writer based of the and them. Part of
on generic emotions of technique work's meaning
expectations fear and and ways a is in the
pity. work plays relationship to
Literature upon generic its genre.
that expectations.
improves on
a genre is
valued.
Rhetorical a means to an moral Consider "intentional

end, an instruction, author's fallacy" not a
instrument for inform and purpose and fallacy at all;
getting persuade intention, literature is
something done; the reader; how they rhetorical since
features literature want the it is always
strategies and not bound audience to about ideas, and
techniques by methods act; research often touches on
designed to of history how rhetoric ultimate
govern the and taught at the questions about
reader's response philosophy-- time to find the nature of
can draw on out what humankind etc.
both to get rhetorical Author always
at the conventions writes to an
essence of the audience audience and
things would the author's
(Sydney) recognize. conception of
the audience
alters the work
of art.

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Reader- is an experience; to alter Study the Reader is really

Response text is not reader's complex an ideal or
separate from its assumptions process of a implied reader
(Fish)
realization by a and reader and often is
Phenomen reader; reader's characteristi constructing fantastically
ology deep c ways of meaning from talented, erudite
psychological viewing the the words, (like Stanley
Psychology identity makes world; what reader Fish!);
(Holland) hypotheses about results in brings to the Reception
the work, gets reader's text and gets approach notes
answers, which self- from the that the
alter the reader's discovery to experience of meaning of a
identity and so achieve a it; study text changes
on in a loop. reading that reception of over time and
feels right the work in that readers get
meaning is
its time and more
transactional--
over time; sophisticated
the result of the
study the from learning to
transaction
reader's read new
between the
"interpretive literary styles.
reader and a text
community" RR diametrically
which largely opposed to
defines how formalism--no
one reads, objective reality
what a reader to the literature
seeks in the outside of the
text. transaction with
a reader.
Structural an individual a way to Study sets works best with

ism instance of a learn more or genres to prose narratives
larger system of about the determine and less well
based on
language and system of the rules that with poetry;
linguistic
structure; language govern them- very
theories of
literature is a and -ex is Propp's rationalistic--
Saussure--
special kind of structures eight actions assumes that
langue,
language use that in the fairy meaning is
parole,
that has its own determine tale. Divide understood
signifier,
rules and cultural the work up through
signified,
conventions production; into lexie or difference as

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sign which govern can lead to divisible expressed

how individual a science of components through binary
works are signs based on oppositions
formed. functional (light/dark;
codes to do male
with the plot, rationality/fema
suspense, le emotionalism;
character written vs. oral
development, language etc.)
social Has not really
knowledge, fulfilled its
and themes intentions. Led
to post-
structuralism.
Approach Literature is its purpose me th odology Implic ations
Historicis is not Literature Identify systems is basic in

m autonomous provides of thought and literary study-
but is an cultural and large historical -to see the
expression of historical forces that work in terms
the powerful insight. determine and of historical
ideas and inform literary background.
world view of expression in an With the
the author's era. Ex. great advent of
culture and chain of being in literary
era. the Renaissance theory, has
found in many given way to

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works. the more

complex,
political New
Historicism.
New exists in a literature not Look at marginal criticized

Historicis complex just aesthetic texts as well as historicism
m relation with or simply canonical: for using
culture and is reflective of pamphlets, history only
a communal history and magazines, as a
product, a ideas. Gives a newspapers, odd background
"systematic sense of how stories and for author's
socio-cultural literature anecdotes. Look life and work.
act" (GLCR functions at sex, gender, Brought in
97). Works within culture class, "larger
"show to support colonialism. Look networks of
themselves to and challenge at meaning" to
be bound by its culture. interconnections show how art
social codes among author's functions
and life and behavior, within a
conventions, written texts, culture.
while they and the belief Ability of art
prove, in other systems of the to subvert
ways, to culture. dominant
subvert or culture gives
undercut the it political
dominant significance.
beliefs of their
society"
(Barton and
Hudson,
CGLT, 122).

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Freudian is "a symbolic to reveal Study the text as suggests that

statement of unconscious an expression of misreadings
unconscious fantasies of the author's of a text are
fantasies that the author, unconscious as or more
the artist [and reader, critic, fantasies. Ex. significant
reader] could and even Analyzing the than an
not otherwise fictional Oedipal Complex obviously
admit" (GLCR characters. as worked out in correct one.
108). Value is in Hamlet can Works on the
how the reveal how assumption
reader can Shakespeare that authors,
defend worked that out. characters,
against or Reader and and readers
come to terms audience "may be
with a very response reveals unaware of
disturbing how the reader the reasons
fantasy by comes to terms for their
displacing it with it. Can behavior"
into less psychoanalyze (GLCR 106).
threatening characters and Suggests
symbolic especially profoundly
terms. readers (see personal
Authors work Reader Response reasons for
through criticism) writing and
unconscious reading
fantasies literature that
through has
creating more implications
manageable for the
versions. psychological
health of
writers and
readers.
Biographi Meaning of to provide Research can yield a

cal work is insight into author's life for greater
reflective of author's lives connections and understandin
experiences of and thought parallels in the g of the work.
author. and the work. Reveals
Knowledge of intent of the Psychobiography perspectives

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author's life work to better looks at author's on the work

can key understand deep psychology that may not
insights into both and the work as arise through
the work's expression or other
purpose, working out of methods. But,
author's deep-seated Formalists
choices. neuroses. criticized the
'intentional
fallacy" of
biographical
criticism.
Bottom line:
many readers
are interested
in both the
author's life
and art.
Feminist mirrors, can reveal Analyze reinforces the

resists, or sexist traditional canon idea that
reinforces constructions of male writers literature is a
patriarchal, of women and for sexist profound
male-centered challenge stereotyping (ex. element in the
culture, their madonna/whore maintenance
stereotypes inevitability. opposition); of male power
and Can raise focus on women and privilege.
oppression of consciousnes writers, Provides a
women. s and especially those new
promote ignored, on their perspective on
change. Can creative literature and
reveal processes, the canon
strengths of language freed from the point
women from of view of an
repressed phallogocentrism oppressed,
under . excluded
partriarchy. minority (see
also A-A
Criticism).
Has expanded
the canon to

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include many
previously
excluded
women
authors and
challenged
and
politicized
criteria for
evaluating
literary merit.
Uses many
approaches.
Sociologic "a document Literature Read from links

al of social illuminates society into text individuals
phenomena or the study of or vice versa. and texts to
a product of social Link individual collective
those same phemonena to collective phenomena,
phemonena" and vice behavior, social like Feminist,
(GLCR 78). versa. groups, Marxist, New
institutions, and Historicist,
forces. Look at but tries to be
relationship more
between authors "objective" in
and audiences its analysis.
(see also Does not
rhetorical apply a strong
criticism); the version of
effect of the social
organization of structure,
the book trade; such as in
explicit and Marxism.
implicit political
ideas in literary
works.

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Marxist reflects the Literature Analyze the In some

material has great ways in which cases,
forces moral force, the human adheres to a
operative at a especially subject is formed rigid version
specific time realist works and socialized of society and
and promotes that depict through a politics. Very
or impedes material manufactured frank in its
progress conditions. view of reality political aims
towards Can raise and truth. and a good
socialist consciousnes Analyze how antidote to
utopia. s about ideology is formalist,
Literature nature of expressed and anti-political
either reveals capitalism demystified in a criticism. Like
or mystifies and the plight work. Analyse Feminist,
the truth of the how a work Sociological,
about class workers. reveals class New
structure, structure as a Historical,
class struggle, political and African-
political construct. American
economy, and criticism, it
ideology. views
literature as
part of the
material
conditions of
culture, not
just a
reflection of
them.

