ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF DIATOMACEOUS FILL

By Robert W. Day, 1 Fellow, ASCE

ABSTRACT: It is common for fill that has a low dry density and high moisture content to have poor engineering
properties, such as high compressibility and low shear strength. For the tested diatomaceous fill, the range in
dry density varied from about 1.0 to 1.2 Mg/m 3 with a moisture content of 38-53%. The low dry density and
high moisture content are due to the diatoms, which are essentially outer shells of silica that can contain water.
Even though diatomaceous fill has a low dry density and high moisture content, it behaves as a dense granular
material below an effective stress of 50 kPa. This is due to the diatoms, which can resist shear and compression
because of their interlocking and rough surface features. At a higher effective stress the diatoms can be
crushed, which significantly increases the compressibility of the fill.
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INTRODUCTION
Diatoms are defined as microscopic, single-celled plants of
the class Bacillariophyceae, which grow in both marine and
fresh water (Bates and Jackson 1980). Diatoms secrete outer
shells of silica, called frustules, in a great variety of forms
that can accumulate in sediments in enormous amounts (Bates
and Jackson 1980). Deposits of diatoms have low dry density
and high moisture content because the structure of the diatom
is an outer shell of silica that can contain water. Diatoms are
usually rodlike, spherical, or circular disks with a typical length
or diameter of about 0.03 to 0.11 mm [Spencer (1972) Fig.
7-2]. Diatoms typically have rough surface features, such as
protrusions or indentations.
A natural deposit of diatoms is commonly referred to as
diatomaceous earth or diatomite. Diatomaceous earth usually
consists of fine, white, siliceous powder, composed mainly of
diatoms or their remains (Terzaghi and Peck 1967; Stokes
and Varnes 1955). Diatomite is an organogenetic sedimentary
rock containing frustules of diatoms and is sometimes mixed
with shells of radiolarians, spicules of sponges, and forami-
nifera (Mottana et al. 1978). In their industrial capacity dia-
tomaceous earth or diatomite are used as filters to remove
impurities, as abrasives to polish soft metals, and, when mixed
with nitroglycerin, as an absorbent in the production of dy-
namite (Mottana et al. 1978).
A common formational material in southern California is
the Monterey Formation, which contains diatoms and clay
particles. Impurities are common in diatomaceous earth. For
example, the fraction of clay particles in the Monterey For-
mation is typically in the range of 23-30% (Khilnani and
Capik 1989).
In its natural state, diatomaceous earth has a high moisture
content, from 30-80%. When used as fill, the water cannot
be squeezed out of diatoms and the fill retains the high mois-
ture content, which results in low field dry density. Typical
values of compacted dry density are 0.64-1.36 Mg/m 3 and
compacted moisture contents are 30-80% (Khilnani and Ca-
pik 1989). Because of the high moisture content and low dry
density, it would seem that compacted diatomaceous earth
should have poor engineering properties such as low shear
strength and high compressibility.
The purpose of this study was to determine the engineering
properties, such as shear strength and compressibility, of dia-
tomaceous fill derived from the Monterey Formation. The
'Chf. Engr., American Geotechnical, 5764 Pacific Ctr. Blvd., Ste.
112, San Diego, CA 92121. . The field dry density and moisture for the specimen tested
Note. Discussion open until May 1, 1996. To extend the closmg date
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of
Journals. The manuscript for this technical note was submitted for review
and possible publication on September 15, 1994. This technical note is
part of the Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 121, No. 12, De-
cember, 1995. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9410/95/0012-0908-0910/$2.00 + $.25
per page. Technical Note. No. 9249.
diatomaceous fill used in this study was obtained from a fill
slope compacted in the early 1980s. Shelby tube (64 mm di-
ameter) and bulk samples were obtained from a depth of
0.45-1.2 m.
FILL PROPERTIES
Moisture and density tests were performed on samples ex-
truded from the Shelby tubes and the dry density ranged from
about 1.0 to 1.2 Mg/m3, with a moisture content from 38 to
53%. Basic phase relationships indicate that the fill is in a
wet to saturated state due to the initial high moisture content
and subsequent infiltration of moisture from irrigation and
rainfall.
Based on dry weight, the diatomaceous fill contains about
65% diatoms, mostly from 0.005 to 0.1 mm in size. Besides
diatoms, the fill contains mineral silt and clay particles. There
are about 28% clay size particles (finer than 0.002 mm) and
7% fine silt particles. Although there are clay and mineral
silt particles, the diatoms occupy much more relative space
than the clay particles because the diatoms are essentially
hollow shells of silica.
SHEAR STRENGTH
Undrained Shear Strength
An unconfined compression test was performed on a sam-
ple of diatomaceous fill extruded from the Shelby tube. The
specimen was tested at its field dry density (1.01 Mg/m 3 ) and
moisture content (53.1 %). The undrained shear strength (SII)
of the specimen was 44 kPa.
Effective Friction Angle and Cohesion
The effective shear strength of the diatomaceous fill was
determined from specimens extruded from the Shelby tubes.
Two undrained triaxial compression tests, with pore pressure
measurements, were performed on the diatomaceous fill spec-
imens in accordance with ASTM D 4767 (Soil 1994). A high
back pressure of at least 350 kPa was used to be sure of
saturation, which was verified by the B-value check. The two
triaxial specimens had an initial diameter of 64 mm and a
height of 127 mm. As shown in Fig. 1, the two samples were
sheared at effective confining stresses of 13.8 kPa and 27.6
kPa. The triaxial tests were performed at low effective stresses
because of the low dry density of the diatomaceous fill.
at 13.8 kPa was 1.16 Mg/m 3 and 41.2%. For the specimen
tested at 27.6 kPa, the field dry density and moisture content
were 1.23 Mg/m 3 and 38.5%.
The effective stress paths from the triaxial tests are shown
in Fig. 1. The angle of inclination (ljJ') of the stress paths ~as
35°, and using the relationship sin <1>' = tan ljJ' , the effecttve