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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CREATIVE WRITING
To be a good creative writer, it’s not necessary to have a vivid imagination, though
that helps a lot. Many great writers of the English Language weren’t particularly creative,
instead, they honed down their technique and style to garner interest in their stories.
The greatest thing about creative writing is that it’s all yours (unless of course, you
decide to plagiarize, which would completely defeat the purpose). But to be a good
creative writer, the most important thing is practice.
There are four things to keep in mind while writing a story or play. These are:
1) Plot
2) Characterization
3) Dialogues
4) Theme
These are the basic things required to write a story, but the tackling of the concept
is where many would-be writers lag behind.
Developing one’s writing style takes time, patience, and constant practice.
Attempting too much, or writing too consciously may hamper your prose, not improve
them. Here are a few ways you can improve your writing style and add colour to your
work.
1) Read: Reading can help improve your writing style immensely. There’s nothing
wrong with being influenced by a certain author’s writing technique, in fact, you
can even take a certain style a few steps further.
2) Write: Without constant writing practice you can’t expect you creative writing
skills to improve. Write constantly, even if you think your work is awful. It’s not
necessary to stick to one genre even; experiment and innovate. There is a great
possibility you’ll latch on to your individual style soon enough.
3) Be natural: Use the language and words that come naturally to you. Opening a
thesaurus and taking our difficult words will not make your writing better; in fact
it makes it pedantic and pretentious.
4) Be concise and clear: nobody knows what you want to say better than you do,
and most of the time simple, clear sentences make more of an impact than heavy
longwinded phraseology.
5) Avoid being clichéd: try to craft original new sentences. Steer clear from done-
to-death wordings and metaphors. You can create interest in your writing by being
spunky, creative, and bold in your word choice.

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Creating Realistic Characters
You can create complex well rounded characters easily by asking yourself
questions about what type of person you wish to create. For example, where is your
character from? What does he/she do for a living? How old is your character and
what family background is he/she coming from? Etc. Following is a list of questions
you could ask yourself about your character.
1) What does he/she look like?

2) What is your character called?
3) How does your character deal with conflict and trouble?
4) Are there other people in your character’s life? How does he/she relate to
them?
5) What is the purpose of your character in this story?
Once you’ve got your characters figured out, you can turn to dialogue, and how you
can create realistic, and interesting conversations between your characters
Writing convincing dialogue
Writing good dialogue takes practice and observation. People tend to over dramatize,
or understate, in either case leaving the reader with a sense of disbelief. Dialogues play a
great role in bringing fiction to life, and if handled properly can help create a wonderful
piece of art. So how can you make sure your dialogue writing seems genuine and
colorful?
By following these tips:
1) Listen to how people talk: You’ll rarely find a priest swearing, or an English
Professor using slang. Observe the way people speak, and note down any
interesting figure of speeches they might use. Good writers are often good
eavesdroppers too.
2) Cut down on extraneous words and phrases: real speech doesn’t flow as
smoothly as it seems to on paper, but most readers don’t care to read unnecessary
words like “err…” “uh…” and “oh.” between dialogues.
3) Use action to highlight your dialogues: Remind the reader that the characters
they are reading about are as physical (theoretically) as they are. ‘He said’ ‘she
said dialogues get monotonous if they aren’t broken up with movement.
4) Don’t stuff in too much information: It should not be obvious that you are
using dialogue to communicate information. In general, apply the three-sentence
rule: give no character more than three uninterrupted sentences at once. Let the
story unfold naturally.

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Avoid stereotyping your characters through dialect: Not only is this offensive, it also
challenges the reader’s intelligence. Just like all Irish men do not have red hair, similarly
not all Englishmen says “Bollocks.”
General Rules of Creative Writing
It is harder to state absolute rules for creative writing, but this chapter makes general
suggestions that are often true. The chapter has one section on fiction and drama, and
another on poetry, but it starts with rules that apply to all forms of creative writing.
1. Obey the rules of grammar, usage and punctuation. Creative writers should use
language inventively, but they do not have a license to ignore the basic rules of good
English. Readers will be patient with a demanding stylistic technique (like stream-of-
consciousness narration) as long as the rewards it offers justify the work of reading it.
Hold up your end of the bargain, and help the reader wherever possible. Carelessness is
not art.
2. Show, don't tell. Make your language concrete, not abstract; specific, not general. In
the Canterbury Tales, Geoffrey Chaucer uses details as clues to character. The Knight
wears a garment stained with rust from his armor; the young Oxford scholar keeps
twenty volumes of Aristotle's philosophy beside his bed; the Prioress weeps when she
sees a mouse caught in a trap; and the Reeve always rides last among the pilgrims. In
every case Chaucer conveys an impression of the person without using any abstractions
or generalizations.
3. Maintain a consistent style and tone. If your narrator is a six-year-old boy, do not
use words he could not understand. If a character is a drug dealer in the ghetto, he
should speak like one. If you are writing a poem in a romantic style, an unseemly word
or image can spoil the serious effect.
4. Use adjectives and adverbs with restraint. They quickly start sounding artificial:
OVERDONE: Graceful white gulls hovered lazily above the shimmering blue sea as the
glistening, golden sun beamed brightly.
5. Use vulgar language responsibly. Sometimes vulgarity is appropriate; if your

characters are tough guys on the street, they should not talk like nuns. However, there
are more original and interesting methods than four-letter words to show that someone
is tough.
6. If you must describe something embarrassing (sickness, for example), describing it

indirectly takes more art and shows better taste. Vulgarity for its own sake only calls
attention to itself and, at times, to the insecurity of the people who use it.

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7. One of two common flaws is lack of action--the story that relies too much on
description or dialogue, or the play in which no one does anything but talk. The essence
of storytelling is dramatizing conflict through action. You do not need swordfights or
volcanic eruptions; action can be subtle, but something should happen. The opposite
flaw is the story in which there is little but action. If the only conflict in a story is
whether Johnny will get a hit and win the game, the story has little interest as fiction.
8. Plot. A good plot is not easy to create. There must be questions the reader wants
answered, logic to the sequence of events, a conflict to be resolved, and an element of the
unexpected. A story need not have a surprise ending, but it should not be predictable
either.
9. Characterization. It takes more art to create a real, complex human being than a
stereotype. One of the secrets is to provide concrete details of appearance and manner
that reveal attitudes, values and beliefs. Another secret is to give the character a past.
Most short stories narrate only one or two incidents, but good stories often give us a
sense of the characters' entire lives. Why are they the way they are? Have they been
affected by the place where they live, the parents who raised them, their work, their
marriage? The writer faces the challenge not only of making characters four-
dimensional, but of unfolding the dimensions gradually and naturally.
10. Introducing dialogue. Common errors:
a. Introduce dialogue grammatically. A verb like said is required. Some verbs require an
indirect object:
WRONG: He told, "I'm leaving."
RIGHT: He told his girl friend, "I'm leaving."
Not all verbs that describe manner or speech can introduce dialogue by themselves:
WRONG: "Your move," he smiled. RIGHT: "Your move," he said with a smile.
WRONG: He shrugged, "If you say

RIGHT: Shrugging, he said, "If you say so."
so."

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Creative Writing 20
b. Identify the speakers with a phrase like "he said." You may know who is speaking in
each paragraph, but your reader needs help.
c. Vary the location of the "he said" phrases. It is monotonous if the "he said" phrase
comes at the beginning or end of every paragraph. Do not keep the reader wondering
who is speaking:
WRONG: "I hate to disappoint you, but I think you're making a big mistake. Are you sure
you'll feel this way next week? Or next year? Do you think you can just walk back into
your girl friend's arms if you should someday change your mind?" my sister asked.
BETTER: "I hate to disappoint you," my sister counseled, "but I think. . . ."
d. Vary the verbs that introduce dialogue. Avoiding repetition of say ("he said," "she
said") is a problem all writers of fiction face. Any technique can sound monotonous and
artificial if you overuse it, including adverbs ("he said tenderly") and inversion ("said the
butler"). Edgar Allan Poe used inversion in the famous refrain of "The Raven" ("Quoth the
raven, 'Nevermore'") because he wanted the poem to sound archaic and artificial.
Many words on the list would be appropriate only in certain contexts. The dullness of
"he said" is preferable to something outlandish or artificial ("he opined"; "she queried").
Use the thesaurus, the dictionary, and your own imagination. A metaphor (twitter, erupt)
can be effective if the context is right. Always remember that writing "he nagged" or "she
whined" is less effective than showing your character nagging or whining.
11. Verb tense. Most stories and novels are in the past tense for good reason. It sounds
natural. When you tell a child the story of the tortoise and the hare, or simply report to a
friend what happened over the weekend, you use past tense. Present tense narrative is
not original or innovative; it has been tried often. Sometimes it only calls attention to
itself and sounds awkward:
The burglar pulls the trigger. I duck, but I am too late. I am rushed to the hospital,
where I lie in a coma for two months. My family fears for my life. Every night my mother
sits at my bedside crying. I recover, but over the next year my personality changes
gradually. I become a serial killer. I am sentenced to death. I die. My mother weeps at
my funeral.
You may use present tense, but (as with any stylistic technique) you should have a good
reason.

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UNIT 2
DIARY WRITING
The fast pace at which we lead our lives offers us no time to ruminate on our actions and
their consequences. But by keeping a journal one is forced to sit down and confront his
actions. Writing journal or diary is simple but effective way to develop and enhance great
understanding about yourself, understanding about how you become what you are,
what directions you want to go ahead in your life. It helps you to connect to your
experiences in everyday life -- both the mundane and the extraordinary. In addition,
solutions to problems also often become apparent when the problems are in black and
white. A journal also encourages you to write about your goals and aspirations, and
helps to keep you focused. Various survey results show that people who write down their
goals are much more likely to achieve them than those who don't.
Advantages of writing diary and journal:
• It can help in healing personalities.

• Can provide emotional stability.
• Provides place for dreams and ideas to grow.
• Allows you to gain clarity as you sort through the constant deluge of daily life
• Insights emerge as you deal with your issues honestly in the privacy of your
journal
• It helps in catharsis.
As creative writers we need to understand all the nuances of diary writing, its uses and
advantages. Then we need to be able to use this format to unveil our characters or a
twist in the plot or even the plot in its entirety.
There are different ways of starting a diary entry to make it look attractive. Starting with
a quote that provokes thought, describing a scene as you saw it, Making a bold
statement and then going on to explain it, are all ways of making a piece of writing catch
the reader’s attention. These are only some of them, but they are not the only ones. So
go ahead and create your own styles.
When writing on behalf of the fictional characters that we have created, we need to get
into their psyche and write as they would. We need to be true to the character.

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The following three personal narratives were written in response to the

prompt: Write about an object you keep because it reminds you of someone or
some special event.
1] I have a picture of my great grampa Conny in a wheel chiar holding me when I was
a baby age two. Whenever I look at it, it gives me a warm soft feeling like he is still alive
and on earth with me. I keep it in the corner of our guest bedroom on a low shelf. The
picture reminds me of when my family, my grampa, my grama and me use to viset my
great grampa Conny's apartment. He welcomed us with a joyfull hug. We brought
flowers for him, or sumtimes candy, but the thing he liked the most was to see us
agian. He was very kind to us but after a few years he passed away. I'm not glad he
died but I'm glad I have sumthing to remember him by. I'm never even going to dream
about giving my picture away. Not ever for all the money in the world becuse I loved him
dearly and I still do. We bring flowers to his gravstone to let him know he is still
important to us.
--Grade 2 student
2] My Dad That Died and All the Memories
Most kids have a dad or two parents. Well I don't. My dad died in a car crash
when I was three weeks old. Right before he died my mom and dad got in a argument.
My dad left to cool off, but he never came back. My mom and my older brother, who was
six, knew something was wrong. Then a call came. "[Your husband] has died in a car
crash, Miss." It was hard for my mom and brother.
Since I'd really never seen him, I have a picture of the dad I never saw. His picture is
on myself of my best things. Like trophies, stuff like dolls my grandma made in Japan.
His picture is in the center of all of it. That picture and many more show a lot like his
personality. Most of the time he smiled. There's a picture of him downstairs. I like it
because him and my brother are together and he's holding my brother.
Most kids can play with a dad or a step dad. But I could never play with a dad
because he died when I was three weeks old! I hear lots of kids say "I hate my dad,"
when they're angry. But I say "you're lucky to have a dad, and be happy." A lot of kids
can play games with their dad and catch. I have a wish I could play with my dad in all
sports like baseball and basketball, and more, but that will never happen but I will keep
on wishing.

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If I could write to [my dad] I would write this:
Dear Dad,
I'm in 6th grade now and ten years old and 3/4. Now I have a buzz cut. My height
is 4' 5". I live in a pink, pink house. But Dad, could you answer some questions? How
tall are you? Do you have a car? But the most important, do you remember me?
P.S. Please don't forget none of us like mom, J., me, plus grandma.
3] Ding dong! As soon as the doorbell rings, I always rush over to see who it is. But
most of the time I don't have to look because it's my seven-year-old neighbor, Alex. I can
tell it's him because he always rings the doorbell more than once if don't get to the door
fast enough. And usually I can see him running up our driveway.
Most of the time when he comes over, it's right after I get home from school, so
usually I have lots of homework. When I do have homework, sometimes he just sits
down in front of my house and waits for me, even if I never come out. When I don't have
homework and I get to play with him, lots of times we catch bugs in his backyard. Or we
create huge bubble storms that float around the cul-de-sac. We've invented many games
together , like Pop Can Bowling and Cross the River, which involves drawing chalk
"stones" leading in multiple paths across the cul-de-sac and jumping from stone to stone
and not stepping off of the stones.
Whenever I meet him I first ask him what he wants to do, and then I tell him if I
have homework or not. Sometimes when we're both bored and he can’t think of anything
to do, he lets me pick out a game to play. One thing about him that I dislike is that I can
never win in an argument with him. The good things about Alex are whenever I want to
play with him, I don't have to wait long before he comes to the door And he never runs
out of game ideas. Alex, I'll always be your friend, and I will remember every thing we did
together even when we tried to wrestle our 8th grade neighbor and you got your tooth
knocked out. Hopefully we'll be friends forever.