908/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 1995

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1995.121:908-910.

 stress versus strain for this test. The specimens failed at both
a low vertical stress and strain. Because the specimen is un-
confined in the horizontal direction, a Mohr circle at failure
30 can be drawn as shown in Fig. 1. This test further indicates
that the diatomaceous fill essentially has zero effective cohe-
.,
~ 20
sion.
In summary, the effective shear strength parameters of the
tested diatomaceous fill are <\>' = 44° and c' = o.

COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility of Diatomaceous Fill
To determine the compressibility of the diatomaceous fill,
it was extruded from the Shelby tube directly into a confining
50
ring. The diatomaceous fill specimen had an initial diameter
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p (kPa) of 64 mm and a height of 25 mm. The initial dry density and

moisture content of the specimen was 0.99 Mglm 3 and 52.2%.
FIG. 1. Effective Stress Paths
Porous stones were placed on the top and bottom of the
laterally confined specimen and it was subjected to a vertical
4r----~-------,..-------_, stress using a Soiltest Model C-220 levermatic oedometer ap-
paratus. At an initial vertical stress of 6.25 kPa, the specimen
was submerged in distilled water. The vertical stress was then
'j- --,--~ - - •. ---,------;-._-~---'- increased to 12.5 kPa, 25 kPa, 50 kPa, etc., with each stress
•• o,JiY~- being maintained for at least 24 hours. Fig. 3 shows a plot of
(f)
(f)
w
g-'
l'
the vertical strain versus vertical stress for one-dimensional
compression. At pressures less than 50 kPa, the diatomaceous
a:
f-
(f) 2 //r;f' fill is relatively incompressible, but as the vertical stress in-
---'
«
o
creased, the compressibility increased substantially.
F ,'P~ Fig. 4 shows a plot of vertical deformation versus time when
a:
w
> 1 i--~-~ ~~ -~ ~-.----- ------,---- -~ -~ -_.~~- .---
I G----.<) UNCONFINED, SUBMERGED TRIAXIAL TEST I 0..,............, . . . . . , " " " ' - - - - - - - -.......- - - - - . . . ,

O"'------~----~------------
o 2 3 4
... -5
VERTICAL STRAIN (PERCENT) ~
Z
FIG. 2. Stress versus Strain «
a:
f-
(f)
-10
---'
friction angle was 44°. The reasons for the high effective fric- «
tion angle are: ~
a:
w
>
-15
1. Rough surface features: Diatoms have rough surface
features such as protrusions and indentations, which can
increase the frictional resistance between diatoms.
2. Interlocking: As shown in Fig. 1, the stress paths bend
to the right, with A-values (pore pressure parameter)
at failure of 0.1-0.25. These stress paths are character- VERTICAL PRFSSLJRF IkPlll
istic of dense and interlocking granular particles. Even
though the diatomaceous fill has a low dry density, the FIG. 3. Vertical Strain versus Vertical Pressure
diatoms can interlock, which results in a high effective
friction angle.
3. Low effective stress: The friction angle was determined
at a relatively low effective stress; at a high normal
stress, curvature of the failure envelope could result in
lower friction angles. The crushing of the diatoms at a
high normal stress, for example, would tend to lower
the friction angle.