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WRITING A CHARACTER SKETCH
A character sketch is a short written description introducing the reader to a character in

a story. This is often one of the first writing exercises taught in English classes. Strong
characters give the reader a reason to stay interested in your story. Learning how to
write a character sketch is the first step towards great creative writing.
1. Decide whether to write a detailed list or a hypothetical encounter you had with the
character. Writing a list is easier, but writing about an encounter helps the reader
better understand the character's voice, and will help get your creativity flowing.
2. Give the character a name and decide the gender. A name can tell a lot about the
character, such as his geographical location and age or generation.
3. Use adjectives and similes to describe the character's physical description.
Concentrate on what the character looks like, and what she is wearing or carries
around, such as a baseball bat or a jar of fireflies.
4. Quote a conversation you had with the character. Describe what he says, does and
thinks. Write about the character's likes and dislikes. Tell the readers about a major
goal the character is working toward or wishes to accomplish.
5. Notice what other people say about the character and what they do to her. Tell about
any interesting relationships with family or friends, whether people like the character
and how they would describe her.
6. Explain the setting where the character is found. This may be a specific place like a
favorite hangout.
7. Write about what your character is like in a general sense. Talk about what makes
this character different, what his strengths and weakness are and anything else you
think will be important for the reader to know.
Character Sketches for Fiction Writing
When creating a work of fiction, the writer needs to decide who the characters are, where
they come from, what motivates them to do something, and why they are in the story.
Knowing all theses things about a character before even writing the story will help
develop a story that readers will identify with. The better the reader can connect with the
characters, the more enjoyable the reading experience will be for him or her. Just
because the writer knows all about the character, however, does not mean that every
single detail is provided to the reader in the story. There needs to be some room for the
reader to determine some facts about the character, thus building a more solid
connection between the reader and the story.
Steps for building a Character

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To write an interesting character sketch one needs to follow the following guidelines.
Choose a Character
1. Choose someone you know well as the subject of your character sketch essay. Think of
someone others would like to meet. For example, you might write about your 95-year-old
neighbor, Mr. Meyer, who has lived in the same house his entire life.
2. Isolate one or two character traits. For an essay about Mr. Meyer, you might choose frugality
and courtesy. Narrate details that show his frugal, courteous ways. Avoid the temptation to
write everything you know about him. Including too many details will make your essay sound
like a list.
3. Keep your readers in mind as you write. You know Mr. Meyer, but they don't. Because you're
so close to him, you may neglect to include important details. For example, mentioning an
accident he had will confuse readers if you don't explain what it was.
Building the character
4. Dramatize details that will support the focus of your essay. Your goal is to show, not tell.
Telling is direct description: Everything in Mr. Meyer's kitchen is old-fashioned. Showing is
indirect, or roundabout description. It's more subtle and requires readers to form a mental
image: "Mr. Meyer pushed aside the black rotary phone on his Formica table."
5. Describe your character's physical appearance and clothing. People also reveal themselves
through facial expressions, gestures and repeated movements. Show Mr. Meyer slapping his
knee as he laughs or smoothing his mustache when he thinks.
6. Let your character speak. By hearing his voice and the words he uses, readers gain
information. Show how Mr. Meyer's gravelly voice makes his stories about the early 1900s
more interesting. Add such brushstrokes and flourishes as his use of old-fashioned words ---
icebox, sitting room, streetcar.
7. Set scenes. Show Mr. Meyer relating how his children used to sit on the braided rug listening
to "Little Orphan Annie" on the ancient radio.
8. Show your character interacting with others. When a neighbor stops by to check up on Mr.
Meyer, describe the scene and conversation.

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Creating Emotion
9. Reveal your character's personality through an anecdote or narration of a scene: "Due to his
frugality and age, Mr. Meyer never had a cell phone until he received one as a gift." Your
ordeal with helping him set it up leads to confusion and laughter.
10. Avoid telling readers how to feel about your character. They'll have more fun coming to
their own conclusions. If a reader reflects that the cell phone episode reminds her of trying to
explain the DVD remote to her grandma, you have succeeded in creating emotion.
11. Maintain adequate emotional distance from your subject. By describing someone you
know well, you open yourself up to letting your own emotions and opinions take over. Use
your personal knowledge to paint a vivid picture, but adopt the stance of an interested
observer.
Experts suggest asking thought-provoking questions that will reveal character, and
then to write character sketches that put your people into action in order to reveal
traits that wouldn’t otherwise manifest themselves. Below is a list of probing
questions. Pick only two or three to answer and then write a scene to develop the
characters in a richer, fuller way than creating a mere list can do.
• What is your character afraid of?

• What gives your character joy?
• How does your character show love?
• What makes your character angry?
• How competitive is your character?
• What does your character think about during downtime?
• What “unreachable” dream does your character have?
• What would your character have to give up to realize this dream?
Using the Character Sketch
Once the Character Sketch is written, the writer needs to sit back and think about the
Character and get to know him or her intimately. So when the Character is brought into
the story, it is someone well known to the writer. A good writer will hold back some
information about the Character to build tension, to add an element of surprise later, or
to give the reader something to think about.

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UNIT 3
SHORT STORY WRITING

What is a short story?
We ought to start by considering what a short story is, and the following definition is
well worth bearing in mind:
A brief fictional prose narrative that is shorter than a novel and that usually deals with
only a few characters. The short story is usually concerned with a single effect conveyed
in only one or a few significant episodes or scenes. The form encourages economy of
setting and concise narrative; character is disclosed in action and dramatic encounter
but is seldom fully developed. [Encyclopaedia Britannica]
Many important points are made in that definition. The phrase ‘concerned with a single
effect’ says something particularly useful.
Six important points
Here are six important points about what makes a good short story work. Becoming
familiar with them should help you to study the stories you read, help you think about
why some stories work, or don’t work, and help you to plan your plots.
1. The story is told from the point of view of the central character, with whom the reader
identifies.
2. An element of conflict is introduced early on, usually in the first paragraph or two.
3. We are held in suspense as we wonder how the character will resolve his/her conflict.
4. There is a climax at or near the end in which the conflict is resolved.
5. The story focuses on a single event, which is a crisis point the central character's life.
6. The story is shown through the characters, without the narrator's intrusion.

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Here are a few of the areas which most frequently need attention in beginners' first
stories:
Aim to hold the reader's attention
The points below are all ways of trying to achieve the general aim of holding the reader’s
attention, the central importance of which is highlighted in this quote from the American
writer John Irving. He has some good advice for us all:
I always try to think when I am writing of someone I do not know. The age of this
unknown person is always either elderly and impatient in the way that elderly people
can be impatient, or quite young, maybe too young to drive a car, 15, a difficult age, and
impatient in the sense that the attention is always hopping to something else. I like to
think that my principle task is to get that person's attention and not lose it, and the
person has a million other things that they could be doing. If you turn your back on that
reader and just amuse yourself, when you look back the reader will be reading another
book or watching television or gone to the movies or fallen asleep.' [The Times Magazine
23/3/96]
Openings
Try to establish a specific time and place in the opening paragraph. Don't open with
generalisations, but with a particular event at a particular time. Begin with the central
character involved in some aspect of the main theme of the story. Avoid using the first
paragraph to fill in background information.
Point of view
This is perhaps the main area in which problems occur. My recommendation is that you
stick with your central character's experience of the action all the time. Don't jump away
from his/her immediate experience by showing him/her from someone else's point of
view, such as another character's or the narrator's.
Whether you use the central character’s point of view, or one of the other options, the
important thing is that the point of view should be controlled and consistent, and not
haphazard.
Action
Interaction between characters is the life-blood of short stories, so keep your characters
in the spotlight all the time and only show us as much of their background as is
necessary for the plot. Try to open each paragraph with action. Remember it is better to
appeal to the readers senses, rather than their reason.
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Never simply 'pass on information' to the reader
The reader wants to witness the action for himself, and nothing will put him off more
than the author passing on background information which is supposedly for his benefit,
but which slows down the action. Necessary information can nearly always be woven
into the action smoothly and unobtrusively.
Revise the first draft
The first draft of a story is never going to be as good as it can be, so do revise it at least
once before offering it to anyone to read. Go through it cutting out anything superfluous,
generally tightening it up, taking out the slack. It can be helpful to let a little time, at
least a couple of days, go by between finishing the first draft and starting the second.
Give your story a title
It is surprising how often students omitted this. A story is incomplete without a title. If
you haven't yet made a final decision about the title, at least give it a provisional title.
INTERVIEWS
Preparation for conducting interviews

An interview script is a list of questions you plan to ask of a subject during an interview.
Writing an interview script may seem simple, but more goes into it than just listing
questions. A good interview script should contain a balance of direct questions, follow-
up questions and other possible questions that may arise during the interview. The key
to asking the right questions is preparation before the interview begins.
Research. You need to know as much about the subject of your interview as you
can in order to prepare a strong interview script. If the subject of your interview is
an officer of an organization, call the organization and request a press kit. If the
person you will interview is the subject of news reports or has written a book, get
copies. If your subject is controversial, learn about the controversy. Read as much
as you can about your subject and make notes about the areas you want to cover
in your interview.

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Start your interview with questions that identify your subject and place him in
context. Follow these questions with those that address the issues you want to
cover. If you anticipate the subject may be hostile or defensive, consider prefacing
your questions with statements designed to set him at ease.
Number your questions and place them in the order you want to ask them. You
might use capital letters for follow-up questions and lowercase letters for those
you'll ask, depending on your subject's answer to your original question. It is
difficult to cover all the bases in your initial script without having the answers, so
being prepared with follow-up questions is always a good idea. Also be prepared
for surprises and don't allow them to catch you off guard.
Make minor notes to yourself in the columns of your interview script to help
remind you of the direction of the interview. This will help you stay on track. Many
times during an interview, a subject may have his own agenda. You want to allow
yourself room to improvise questions on the spot, depending upon your subject's
direction; but you also want to stay on track and ensure your interview covers
everything you wanted to cover. It might be helpful to write your questions under
bold headings that indicate the general direction of specific sets of questions.
Writing Interview Essays
Before you go on the interview jot down some questions to ask the interviewee. What is
special about the person? Why have you chosen this individual? Has he/she done
anything outstanding? Why would your audience want to meet this individual? Make a
list of questions that you plan to ask. Often people get nervous during the interview and
forget to ask key questions without preparing for the interview.
The first step to writing an interview essay is doing the interview. Often people will say
that they are not special, but everyone has a story. It is important to get the interviewee
comfortable so he/she will begin talking about his/her life. During the interview ask
questions to motivate the interviewee to talk. Draw the details out by asking more
questions. Some people use tape recorders. If you do it is important to get permission
first.
Once you have finished the interview the writing process begins. Take your notes and
arrange them in a logical order. Use your notes to create an outline. What will your
thesis statement be? What are the main points and how do these support your thesis?
What do you plan to tell the audience about the individual? Making an outline will have
you in writing the essay.

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Begin the introduction paragraph with an anecdote about the person you interviewed.
Something funny is a great way to start the essay. However, any anecdote that grabs the
attention of the reader is important. The introductory paragraph will tell the name of the
interviewee and why the interview was done. Usually this can be done in the thesis
statement.
Many interviewers do a question and answer form to write about the interviewee. It is
important to make sure the answers are direct quotes from the interviewee. However, the
interview essay can be written in a narrative essay form. It depends on what the
instructor wants as well as how you want to write it.
If you use the question and answer format, be sure to use interesting questions the
audience will want to know. Answer these questions with quotations from the interview.
Use questions you prepared to ask the interviewee and then answer these questions with
answers from the interviewee.
The narrative form of essay uses information from the interview with a thesis statement
telling who and why you interviewed the individual. The narrative form can use direct
quotes, but it allows more freedom to express your own thoughts. Tell different
anecdotes the interviewee shared with you. Use the questions asked during the interview
to back up the thesis and to share information about the interviewee. Share any funny
anecdotes as well as serious anecdotes about the interviewee.
The last step in writing an interview essay is to carefully proofread your essay. Check for
spelling and grammar errors. Have you used smooth transitions from one paragraph to
another? Have you checked for quotes for accuracy? Read the essay out loud to check
for errors. Rewrite the essay and you will have a great interview essay.
Format & Tips for Writing an Interview Script
Prepare for your interview ahead of time by researching good questions.

Writing an interview in Q&A-style format may be tempting because of the apparent ease
of writing one. Don't be fooled. Developing a publishable Q&A interview requires a lot
more than transcription skills, and should be presented in a format that looks
professional.

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Introduction
Most Q&A-format interviews don't launch directly into the interview itself, but
open with a brief introduction that provides context to the interview. Use the
introduction to provide history about the interview subject and basic facts about
the subject the interview covers, introducing your news angle in the process.
Although the length of your introduction varies by the length of your overall piece
and the style guidelines of the publication to which you submit it, most editors
would rather devote space to the interview itself than an introduction, so keep
your introduction as succinct and brief as possible.
Research and Prepare Questions
A successful Q&A interview isn't the same as a typical reporter's interview. Your
questions should be focused, as specific to the interview's subject as possible and,
if possible, based partially on prior interviews with the subject. If you need to ask
basic fact-gathering questions, ask them early in the interview and omit them from
your printed piece. Keep your questions brief, clear and focused on a single topic,
and don't ask questions that lead the subject to an answer. Good Q&A-format
questions elicit opinions and personal stories from the subject rather than purely
factual answers.
Go off Script
Advance preparation is key to laying the foundation of a good interview, but don't
let it constrain your questions. If your subject unexpectedly opens up on an
unforeseen topic, ask follow-up questions to chase down juicy and relevant
quotes. If a subject doesn't answer a question well enough to be published, don't
be afraid to rephrase it and return to the topic at a later point in the interview. A
Q&A interview relies on your subject's ability to provide interesting quotes, so keep
digging until you produce a quote worthy of inclusion in your story.
Formatting
There are different styles for formatting for Q&A interviews. Some publications
want questions boldfaced, while others only want the interviewee's name -- which
is frequently abbreviated to initials after the first reference -- boldfaced. Most
publications provide a writer's style guide upon request, so format your written
interview by those standards. Don't include questions with mundane answers in
your final copy, and don't hesitate to edit questions to keep your subject on the
topic you're asking about.