As shown in Fig. 1, the effective stress paths indicate that

the effective cohesion (c') is essentially zero. To check this
data, a submerged unconfined triaxial test was performed on
a saturated sample of the diatomaceous fill. The sample had
an initial diameter of 64 mm and an initial height of 140 mm.
The sample was submerged for four days, and then a hanger
loading device was used to apply a vertical stress (Day 1992).
Weights were added to the hanger over a period of 28 days.
The very slow shearing of the sample allowed for the dissi- TIM: (MINUTES)
pation of pore pressure. Fig. 2 presents a plot of the vertical FIG. 4. Vertical Deformation versus Time

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 1995/909

J. Geotech. Engrg. 1995.121:908-910.


-5
g = 44° and an effective cohesion = 0 (Fig. 1).
~ At a vertical stress of 50 kPa, the vertical strain for one-
er:
f-
(J)
-10
..J
«:
Q
f-
er:
w terial (based on <1>') below an effective stress of 50 kPa. This
>
-15
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VERTICAL PRESSURE (kPaj
FIG. 5. Vertical Strain versus Vertical Pressure
the diatomaceous fill was subjected to a vertical stress of 400
kPa and 1,600 kPa. For the plot of vertical deformation versus
time on a log scale, the diatomaceous fill does not exhibit the
characteristic Terzaghi shape [type 1 curve, Leonards and
Altschaeffl (1964)]. This makes it difficult to determine the
end of primary settlement. The rate of secondary settlement
is not linear on the log-time scale.
Compressibility of Diatoms
To investigate the compressibility of diatoms, the clay and
mineral silt particles were separated from the diatoms. This
was accomplished by diluting the diatomaceous fill in distilled
water, allowing the diatoms to settle to the bottom of the
container, and then pouring off the solution that contained
the suspended fine mineral silt and clay particles.
The diatoms were then air dried (moisture content = 7.1 % )
and compacted into a confining ring having a diameter of 64
mm. The initial dry density of the diatoms was 0.87 Mg/m 3 •
Fig. 5 presents a plot of the vertical strain versus vertical
stress for the laterally confined diatoms. At a high vertical
stress (i.e., 1,600 kPa), there was a distinct popping sound,
which was due to the diatoms being crushed together. The
crushing together of the diatoms is the reason for the high
compressibility at high vertical pressures.
Figs. 3 and 5 are similar. This indicates that compressibility
of the diatomaceous fill is mainly governed by the diatoms.
As mentioned, because the diatoms are essentially hollow
shells of silica, they occupy a much larger relative volume
than the clay and mineral silt particles.
CONCLUSIONS
A typical fill with a low dry density and high moisture
content will commonly have a low shear strength and high
910 I JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING / DECEMBER 1995
J. Geotech. Engrg. 1995.121:908-910.
compressibility. For the tested diatomaceous fill, the range
in dry density varied from about 1.0 to 1.2 Mg/m3, with a
moisture content of 38 to 53%. Below an effective stress of
50 kPa, the diatomaceous fill had an effective friction angle
dimensional compression was less than 1% (Figs. 3 and 5).
Even though it has a low dry density and high moisture con-
tent, the diatomaceous fill behaves as a dense granular ma-
is because the diatoms resist shear and compression due to
their interlocking and rough surface features. This property
makes diatoms useful as abrasives to polish soft metals.
At a higher vertical stress, the diatomaceous fill can exhibit
undesirable engineering properties. For example, at a vertical
stress of 1,600 kPa, the diatoms were crushed, which signif-
icantly increased their compressibility. In addition, the set-
tlement versus time data is difficult to analyze because there
is no distinct end of primary settlement, and the rate of sec-
ondary settlement is not linear on a log-time scale (Fig. 4).
APPENDIX I. REFERENCES
Bates, R. L., and Jackson, J. A (1980). Glossary of geology. Am.
Geological Inst., Falls Church, Va.
Day, R. W. (1992). "Effective cohesion for compacted clay." J. Geotech.
Engrg.• ASCE, 118(4),611-619.
Khilnani, K., and Capik, M. L. (1989). "Diatomaceous soils: A new
approach." Civ. Engrg., ASCE, 59(2).
Leonards, G. A, and Altschaeffl, A. G. (1964). "Compressibility of
clay." J. Soil Mech. and Found. Div., ASCE, 90(5),136-156.
Mottana, A, Crespi, R., and Liborio, G. (1978). Rocks and minerals.
Simon and Schuster, New York, N.Y., 342.
Soil and rock. ASTM annual book of standards, Vol. 04.08; D 4767,
(1994). ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa., 882-892.
Spencer, E. W. (1972). "Sediments and sedimentary rocks." The dy-
namics of the earth, an introduction to physical geology. Thomas Y.
Crowell Co., New York, N.Y., 161.
Stokes, W. L., and Varnes, D. J. (1955). Glossary of selected geologic
terms; Vol. 16, Colorado Scientific Soc., Denver, Colo., 38.
Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R. B. (1967). "Index properties of soils." Soil
mechanics in engineering practice, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, N.Y., 8.
APPENDIX II. NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this paper:
c' effective cohesion;
p one-half the sum of the vertical and horizontal effective
stresses (triaxial test);
q one-half of the vertical minus the horizontal effective
stresses (triaxial test);
s" undrained shear strength;
<1>' effective friction angle; and
1\1' inclination of effective stress paths.