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UNIT 4
DOCUMENTARY WRITING FOR TV
How to write a script
Documentaries can be a way for anyone, from acclaimed filmmakers to amateur

directors, to try his or her hand at bringing important topics or the day-to-day lives of
people to the screen. If you have an idea for a documentary, these steps will get you
started on writing for the film.
Think of an idea. Make sure it is original and able to keep the audience's
attention for more than 90 minutes.
Decide what you want to accomplish with your idea. Do you want it to be a
political exposé? An in-depth look at a sports team? Consider your goals,
and then outline the objectives to meet those goals.
Research your subject. If it is something widely covered, think of new ways
to present the information you wish to get across.
Get in contact with experts in the field you are covering. They will be an
invaluable resource when interviewing subjects.
Make an outline of where you want to take the viewer during the film. This
should include both locations and an array of emotional states. For
instance, if you wish to garner sympathy for a particular group, think of
ways to accomplish this.
Fill out your outline with the findings from your research. The more useful
information you can fit into your script, the better your project will be.
Hire a camera operator, or begin filming the movie yourself. Or, write a
synopsis of the script and present it to film companies for consideration.
Documentaries are stories about real life. Your subjects will have their own thoughts so
your documentary script needs to be flexible, especially at the beginning of your project.
However, in order to focus the content of your filming you will need a shooting script at
the beginning and an editing script by the end of your project. Here's how you can write
your documentary's script.
Most people think of a script as what’s being “spoken.” However, even a silent movie has
a script. That’s because a script is a written description of what the audience is seeing
AND hearing. A well-written script should be able to “capture your imagination” and help
you visualize what the audience will experience on the screen.

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Before You Begin Shooting
RESEARCH! Once you’ve settled on your documentary idea, time to start digging.
Leave no rock left unturned. Have your documentary topic completely researched.
Before you start shooting, you need to have an idea about what your story will be.
As with dramatic films, there needs to be interesting characters, conflicts and
plots. Unlike dramatic films, these should occur naturally, without directing the
people in your documentary.
Create a List. Based on your research, start creating a list of potential

characters/interviews, basic storylines, areas of potential conflict and emotion.
Ask yourself, “what’s at the heart of this story and how do I “show” that visually?”
Write down an outline of what you think your documentary will be about. This
outline needs to include the characters, their conflict and how you imagine their
conflict will be resolved. Your documentary will change as you begin shooting, so
right now all you need is a vague outline. Create a list of questions that you want
to ask your characters. These questions will help to develop the characters and
investigate their conflict. As you shoot, your characters' answers will provide you
the meat of your documentary.
Get Style. Decide the look, feel and style of your documentary. Search web videos
or watch TV for ideas.
Write a “shooting script” (pre-script/outline) – Often with documentaries, the

script can’t really be written until after the footage has been shot and you start
piecing the story together based on what you “discovered” with your camera.
However, writing an outline at the beginning can be an invaluable guide to point
you in the right direction, especially to be able to look back as a reference when
the chaos of shooting can get you off track. There WILL come that moment in the
process when you say, “What was I thinking!?”
Get Creative. Think about some unique and creative ways you can spice up your
movie and give it that "Wow" factor. “How to write a script” creatively involves
adding special elements such as stop motion, time-lapse, animation/cartoons,
recreations, etc. For example, in the 2008 documentary Young At Heart, the
filmmakers used MTV style music videos to segue between scenes of their elderly
singers. Perfect!

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Begin shooting, now that your shooting script is done. Make sure you cover all of the
questions you had, but be ready to take your documentary in a different direction if a
new, better conflict arises. As your conflict changes, keep editing you shooting script.
After Shooting is Complete
The very nature of the documentary is that it is “unscripted”. It is meant to capture

some aspect of “real life”. Then it is up to you (the writer) to take the messiness of real
life and create some kind of story. As the scriptwriter, you will need to examine all the
“unscripted” & “raw” footage and create some sort of structure out of it.
It will seem daunting at first (you WILL feel overwhelmed at some point), but think of it
as putting together a great big puzzle. It will look like a jumbled mess at first, but bit by
bit, the big picture will begin to reveal itself as you mix and match the various pieces.
How to write a script
Complete all of your filming, and start your post-shoot script. The purpose of this script
is to help you or your editor know exactly what to do to complete the project. Choose the
scenes that you shot that best develop your characters, conflicts and plot. Write an
outline of the scenes that you intend to use in your final documentary
Log your tapes – This may seem like a tedious and boring task at first, but you will
thank yourself in the end. This is where you begin to "log" and categorize the various
"pieces" of your puzzle.
1. Review the BIG picture. What are the main elements (characters and plots) that
have surfaced through shooting process that create the tapestry of your overall
story. What are the key “moments”?
2. Create Scenes. Take these “moments” and divide your documentary into mini-
stories (scenes) that, together, create the documentary.
3. Build a Roller Coaster. Take these scenes and begin creating a “Roller Coaster”
ride for your audience. What kind of “ride” are you taking them on? Think about
the powerful moments in your story and how to write a script to build up those
moments. A fantastic book that describes this process is Writing Great Screenplays
for Film and TV by Dona Cooper.

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Creative Writing 36
4. Villain and Hero. Another important part of scriptwriting is determining the

villain(s) and hero(s) in your story. A hero/villain can be a person, thing or event.
(A tornado can be the villain).
5. BEGINNING, MIDDLE and an END. Of course, every story has a beginning,

middle and end. If you can outline your story in these three general categories,
then you can begin to fill in the details.
6. The Ending. If you have a lot of footage and information to work with, a simple
way to clarify how to start building your script is to think about how you’re going
to END your documentary. Everything else leads up to that.
7. Start Strong. I cannot express enough the importance of how you START your
documentary. This is when you “hook” the audience and set the tone for the entire
program. The beginning of your film should:
Establish the “core message” of the documentary (this often includes a

specific “incident” that is controversial or offsets the balance of forces in
some way).
Create curiosity -- set up the “problem” or “issue” in the most compelling
way possible to tantalize or grab your audience’s interest. Create a situation
that makes the audience ask, “Why is this happening?”
8. What's in the Middle? It’s easy for scriptwriters to get “lost” in the middle (body)
section of the script. Just keep asking yourself, “does this scene/story or
information move the story forward and lead to the ending conclusion?” Don’t get
attached to any particular footage or information. If it doesn’t fit, leave it OUT. You
can always put it in the “Bonus” or “Deleted Scenes” section of your DVD. :-)
9. Script Template. Finally, once you have a general outline of your story, begin
building your script using a 2-column script template: one column for audio, one
column for video. Write, word-for-word, the script for your documentary. This
means that you will write the dialogue of your characters as well as the narrator's
dialogue. Remember, your script needs to be complete so that another person who
edits your documentary will cut the dialogue just as you envisioned.

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Creative Writing 37
Final Thoughts
How to write a script? Of course, what looks great on paper does not always work great
on the screen. Think of your script as a guide and be prepared to modify, slice and dice
once the video editing process begins.
This is where those tape logs come in VERY HANDY. A quote or scene that you didn’t
think was very important in the scriptwriting stage, will suddenly take on new
importance once the editing begins.
So those are a few key points on how to write a script for documentary. Remember, with
documentaries, there is no perfect formula. Just start writing and do what works for
YOUR story.
DOCUMENTARY WRITING FOR RADIO
What is Radio Documentary?
Radio documentary is a form of mass communication that allows for informative

programs to be broadcast through the airwaves straight to the homes of the public.
These documentaries tend to consist of recorded interviews, debates, and factual
information to be shared with listeners. The subject matter covered by documentaries
often includes historical events, people of influence, and current issues, but are not
restricted to such categories. As with radio dramas, radio documentaries rely heavily on
audio techniques to engage the audience, allowing them to visualize what is being
described. Sound is therefore a key instrument in developing a quality program.
Radio shows are a very popular means of communication, and are largely accessible to
many communities. It has been estimated that there are on average more than two radio
sets per person in the United States, one radio set per person in France, and one radio
set per five people in Nigeria. With the expanding range of radio technology, the
broadcasting of documentaries is an ideal source for HIV/AIDS education, as it can
empower people worldwide.
The Ups and Downs of Radio Documentary as an HIV/AIDS Awareness Tool
As radio is a familiar tool of communication around the world, airing educational

documentary programs for HIV/AIDS awareness is beneficial in that it has the potential
to be acknowledged by millions. Attention must be paid, however, to be sure that the
information that is broadcast through a radio documentary is up-to-date, reliable, and
true.
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Creative Writing 38
Pros:
✓ Radio documentaries can be accessed by large populations and demographics

✓ Radio is an efficient means of spreading information and communicating ideas
and concepts
✓ Radio documentaries offer a voice to both people and matters that might
otherwise go unnoticed
Cons:
x There may be production costs required in the processes of developing a

documentary, recording the program, and having it broadcast through a station
x Producing a well-informed documentary with a variety of presentable material
for an audience can take a lot of time, which may not be desirable
x Various radio stations may be regulated in such a way that does not allow them
the liberty of presenting topics of a sensitive nature
How to Create a Radio Documentary in 9 Easy Steps
The procedures involved in developing a documentary to be broadcast through a radio

station may vary depending on the station involved, the budget allotted to the project,
and the area of the world in which one wishes to air such a program. The following nine
steps will give a basic overview of how to go about creating a radio documentary for the
purpose of HIV/AIDS education.
1. Develop an idea: Coming up with a unique and flexible idea is the first proponent of
creating a documentary program. The topics covered by the radio show must be
appropriate for the desired audience, and ideas should be both communicable and
universal.
2. Outline the project and define the details: Consider such things as materials one
might need for recording, whether a budget will be necessary, and if you’ll need a team
to be involved. Friends and family are a great place to start when recruiting volunteers
for a social awareness campaign, as are community centers, health clinics, and schools.
3.Decide who to approach with the newfound concept: Executive producers are the
people in charge of the programming for radio stations. Radio stations are usually
designed to appeal to a specific audience, so it is very important to choose the right
station when approaching producer about potential programming. Local stations, as well
as university/college stations, are a good place to begin when searching for the right
match for the airing of the documentary.

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Creative Writing 39
4.Write a proposal: Writing a detailed idea proposal that incorporates logistics such as
the program’s subject matter, the show’s proposed length of time, the people who will be
involved, and the purpose of the project, will give the producer all the necessary
information he or she will need when being approached with the new idea, and for
making the crucial decisions that will allow the radio documentary to move forward.
5.Research: When developing a social awareness project, especially one that is devoted
to promoting HIV/AIDS awareness, doing the proper research is mandatory! The
information dispersed by such a show must be accurate, reliable, and current. Research
can be accessed via the Internet, library, school, or local health clinic. Doing research for
the radio documentary may also involved finding people who have something to
contribute to the documentary, either by providing an interview, a story, or any other
bits of material that can give the show some added substance.
6.Write a script: As with any type of show, a radio documentary will need a beginning,
middle, and end. When writing the script for the documentary, it must be kept in mind
that radio is dependent on the use of sound—incorporating music, background noises,
and other types of audio techniques will help to illustrate the stories that are told and
the information that is divulged. It is also important to ensure that ideas are
communicated clearly and effectively, and that the written language is used in such a
way so as to avoid stigma and marginalization of specific groups.
7.Record the show: It can take a full day in the studio to record a half-hour radio
program, so when it comes time to recording, patience is a virtue. Be sure to ask
questions, and have the station’s producer send someone in who can help with the
equipment and give recording advice. An expert will be able to make certain that the
recording goes as smoothly as possible. Recording the show will give insight into whether
the program has enough flow, where it will need to be tweaked, and how to better convey
thoughts so as to maximize the audiences’ entertainment and understanding.
8.Edit: Once the show has been recorded, the editing may take place. Listening to the
show in full will give an idea of what the audience will hear. Is the language appropriate
for the audience? Will the audience be engaged? Which parts of the show will need to be
recorded over again so as to ensure clarity?
9.Broadcast: Its show time! But first, when will the show be aired? Again, the time that
the program is broadcast on the radio should be dependant on the audience. For a youth
demographic, school-schedules and other youth activity should be taken into account.
Youth will most likely be tuned-in to the radio after school hours and on weekends,
making these time-slots the most practical for broadcasting the show.

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Creative Writing 40
After the Show: Keeping the Message Alive
Listener feedback is a wonderful way of getting the audience involved in the campaign.
Allowing the audience to have a say in the subject matter of the radio documentary gives
them a chance to not only sit back and listen, but to participate in the social change.
Having the radio station make time for listener phone-calls, or reading letters sent by the
public will add to the messages conveyed by the show.
Hardcopies of the radio documentary may also be made accessible to the public by being
converted to cassette, CD, or DVD format. These may then be donated to local
community centers, schools, libraries, or health clinics. The documentary script may
also be printed and made accessible to the public, allowing the topics discussed by the
radio documentary to be understood long after the show has shone under the spotlight.

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Creative Writing 41
UNIT 5
EDITING AND PROOFREADING
Whether you are writing a magazine article, a college essay or an email to a client,
getting your text free of mistakes is essential. The spell checker helps, but it is far from
foolproof. That is where proofreading comes in. The editing process is just as important
as the writing process. Simple spelling and grammatical errors can make a great paper a
mediocre one. By taking the time to comb over your paper for mistakes and other errors,
you will make your paper both professional and a stronger read.
Below you will find 11 tips and techniques to make your proofreading sessions more
effective.
1. Concentration is Key
If you’re going to spot mistakes, then you need to concentrate. That means getting rid of
distractions and potential interruptions. Switch off the cell phone, turn off the television
or radio and stay away from the email.
2. Put It On Paper
People read differently on screen and on paper, so print out a copy of your writing. If you
read aloud, your ear might catch errors that your eye may have missed. If you have
already made an outline, read through the paper to see if you've addressed all the points
you wanted to cover. Otherwise, read through the paper and make an outline. See what
main points you come up with, and then check to see if you've properly addressed your
target points, making note of any that you've missed.
3. Watch Out for Homonyms
Homonyms are words that share the same spelling or pronunciation, but have different
meanings. Switching accept with except or complement with compliment could be
disastrous, so pay attention to them. The simplest mistakes are often the ones that will
break your paper. Go back to the basics of grammar, spelling and punctuation. Literally
read through every single sentence, looking at every single word. A spell checker cannot
catch the words that are correctly spelled but misused in context, such as "bear" when
you mean "bare."

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Creative Writing 42
4. Watch Out for Contractions and Apostrophes

People often mix their and they’re, its and it’s, your and you’re and so on. If there is
something that can hurt the credibility of your text, it is a similar mistake. Also,
remember that the apostrophe is never used to form plurals. Make sure that your
commas and apostrophes are in the right places. Remember that "it's" is a contraction of
"it is," and "its" is possessive, as in "A seagull is known for its ability to fly."
5. Check the Punctuation
Focusing on the words is good, but do not neglect the punctuation. Pay attention to
capitalized words, missing or extra commas, periods used incorrectly and so on.
6. Read Aloud. A lot of the time what you're reading in your head might make sense to
you. But when you speak the words out loud, you can hear where the sentences start to
fall apart. Read aloud slowly. Do the sentences make sense? Are they too long? A
sentence that cannot be said in one easy breath is usually too long and needs to be
broken up. Read slowly. This technique will also help you to identify whether you're
staying on topic. If you can, record your reading of the paper. This way, you can listen
objectively to the words and ask yourself if they make sense. While listening, jot down
notes for making the sentences read more clearly.
7.Read it Backwards
When writing we usually become blind to our own mistakes since the brain
automatically “corrects” wrong words inside sentences. In order to break this pattern
you can read the text backwards, word by word.
8. Sentence Structure
Sentence structure is at the root of a good paper. Again, read every sentence. Check to
make sure that your subject is always properly referenced. Avoid using words like "it" or
"that," and instead make proper reference to the subject you're discussing. This avoids
confusion and helps direct the reader. Each sentence should also clearly follow the
previous one. If it does not, it's time for a new paragraph. Also, look to see which
sentences sound clunky. Use words that you understand. Don't try to go overboard with
large or difficult words if they don't serve a purpose. Good sentences convey a message,
regardless of the words. Aim for clarity, and use words that get you there.

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Creative Writing 43
9. Paragraph Stucture
Paragraph structure is crucial when writing a good paper. The simple form consists of a
beginning topic sentence and a conclusion summarizing the main points addressed. The
topic sentence can be thought of as a mini-thesis. It should clearly state the topic you
will address in the paragraph, giving the reader a cue as to where the paper will go. The
following sentences should provide evidence for the topic sentence. Don't go overboard
supporting your claims. Instead, pick the evidence that best supports your topic
sentence. If you choose the right kinds of supporting evidence, your paper will be
consistent and well thought out.
10. Check the Numbers

Stating that the value of an acquisition was $10,000 instead of $100,000 is definitely not
the same thing. What about the population of China, is it 1,2 million or 1,2 billion?
Make sure your numbers are correct.
11. Get Someone Else to Proofread It

After checking all the previous points, do not forget to get a friend to proofread it for you.
You will be amazed at the mistakes you’ve missed. A second person will also be in a
better position to evaluate whether the sentences make sense or not.
General tips for proofing and editing

Read it out loud and also silently.
Read it backwards to focus on the spelling of words.
Read it upside down to focus on typology.
Use a spell checker and grammar checker as a first screening, but don't depend on
them.
Have others read it.
Read it slowly.
Use a screen (a blank sheet of paper to cover the material not yet proofed).
Point with your finger to read one word at a time.
Don't proof for every type of mistake at once—do one proof for spelling, another for
missing/additional spaces, consistency of word usage, font sizes, etc.
Keep a list of your most common errors (or of the writers you are proofing) and
proof for those on separate "trips."
Print it out and read it.
Read down columns in a table, even if you're supposed to read across the table to
use the information. Columns may be easier to deal with than rows.
Use editor's flags. Put #s in the document where reviewers need to pay special
attention, or next to items that need to be double-checked before the final proof
print. Do a final search for all # flags and remove them.

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Creative Writing 44
Give a copy of the document to another person and keep a copy yourself. Take
turns reading it out loud to each other. While one of you reads, the other one
follows along to catch any errors and awkward-sounding phrases. This method
also works well when proofing numbers and codes.
First, proof the body of the text. Then go back and proof the headings. Headings
are prone to error because copy editors often don't focus on them.
Double check fonts that are unusual (italic, bold, or otherwise different).
Carefully read type in very tiny font.
Be careful that your eyes don't skip from one error to the next obvious error,
missing subtle errors in between.
Double check proper names.
Double check little words: "or," "of," "it," and "is" are often interchanged.
Double check whenever you're sure something is right—certainty is dangerous.
Closely review page numbers and other footer/header material for accuracy and
correct order.
Editing for content

Ask yourself who, what, when, where, why, and how when reading for content.
Does the text answer all the questions you think it should?
Highlight the sentences that best answer these questions, just so you can see if
the facts flow in logical order.
Make a list of "bugaboo" words and do a search for them before final proof. Include
every swear word, words related to product terminology, and other words that pop
up on occasion. Then do a "find" for all these words.
Actually do every step in procedures to make sure they are complete, accurate,
and in correct order.
Count the number of steps a list promises to make sure they are all there.
Check that figure numbers match their references in the text and are sequential.
Check that illustrations, pictographs, and models are right-side up.
Preparing yourself to proof or edit

Write at the end of the day; edit first thing in the morning. (Usually, getting some
sleep in between helps.)
Listen to music or chew gum. Proofing can be boring business and it doesn't
require much critical thinking, though it does require extreme focus and
concentration. Anything that can relieve your mind of some of the pressure, while
allowing you to still keep focused, is a benefit.
Spend a half-hour a month reviewing grammar rules.
Read something else between edits. This helps clear your head of what you expect
to read and allows you to read what really is on the page.
Make a list of things to watch for—a kind of "to do" list—as you edit.

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Creative Writing 1

BRIEF HISTORY OF LITERARY CRITICISM

Literary criticism is a view or opinion on what a particular written work means. It is

BASIC TYPES OF LITERARY CRITICISM

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

For Mythological/Archetypal Criticism you might want to ask yourselves--among other

Are there any strong Communal Beliefs?

1. Belief in Supreme Being(s) creator, judge, prime mover, religion,

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

What images are used

1. Water : birth, death, resurrection; life cycle; eternity

red : blood; sacrifice; violence

three : spiritual unity; male

4. Garden : paradise; innocence; unspoiled beauty

5. Tree : immorality; inexhaustible life

What Motifs are used:

The quest: hero undertakes journey and performs impossible task to

Initiation: hero undergoes ordeals to achieve maturity. phases: separation,

What archetypal situations, conflicts, and characters do you see?

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

Is the title appropriate? Why or why not?

•Women readers bring different perceptions/expectations to literary experience

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

Approach Literature is its purpose methodology Implications

autonomous aesthetic bracket off revolutionized

Genre organized by Purpose and Identify Literary work

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

"contract" catharsis, for patterns even if they

Rhetorical a means to an moral Consider "intentional

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

Reader- is an experience; to alter Study the Reader is really

Structural an individual a way to Study sets works best with

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

sign which govern can lead to divisible expressed

Approach Literature is its purpose me th odology Implic ations

Historicis is not Literature Identify systems is basic in

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

works. the more

New exists in a literature not Look at marginal criticized

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

Freudian is "a symbolic to reveal Study the text as suggests that

Biographi Meaning of to provide Research can yield a

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

author's life work to better looks at author's on the work

Feminist mirrors, can reveal Analyze reinforces the

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Sociologic "a document Literature Read from links

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Marxist reflects the Literature Analyze the In some

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CREATIVE WRITING

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

Creating Realistic Characters

1) What does he/she look like?

Writing convincing dialogue

By following these tips:

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General Rules of Creative Writing

5. Use vulgar language responsibly. Sometimes vulgarity is appropriate; if your

6. If you must describe something embarrassing (sickness, for example), describing it

Backstage Pass, School of Gaming

10. Introducing dialogue. Common errors: