Traumatology

Uncovering the Personal and Environmental Factors Associated With Youth

Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Pursuit of Sports and
Physical Activity as a Protective Factor
Catherine Laurier, Katherine Pascuzzo, and Genevieve Beaulieu
Online First Publication, August 23, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000342

CITATION
Laurier, C., Pascuzzo, K., & Beaulieu, G. (2021, August 23). Uncovering the Personal and Environmental Factors
Associated With Youth Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Pursuit of Sports and Physical Activity as a
Protective Factor. Traumatology. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/trm0000342
 Traumatology
© 2021 American Psychological Association
ISSN: 1085-9373 https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000342

Uncovering the Personal and Environmental Factors Associated With

Youth Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Pursuit of
Sports and Physical Activity as a Protective Factor

Catherine Laurier1, 2, Katherine Pascuzzo1, 2, and Genevieve Beaulieu1, 2

1
Department of Psychoeducation, University of Sherbrooke
2
Groupe de recherche et d’intervention sur les adaptations sociales de l’enfance
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

With recent research underscoring the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on adolescents’ well-being,
greater insight into the protective factors that buffer against the negative consequences of the pandemic
on youth mental health merits greater attention. The goal of this quantitative study was to examine asso-
ciations between adolescents’ attachment to parents and peers, their participation in sports before and
during the confinement, and the severity of their psychological distress. A total of 133 adolescents
between the ages of 11 and 17 took part in an online survey including the Inventory of Parent and Peer
Attachment, the Psychological Distress Index, and questions regarding their involvement in physical ac-
tivity before and during confinement. Overall, findings highlight participants’ high levels of total psy-
chological distress, with girls reporting more severe symptoms. However, results of correlational
analyses showed that adolescents reporting greater attachment security to parents and peers showed
fewer symptoms of total distress as well as fewer symptoms of depression, anxiety, and irritability.
Participation in organized sports prior to confinement and time devoted to physical or sports activities in
the last week were not significantly correlated with the Psychological Distress Index subscales.
However, results of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that youth participation in sports prior to
confinement moderated the association between time devoted by adolescents to physical or sports activ-
ities in the last week and symptoms of depression, above and beyond the influence of attachment secu-
rity to parents and peers. The importance of quality relationships and physical activity for youth
adaptation during confinement is discussed.

Keywords: adolescents, mental health, physical activity, attachment, COVID-19

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by the severe
acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) emerged
in the Wuhan region of China in late 2019. It was declared a pan-
demic on March 11, 2020, resulting in a province-wide lockdown
in Quebec, Canada. In an instant, adolescents were confronted
with drastic changes: They could no longer attend school in person
and were unable to pursue organized activities. Contact with peers
was limited, even prohibited. As a result, adolescents had to
Catherine Laurier https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8341-6957
Katherine Pascuzzo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3093-4723
Genevieve Beaulieu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3913-8141
This work was financed by the start-up funds provided by the University
of Sherbrooke to Catherine Laurier and Katherine Pascuzzo. The authors
thank the Groupe de recherche et d'intervention sur les adaptations sociales
de l'enfance for the research professionals and research assistants who
provided support during the project. The authors have no conflict of interest
to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Catherine
Laurier, Department of Psychoeducation, University of Sherbrooke, 150
Place Charles-Le Moyne, L1-12830, Longueuil, QC J4K 0A8, Canada.
Email: Catherine.Laurier@USherbrooke.ca
simultaneously contend with the pandemic, a potentially traumatic
event, as well as adjust to the newly imposed social restrictions.
This loss of familiar benchmarks, crucial for youth development,
could have significant repercussions on adolescents’ adaptation
(Kujawa et al., 2020). As a result, the COVID-19 pandemic and its
aftermath can be seen as a disaster with great traumatic potential
for individuals (Bridgland et al., 2021; Marques de Miranda et al.,
2020), hence the need to address it quickly.
Within the first few months of the pandemic, researchers noticed
that individuals were presenting higher levels of stress than usual,
which could even lead to posttraumatic symptoms (Cooke et al.,
2020; Zhang, Ye, et al., 2020). Indeed, this pandemic brings uncer-
tainty regarding one’s personal health as well as uncertainty for the
future of society, generating a sense of generalized loss of direction
and potentially high levels of stress (Lahav, 2020) and distress for
individuals, especially those who are most vulnerable. In this regard,
Bridgland et al. (2021) proposed that the trauma associated with the
COVID-19 pandemic is rooted in the fear and apprehension regarding
the future and imagined consequences more so than common cases of
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), in which case the trauma has
passed, yet the associated psychological consequences are current.
This difference clearly demonstrates the relevance of considering
the COVID-19 pandemic as a potential traumatic situation, capable

1
 2 LAURIER, PASCUZZO, AND BEAULIEU
of generating great distress in the population. Reger et al. (2020) even
referred to the COVID-19 pandemic as “a perfect storm” when it comes
to triggering distress. In addition to activating distress, the pandemic
could also aggravate symptoms already shown by more vulnerable
individuals. Namely, Lahav (2020) suggested that exposure to traumas
prior to COVID-19 is positively associated to distress during the pan-
demic. Furthermore, the author reports that the risk of presenting signifi-
cant distress symptoms related to COVID-19 was more than 13 times
greater among individuals who had symptoms of PTSD at a clinical
level in the past.
Accordingly, researchers around the world have quickly taken
action to assess the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and its in-
herent restrictions on the population. This unprecedented context
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thus represents an exceptional situation to investigate the factors
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that will contribute to individuals’ experience of distress as well as
those that will promote resilience, that is, the development and
implementation of adaptive strategies. Insight into this process is
crucial to prevent the negative and wide-ranging repercussions of
this pandemic on the population.
Adolescent Mental Health: A Vulnerable
Period in Development
Adolescents have been recognized as a particularly vulnerable
population with regard to this pandemic, in part because of the de-
velopmental period in which they find themselves (Guessoum et
al., 2020; Marques de Miranda et al., 2020), characterized by im-
portant physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes (Allen
2008; Özdemir et al., 2016). In fact, even prior to the pandemic,
researchers have been preoccupied with the distress levels among
adolescents. The 2016–2017 Quebec Health Survey (Traoré et al.,
2018) conducted with 388,000 high school students revealed that
29.3% of adolescents, most of whom were between the ages of 12
and 17, reported a high level of psychological distress, which rep-
resents an 8% increase since the previous survey, conducted in
2010 to 2011. This difference was even greater for girls, with
39.8% of girls presenting a high level of psychological distress in
2016 to 2017 compared to 28.2% in 2010 to 2011. On the other
hand, high psychological distress increased less for boys (13.6%
in 2010–2011 and 19.2% in 2016–2017). It is important to note,
however, that measured psychological distress does not constitute
in itself a mental health disorder (such as a disorder diagnosed by
a physician), but rather indicates a set of affective, cognitive, and
somatic symptoms affecting individuals that can be associated
with anxiety or depressive disorders. Given that adolescents are al-
ready vulnerable to experiencing symptoms of anxiety and depres-
sion (Traoré et al., 2018), it is plausible to assume that the sudden
restrictions and stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic
could exacerbate their psychological distress. Studies examining
the effects of the pandemic and its restrictions on individuals indi-
cate that adolescents, young adults, and older adults (i.e., 80 years
of age and older) appear to be most vulnerable to the negative con-
sequences associated with social distancing (Beam & Kim, 2020).
Others have showed than younger adults are reporting more dis-
tress compared to their older counterparts (Fernández et al., 2020;
Lahav, 2020). Given that adolescents and young adults are already
at greater risk of experiencing mental health challenges, it is
crucial to assess and better understand the factors associated with
distress levels among this specific population.
Adolescent Mental Health Studies
Related to COVID-19
Two important literature reviews on the psychiatric disorders
manifested in adolescents during the COVID-19 containment and
pandemic have been carried out: one by a French team published
in June 2020 (Guessoum et al., 2020) and another by a Brazilian
team published in December 2020 (Marques de Miranda et al.,
2020). Both reviews indicate that symptoms of PTSD, anxiety,
and depression are prevalent among adolescents in the context of a
pandemic, whether specifically related to COVID-19 or not (e.g.,
H1N1, SARS-CoV).
Another study by Zhou et al., (2020), conducted in China among
8,079 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18, specifically assessed
depressive and anxiety symptoms in the context of the COVID-19 pan-
demic. Depressive and anxiety symptoms were reported in 43% and
37% of the adolescents participating in the study, respectively. Comor-
bidity symptoms (depression and anxiety symptoms combined) were
experienced by 31% of these young people. With past depression rates
around 15.4%, the authors noted that the rates identified in their study
were much higher than what is usually found in the general population
of children and adolescents in China (Li et al., 2016 in Zhou et al.,
2020). Interestingly, youth knowledge regarding the COVID-19 pan-
demic was positively correlated with depressive and anxiety symptoms:
the more adolescents knew about the nature of the disease, prevention
and control measures, and trends in its spread, the more symptoms they
experienced (Zhou et al., 2020). This is compatible with the findings
that adolescents’ age was positively correlated with depression and
anxiety symptoms, that is, as adolescents’ age increased, so did their
experience of depressive and anxiety symptoms. One could hypothe-
size that as they age, adolescents are more likely to follow or to be
exposed to the news and daily press briefings on the evolution of the
pandemic (positive cases, death toll, etc.). Guessoum et al., (2020)
noted that the COVID-19 pandemic exposed some adolescents to
death for the very first time. Taken together, results to date suggest
that older adolescents represent a particularly vulnerable population
for experiencing symptoms of anxiety and depression during this
COVID-19 pandemic.
A recent study of young adults (aged 22 years) followed before
and after the onset of the pandemic revealed that individuals expe-
rienced higher levels of stress and anxiety during the pandemic
(Shanahan et al., 2020). In this study, specific characteristics of
young adults measured before the pandemic predicted distress during
the pandemic: social stressors, stressful life events, low generalized
trust, poor self-rated health, and concurrent pandemic-related
stressors and risk. The authors found that the most important risk factor
for emotional distress during the pandemic was prepandemic emotional
distress. These findings, consistent with those of Lahav (2020) regarding
exposure to previous trauma, suggest that the pandemic can be under-
stood as a crisis that further exacerbates the difficulties experienced
by vulnerable individuals. Greater insight into the prepandemic
factors that minimize the impact of the pandemic on youth adaptation
could be instrumental in developing effective prevention and inter-
vention protocols.
 COVID-19: PURSUIT OF SPORTS FOR YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH
Resilience Factors in Adolescents
Similar to the aforementioned studies, Zhang, Ye, et al., (2020)
reported that among a sample of 564 adolescent junior high school
students and 493 high school students, more than one in five ado-
lescents had their mental health affected by the COVID-19 pan-
demic. As was the case in the Zhou et al., study (2020), when
Zhang and his team (2020) compared their rates to those generally
reported among adolescents in China, they indicated that rates of
anxiety and depressive symptoms during the pandemic were sig-
nificantly higher than what was usually found in population sur-
veys. Regarding factors that lead to fewer anxiety and depressive
symptoms, Zhang et al., identified positive coping and resilience
(resilience measured in this study refers to “an individual's ability
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to bounce back or recover from stress”; p.2). In another study con-
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ducted with college students in China (Cao et al., 2020), social
support was found to be negatively related to anxiety symptoms.
Fernández’s and colleagues (2020) studied protective factors
related to severity of psychological distress reported by older ado-
lescents and adults during a COVID-19 quarantine. They found
that compared to older adolescents (18–19 years old), older adults
(45–64 years old and 65 and older) in a relationship, with a higher
family income and who participated in physical activities during
quarantine reporter better mental health. Taken together, more
research is needed to understand how social connections can pre-
vent distress among adolescents in the context of the COVID-19
pandemic.
Adolescent Relationship With Close Others
Faced with governmental measures imposing social distancing
to restrict the spread of the COVID-19 virus, individuals had no
choice but to withdraw into themselves and their immediate fami-
lies. It has been noted that these extended periods of reduced social
interactions can have adverse mental health consequences among
adolescents, including symptoms of PTSD, confusion, and anger
(Beam & Kim, 2020; Brooks et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2020).
These findings are not surprising considering that social with-
drawal is normally considered a psychiatric symptom (Guessoum
et al., 2020). In other words, a known psychiatric symptom is what
was needed and recommended to protect individuals from con-
tracting the virus during the peak of the COVID-19 outbreak.
In stressful contexts, positive parent–adolescent interactions are
an undeniable factor for promoting youth adaptation (Moreira et
al., 2021; Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2017). Via interactions with a
sensitive caregiver who consistently responds to their needs, chil-
dren are more likely to develop a secure attachment model consist-
ing of self-representations of competency and perceptions of
others as dependable and available in times of need (Bretherton &
Munholland, 2008; Masten & Narayan, 2012). In adolescence, a
secure parent–adolescent relationship has been extensively associ-
ated with greater adolescent psychological well-being (Allen et al.,
2002; Allen et al., 2007; Benson et al., 2008; Brown & Wright,
2003; Caspers et al., 2005; Kobak et al., 2009).
During this crucial developmental period, adolescents also ex-
perience a growing need for greater autonomy with respect to
parents. As a result, they are driven to foster relationships outside
the family unit, with peers now serving as important sources of
comfort and emotional support in facing developmental challenges
3
(Allen, 2008; Zeifman & Hazan, 2002/2008). Given the impor-
tance of youth relationships with both parents and peers, further
research is needed to determine their unique association with ado-
lescents’ adaptation during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In some cases, confinement provided parents with increased
opportunities to check in with their children. As such, signs of dis-
tress that may have gone previously unnoticed may now be more
easily detected and could lead to an opportunity for greater paren-
t–adolescent communication and solution-seeking (Courtney et al.,
2020). In fact, a study looking at resilience factors at the onset of
confinement (19 to 49 days after school closures) among adoles-
cents found that parental support was inversely related to depres-
sion, whereas all other variables (i.e., learning ability, learning
focus, time for fun, sharing time with adults or friends) were less
significant (Luthar et al., 2021).
Nevertheless, the pandemic is a particularly stressful situation
for parents (Cluver et al., 2020; Li & Zhou, 2021; Prime et al.,
2020). While having to cope with their potential professional and
economic pressures, parents must also take on a greater role in the
education of their teenagers, who are now attending school from
home. In addition, parents must cope with these stressors with less
support from their own social networks. As a result, some parents
may be less available, cognitively and emotionally, to adequately
support their teens, which could have negative consequences on
the quality of the parent–teen relationship.
Accordingly, the family unit could represent a place of refuge
for some adolescents, whereas for others, it could be a stressful
environment presenting many challenges. Because it is through
crisis and hardship that individual and collective strengths develop
and are exercised, the current situation therefore represents a
unique opportunity to examine whether, and to what extent, the
quality of adolescent relationships with parents and peers allows
the young person to adapt positively when social circumstances
are unfavorable.
Adolescent Involvement in Sports Activities
Exercise is known to reduce anxiety and stress symptoms
(Stubbs et al., 2017; Wipfli et al., 2008), psychological difficulties
(Grasdalsmoen et al., 2020; Penedo & Dahn, 2005; Wolff et al.,
2011; Zschucke et al., 2013), as well as withdrawal, anxiety, and
depression symptoms related to substance abuse (Wang et al.,
2014). Physical activity also helps to diminish depression symp-
toms (Biddle et al., 2019; Parker et al., 2014; World Health Orga-
nization [WHO], 2020). To this effect, Shanahan et al., (2020)
have shown that, among young adults, maintaining a daily routine
and engaging in physical or sports activities were among the cop-
ing strategies associated with lower distress during the pandemic.
Paradoxically, at the peak of the COVID-19 outbreak, adoles-
cents’ daily routines were interrupted, with youth no longer able to
partake in many of their usual hobbies, including cultural and
sports activities. A Canadian study conducted 1 month after the
onset of the COVID-19 health crisis in Canada found that outdoor
physical activities and sports had decreased significantly among
children and adolescents compared to the prepandemic situation
(Moore et al., 2020). In addition, parents reported that family time
was more sedentary, with less physical activity than prior to the
pandemic.
 4 LAURIER, PASCUZZO, AND BEAULIEU
Relevance of the Present Study
The COVID-19 pandemic was an unexpected event that com-
pletely altered the lives of adolescents and their families. Despite
recent research underscoring the association between parental sup-
port and youth adaptation during the pandemic (Luthar et al.,
2021) and the importance of maintaining a daily routine and
engaging in physical or sports activities as coping strategies
(Shanahan et al., 2020), a comprehensive understanding of the
processes at work are lacking. Namely, given the importance of
significant relationships with parents and peers in adolescence,
assessing their unique association with adolescent distress merits
greater attention. Furthermore, greater insight as to the differential
impact of time devoted to physical activity during confinement
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among adolescents who participated in organized sports prior to
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confinement and those who did not has yet to be investigated. The
present study is an important first step in extending previous
research by examining these critical associations.
The first objective of this study is to examine adolescent distress
levels during the COVID-19 pandemic in comparison to rates gener-
ally reported in the Quebec youth population. Differences in distress
levels based on gender and age were also examined. Given the stres-
sors imposed by confinement and the disruption to adolescents’ daily
lives, we expected adolescents to experience higher levels of distress
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The second objective is to evaluate the relative association between
adolescent attachment security with parents and peers and adolescent
distress. Given previous research underscoring that parents are adoles-
cents’ primary sources of comfort and support (Zeifman & Hazan,
2002/2008), we expected greater attachment security to parents to be
more strongly associated with lower adolescent distress than attach-
ment to peers.
The last objective is to examine associations between participation
in sports activities prior to confinement as well as time to devoted to
physical activity during confinement, and adolescent distress. Namely,
we expected greater time devoted to physical activity during confine-
ment to be associated with lower distress, especially among those who
participated in organized sports prior to confinement.
Method
This study included 133 adolescents (90 girls, 43 boys) between
the ages of 11 and 17 (M = 15.26, SD = 1.46). Most adolescents
lived in a two-parent household (71.4% nuclear family, 12.8%
step-family), 12.8% of adolescents lived with a single parent, and
3% reported other living arrangements (living with a roommate, a
friend, a romantic partner, or another family member; living in a
group home; etc.). Less than 5% of adolescents were only chil-
dren, and 82% reported living with at least one sibling. The sample
varied with respect to adolescents’ educational level, with less
than 2% still in elementary school, 77.3% in high school, and
22.1% in college or other (workforce).
Procedure
Adolescents were recruited between June and August 2020 via
Facebook and Instagram to participate in an online study seeking
to better understand youth experiences during the COVID-19 pan-
demic. The link to access the questionnaire was available on the
study’s Facebook page, published on the researchers’ university
website. Advertisements on Facebook were purchased to increase
the study’s visibility, targeting adolescents between the ages of 14
and 17 from Quebec. Facebook was a good option to recruit partic-
ipants because it is shown to have a good representativity of the
population and can reach a large number of participants quickly
and cost-effectively (Whitaker et al., 2017).
Adolescents’ participation in the study was voluntary, and consent
was obtained before access to the online survey. Participants took
approximately 45 min to complete the survey, and those who did were
entered into a draw for a chance to win one of ten $50 gift cards. The
human participant procedures were reviewed and approved by the
ethics committees of the University of Sherbrooke.
Measures
A sociodemographic questionnaire was completed by adolescents
to obtain information regarding their age, gender, family structure,
family composition (only child status, number of siblings with
whom they reside, etc.), and school grade level. Participants also
provided information regarding their participation in organized
sports prior to confinement and the time devoted to physical or sports
activities in the last week.
The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA; Armsden
& Greenberg, 1987) is a 24-item self-reported questionnaire evalu-
ating adolescents’ positive and negative perceptions of affective
and cognitive dimensions of their relationships with their parents
and peers. Participants rate each item on a 4-point Likert scale
ranging from 1 (almost never true) to 5 (almost always true), gen-
erating two global continuous indices of attachment security: one
for parents and the other for peers. Items include statements such
as “My parents respect my feelings,” “I talk to my parents about
my problems and troubles,” and “My friends help me to under-
stand myself better.” A high global score reflects a high level of
attachment security. The IPPA has excellent psychometric qual-
ities (average internal consistency and test–retest reliability
scores = .90) and has been extensively used in studies evaluating
attachment security with adolescents aged 13 to 19 (Duchesne &
Larose, 2007; Harvey & Byrd, 2000; Laible et al., 2000; Pascuzzo
et al., 2013, 2015). In the context of the current study, Cronbach
as were .86 and .87 for the parent and peer scales, respectively.
The Psychological Distress Index (IDP; Préville et al., 1995) is
a 14-item questionnaire used in Quebec health surveys (Traoré et
al., 2018) measuring symptoms of depression, anxiety, irritability,
and cognitive problems over the past 2 weeks. A total distress
score is also provided. Participants rate each item on a 4-point Lik-
ert scale ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (very often). Items include
statements such as “Did you feel lonely?” “Did you feel any fears
or worries?” and “Did you feel easily upset or irritated?” A high
score reflects a high level of psychological distress. The IDP has
excellent psychometric qualities (as for the current study = .87,
.87, .82, .79, respectively) and has been extensively used in studies
evaluating psychological distress with adolescents as well as in
surveys on the health of high school students from Quebec (Traoré
et al., 2018). To establish the total distress thresholds (i.e., low,
moderate, or high), we used the quintiles cutoff scores as defined
in the 2010 to 2011 (Camirand et al., 2013) and 2016 to 2017 sur-
veys (Traoré et al., 2018). We thus calculated the total score for
the 14 items and converted it using a scale of 100 to establish the
 COVID-19: PURSUIT OF SPORTS FOR YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH
levels of distress according to the following thresholds: 0 to 11.89
for low distress, 11.90 to 42.85 for moderate distress, and 42.86
and greater for high distress, as specified in the 2010 to 2011 and
2016 to 2017 surveys.
Results
Data Analytic Strategy
Descriptive, comparative, and correlational analyses were first
undertaken to document adolescents’ levels of distress and to iden-
tify potential sociodemographic variables and youth characteristics
(i.e., gender, age, family structure, single child status) related to
adolescent symptoms of distress (i.e., total score and subscales:
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depression, anxiety, irritability, and cognitive problems). Next, de-
scriptive and correlation analyses were conducted with the de-
pendent (adolescent total distress, depression, anxiety, irritability,
and cognitive problems) and independent (attachment security to
parents and peers, participation in organized sports prior to con-
finement, and time devoted to physical or sports activities in the
last week) variables.
A series of hierarchical multiple regression analysis were then
conducted, one for each dependent variable, to test the relative
contribution of adolescent attachment security with parents and
peers as well as examine whether participation in organized sports
before confinement moderated the association between time
devoted to physical or sports activities in the last week and adoles-
cent distress. For each analysis, the identified covariates were
entered in the first step of the model. The second step included
quality of relationship with parents and peers as well as participa-
tion in organized sports before confinement and time devoted to
physical or sports activities in the last week as main effects. The
last step included the interaction term: Participation in Organized
Sports Before Confinement 3 Time Devoted to Physical or Sports
Activities in the Last Week. The variable “time devoted to physi-
cal or sports activities in the last week” was recoded into a contin-
uous scale using the median number of minutes per category. This
variable was also standardized prior to creating the interaction
term to avoid potential multicollinearity in the regression models
(Aiken et al., 1991).
Preliminary Analyses
Descriptive statistics first revealed that 66.9% of adolescents
reported high distress (fifth quintile according to the Quebec health
survey norms). This proportion of adolescents reporting the high-
est level of distress is more than two times greater than that
reported in the 2016–2017 Quebec health survey (29% of adoles-
cents; Traoré et al., 2018). Results also revealed that adolescent
girls, compared to their male counterparts, reported greater overall
symptoms of distress (r = .32, p = .00) as well as greater symp-
toms of depression (r = .35, p = .00), anxiety (r = .29, p = .01),
and irritability (r = .22, p = .05). Moreover, a significant positive
correlation was identified between adolescent age and anxiety
symptoms (r = .23, p = .01); as adolescents’ age increased, so did
their levels of anxiety. Of note, the positive association between
age and anxiety was found for both genders, although it was mar-
ginal for boys (girls: r = .26, p = .01; boys: r = .29, p = .06).
Lastly, results of analyses of variance and t tests revealed that
5
adolescents’ family structure, single child status, number of siblings,
and grade school level were not significantly associated with the total
distress score and each of its subscales (all p values $ .07).
Table 1 presents an overview of the sample with respect to the
independent variables (adolescent attachment to parents and peers,
participation in organized sports before confinement, and time
devoted to physical or sports activities in the last week). Table 2
presents descriptive data on the dependent variables (adolescent
total distress, depression, anxiety, irritability, and cognitive prob-
lems) and their correlations with the independent variables. Over-
all, correlations reveal that adolescents with greater attachment
security to parents and peers reported fewer symptoms of total dis-
tress (r = .41, p = .00; r = -.30, p = .01), depression (r = .36,
p = .00; r = .21, p = .02), anxiety (r = .30, p = .00; r = .23,
p = .01), and irritability (r = .43, p = .00; r = .32, p = .00),
respectively. However, only greater attachment security to peers
was significantly associated with fewer symptoms of cognitive
problems (r = .21, p = .02). Participation in organized sports
prior to confinement and time devoted to physical or sports activ-
ities in the last week were not significantly correlated with total
distress, nor with the four subscales. However, given the expected
moderation model, these variables were included in the assessed
models.
Regression-Based Moderation Analysis
We next tested the relative contribution of adolescent attach-
ment security with parents and peers as well as examined whether
participation in organized sports before confinement moderated
the association between adolescent distress and time devoted to
physical or sports activities in the last week . Given the results of
preliminary analyses, adolescents’ sex and age were entered as
covariables in the tested models.
Results of the five hierarchical multiple regression analyses are
presented in Table 3. It is noteworthy that all five of the overall
models were found to be significant. A significant model first
emerged for total distress, F(6, 126) = 10.45; p = .001, with adoles-
cent girls (b = 7.12, SE = 1.69; p = .00) reporting greater symp-
toms of total distress. On the other hand, greater adolescent
attachment security to parents (b = .37, SE = .09, p = .00) and
peers (b = .23, SE = .08, p = .01) were associated with fewer
symptoms of total distress. No additional significant main or inter-
action effects were identified. Hierarchical multiple regression
analyses were then repeated for each distress subscale to further
investigate expected associations.
A significant model was identified for adolescent depression,
F(6, 126) = 9.48, p = .00, with adolescent girls reporting greater
symptoms (b = 3.18, SE = .72; p = .00). On the other hand, greater
attachment security to parents (b = .15, SE = .04, p = .00) and
participation in organized sports before confinement (b = 1.46,
SE = .67, p = .03) were associated with fewer symptoms of depres-
sion. Results also revealed that participation in organized sports
before confinement moderated the association between time
devoted by adolescents to physical or sports activities in the last
week and symptoms of depression (b = 1.93, SE = .66, p = .00).
Specifically, for adolescents who did take part in organized sports
1
To obtain the overall F statistic for each dependent variable, a one-step
model was run, i.e., using a nonhierarchical approach.
 6 LAURIER, PASCUZZO, AND BEAULIEU

Table 1 SE = .03, p = .01) were associated with fewer irritability symp-

Descriptive Statistics for Independant Variables (n = 133) toms. No additional significant main or interaction effects were
identified.
Independent variables M (SD) or percentage Lastly, no significant main or interaction effects emerged for ad-
IPPA parents 45.15 (9.24) olescent cognitive problems (Table 3), despite a significant overall
IPPA peers 44.96 (9.71) model, F(6, 126) = 2.16, p = .05.
Sport prior to confinement (yes) 43.6%
Minutes of physical activity in the last week
0 to 30 min 24.1% Discussion
31 to 60 min 13.5%
61 to 120 min 15.8% Although studies on the effects of the pandemic on youth adap-
121 to 180 min 16.6% tation are abundant (Cao et al., 2020;Guessoum et al., 2020; Li &
181 to 360 min 15.0% Zhou, 2021; Marques de Miranda et al., 2020; Zhang, Ye, et al.,
More than 360 min 15.0%
2020; Zhou et al., 2020), research had yet to explore a more com-
Note. IPPA = Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment. prehensive model including variables most proximal to the adoles-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

cent, that is, their attachment security to parents and peers, their
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

before confinement, greater time devoted to physical or sports
activities in the last week was associated with fewer depression
symptoms, t(133) = 2.31, p = .02. However, for adolescents who
did not participate in organized sports before confinement, time
devoted to physical or sports activities in the last week was not
significantly related to youth depression symptoms, t(133) = .89,
p = .07 (Figure 1).
As for the model testing adolescent anxiety, F(6, 126) = 7.39,
p = .00 (Table 3), adolescent girls (b = 1.99, SE = .49; p = .00)
reported greater symptoms of anxiety. Also, as adolescents’ age
increased, so did their level of anxiety symptoms (b = .41, SE =
.15; p = .01). Nevertheless, greater adolescent attachment security
to parents (b = .07, SE = .02, p = .01) and peers (b = .05, SE =
.02, p = .05) were associated with fewer anxiety symptoms. No
additional significant main or interaction effects were identified.
With regard to adolescent irritability, F(6, 126) = 8.52; p = .00
(Table 3), adolescent girls (b = 1.45, SE = .61; p = .02) reported
greater symptoms. However, greater adolescent attachment secu-
rity to parents (b = .14, SE = .03, p = .00) and peers (b = .09,
participation in organized sports before confinement, and time
devoted to physical or sports activities in the last week during con-
finement. The overarching goal of the present study was therefore
to assess the unique association between each of these variables
and adolescents’ distress symptoms. Furthermore, this study
sought to assess whether participation in organized sports prior to
confinement moderated the association adolescents’ distress and
between time devoted to physical or sports activities in the last
week.
Noteworthy are the descriptive statistics of the current study,
indicating that the level of distress among adolescents a few
months after the start of the pandemic is alarming. Our results are
in line with those of international studies carried out in 2020 with
adult and adolescent populations, supporting the validity of our
findings (Bridgland et al., 2021; Cao et al., 2020; Cluver et al.,
2020; Cooke et al., 2020; Fernández et al., 2020; Généreux et al.,
2020; Guessoum et al., 2020; Li & Zhou, 2021; Marques de Mir-
anda et al., 2020; Prime et al., 2020; Shanahan et al., 2020; Zhang,
Zheng, et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2020). Indeed, more than two

Table 2
Correlations and Descriptive Statistics (n = 133)
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Gender (0 = M;
1 = F) __
Age .10 __
IPPA parents .09 .07 __
IPPA peers .06 .13 .29** __
Minutes (Zscore) .14 .15 .01 .10 __
Sport prior to
confinement
(0 = No;
1 = Yes) .19* .11 .09 .01 .12 __
IDP total .32*** .11 .41*** .30*** .14 .07 __
IDP depression .35*** .06 .36*** .21* .14 .09 .92*** __
IDP anxiety .29*** .23** .30*** .23** .12 .08 .86*** .74*** __
IDP irritability .22* .01 .43*** .318*** .10 .00 .87*** .73*** .63*** __
IDP cognitive
problems .06 .13 .14 .21* .17 .16 .48*** .32*** .33*** .30*** __
M __ 15.26 45.15 44.96 4.23 0.44 30.89 12.30 6.62 8.66 3.20
SD __ 1.46 9.24 9.71 1.88 0.5 10.38 4.38 2.84 3.63 1.65
Range __ 11–17 17–60 17–60 1–7 0–1 14–56 5–20 3–12 4–16 2–8
Note. IPPA = Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment; IDP = Psychological Distress Index. Higher scores indicate greater manifestations of the given
dimension.
* p , .05. ** p , .01. *** p , .001.
 COVID-19: PURSUIT OF SPORTS FOR YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH 7

Table 3
Hierarchical Regression Models
Total distress Depression Anxiety Irritability Cognitive problems
F(6, 126) = 10.45; F(6, 126) = 9.48; F(6, 126) = 7.39; F(6, 126) = 8.52; F(6, 126) = 2.16;
Variables p = .00 p = .00 p = .00 p = .00 p = .05
Bloc 1 b (SE) b (SE) b (SE) b (SE) b (SE)
Age 0.55 (.04) 0.13 (.23) 0.41 (.15)** 0.09 (.19) 0.08 (.10)
Gender (0 = M; 1 = F) 7.12 (1.68)*** 3.18 (.72)*** 1.99 (.49)*** 1.45 (.61)* 0.32 (.31)
Bloc 2 b (SE) b (SE) b (SE) b (SE) b (SE)
IPPA parents 0.37 (.09)*** 0.15 (.04)*** 0.07 (.02)** 0.14 (.03)*** 0.02 (.02)
IPPA peers 0.23 (.08)** 0.07 (.03) 0.05 (.02)* 0.09 (.03)** 0.03 (.02)
Minutes last week (z score) 1.10 (1.53) 0.89 (.49) 0.24 (.33) 0.30 (.42) 0.34 (.21)
Sport prior (0 = No; 1 = Yes) 3.04 (1.59) 1.46 (67)* 0.80 (.46) 0.41 (.57) 0.51 (.29)
Bloc 3 b (SE) b (SE) b (SE) b (SE) b (SE)
Interaction Min*Sport 2.61 (1.55) 1.93 (.66)** 0.33 (.45) 1.02 (.56) 0.32 (.29)
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

R2 Bloc 1 – explained variance 11.9% 12.9% 15.1% 4.7% 2.0%

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

R2 Bloc 2 – explained variance 20.3% 15.4% 10.9% 22.6% 8.2%

R2 Bloc 3 – explained variance 1.5% 4.6% 0.3% 1.9% 0.9%
Note. IPPA = Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment.
* p , .05. ** p , .01. *** p , .001.

thirds of adolescents (69%) in the current study presented high
levels of distress, whereas these levels are usually shown in less
than one third of adolescents in population-based surveys (Traoré
et al., 2018). In addition, adolescent girls appear significantly
more distressed than adolescent boys with respect to depression,
anxiety, and irritability, which is consistent with the gender-related
differences found in the 2018 population health survey conducted
in Quebec (Traoré et al., 2018). Furthermore, in the present study,
adolescents’ age was positively correlated with anxiety symptoms,
which could potentially be explained by the fact that older adoles-
cents have greater knowledge on the evolution of the pandemic, a
known factor related to anxiety levels in other similar studies
(Guessoum et al., 2020; Li et al., 2016 in Zhou et al., 2020). Older
adolescents may indeed find themselves at a turning point where
they have a greater understanding of what is happening and the
dangers associated with the pandemic, but do not yet have the cog-
nitive and affective maturity required to have a sense of personal
control over the situation, which can cause significant anxiety.
These initial results undeniably reflect the negative impacts of
the COVID-19 pandemic on the psychological well-being of ado-
lescents and confirm the need to explore their personal and envi-
ronmental factors that could potentially mitigate its effects. It is in
Figure 1
Adolescent Depression Score According to Time Devoted to
Sports
this context that we studied more specifically the effects of adoles-
cent attachment relationships with parents and peers as well as
participation in sports and physical activities prepandemic and in
the week prior to administration of the questionnaires as key varia-
bles likely to protect the psychological health of adolescents.
Given the extremely high rates of distress expressed by adolescents
during this pandemic, identifying protective factors is essential to de-
velop and implement support initiatives and programs to promote their
psychological adjustment through these uncertain times.
To this end, the results of correlational analyses revealed that
the Psychological Distress subscales were significantly associated
with adolescent attachment relationships with parents and peers.
Specifically, the more adolescents revealed a secure attachment
relationship with parents and peers, the less they showed high lev-
els of psychological distress in terms of depression, anxiety, and
irritability. Surprisingly, only attachment security to peers was
negatively related to cognitive difficulties. Furthermore, on their
own, participation in organized sports before confinement and
time devoted to physical or sports activities in the last week were
unrelated to youth distress scores. However, given our prediction
that the association between time devoted to activities in the last
week and level of youth distress would differ based on participa-
tion in organized sports prior to confinement, we first tested the
interaction effect of these two variables on adolescents’ total dis-
tress scores.
Results of our comprehensive model on total distress symptoms
revealed that adolescent girls showed greater total distress levels
compared to their male counterparts. In terms of factors associated
with lower total distress, positive relationships with parents and
peers as well as participation in organized sports prior to confinement
were identified. To have a better understanding of the distress dimen-
sions most associated with these factors, we then extended our analyses
to each distress subscale.
With regard to the Depression subscale, results confirmed that
adolescent girls were more likely than adolescent boys to show
greater symptoms. Those who reported positive relationships with
their parents were less depressed, as were those who took part in
preconfinement organized sports. Accordingly, when considered
together, attachment to parents, but not peers, was significantly
 8 LAURIER, PASCUZZO, AND BEAULIEU
related to depression scores. It is important to highlight that these
results are in line with those of Wilkinson and Walford (2001),
who also failed to identify associations between attachment to
peers and depression using a concurrent design with a larger sam-
ple (N = 404). Although associations between attachment insecur-
ity toward peers and symptoms of psychopathology have been
demonstrated in a few studies (Laible et al., 2000; Lee & Hankin,
2009; Muris et al., 2001; Wilkinson, 2010), we interpret our
results as suggesting that the effect of attachment security to peers
disappears (or is weakened in some cases) when attachment to
parents is considered in the model. These findings are also consist-
ent with those of Zeifman and Hazan (2002/2008), who found that
parents were the preferred bases of security for participants
between the ages of 6 and 17. They are even more so in periods of
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high stress (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992; Zeifman & Hazan,
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
2002/2008). In addition, it is important to remember that in the
context of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially at its peak, direct
social relationships were restricted to the family nucleus. Accord-
ingly, contact with peers could only take place virtually, which
may limit their association with depression levels.
The tested model with depression also revealed a significant
interaction effect between prepandemic sport involvement and
time devoted to sports of physical activity in the last week on
depression levels. This interaction effect added to the proportion
of explained variance of the regression model. Specifically, ath-
letic adolescents who continued to be active during confinement
(as assessed in the last week) were significantly less depressed
than prepandemic athletes who were less active. This important
finding provides an empirical basis for recommendations pertain-
ing to the importance of physical activity among adolescents dur-
ing the COVID-19 pandemic. Indeed, taking part in organized
sports seems to have a positive effect on depression in general
(Biddle et al., 2019; Parker et al., 2014; WHO, 2020), but particu-
larly among those who continue to be active during the pandemic.
Accordingly, our results suggest that it is not the amount of physi-
cal activity that counts the most, but rather the maintenance of
physical activity despite the lockdown. Physical activation among
those who were already involved in physical activity prior to con-
finement and who remain active during confinement seems to act
as a protective factor against the development of depressive symp-
toms. Our results point to the importance of consistency in adoles-
cents’ lives during the pandemic. Being able to engage in familiar
activities, when most pillars of stability have vanished, can be a
protective factor in and of itself. Further studies investigating this
stability hypothesis will be necessary.
It is thus essential that adults support young people already
involved in organized sports to find ways to stay active. One can
imagine that for these young athletes, sports and teammates are
an integral part of their identity. Should this part of their lives be
wiped out suddenly and without warning, youth could experience
a significant loss of bearings, exacerbating their distress related to
the pandemic (Shanahan et al., 2020). Sudden inactivity is also a
symptom of depression, as is the loss of interest and pleasure in
usually pleasurable activities (American Psychiatric Association,
2013). On a positive note, sports and physical activities practiced
at home or outdoors that comply with health regulations are possi-
ble and could be easily accessible for many adolescents (e.g.,
street hockey, jogging, tennis, etc.). Yet, for others living in unsafe
or challenging environment (e.g., restricted space), accessibility
may be limited. For these children in particular, we encourage
local authorities to invest in initiatives that provide young people
with access to safe spaces where they can continue to move (parks,
playgrounds, dedicated areas) and engage in physical activity as a
means to promote stability in their lives and help them cope with
this unprecedent situation. It should also be remembered that phys-
ical activity is an excellent means of preventing depression for the
entire population in general (WHO, 2020), beyond the context of
the pandemic.
As with depression, adolescent girls, compared to boys, showed
greater symptoms of anxiety and irritability. Again, these results
are in line with the 2016–2017 Quebec health survey (Traoré et
al., 2018). However, contrary to the findings with depression, both
secure attachment relationships with parents and peers, albeit rela-
tionships with peers to a lesser extent, were associated with fewer
symptoms of anxiety and irritability. For these specific subscales
of distress, support provided by close others is key, as is also put
forward in the research by Cao et al., (2020). We can indeed imag-
ine that having a confidant with whom to discuss and share feel-
ings of anxiety and annoyances associated with the pandemic and
health measures could lessen adolescents’ levels of distress. Our
results thus underscore that quality relationships with parents and close
friends are essential for youth mental health during this stressful and
uncertain time.
Again, these results are congruent with those reported by Zeifman
and Hazan (2002/2008), who reported that adolescents increasingly
seek out peers for comfort and emotional support, despite parents
remaining the preferred attachment figure. The results of the current
study therefore confirm and extend previous research by highlighting
the unique association between adolescent attachment security to
parents and peers and various dimensions of distress.
Limitations
Despite the new insight our study provides, we interpret these
results with caution, given the correlational nature of the study. In
fact, all measures were assessed concurrently such that we were
unable to control for adolescents’ prepandemic distress level. Fur-
thermore, we were unable to assess whether attachment security
with parents and peers predicted youth symptoms of distress over
time. Nevertheless, participants’ answers with regard to youth par-
ticipation in organized sports prior to confinement and the amount
of time devoted to sports or physical activity in the last week
incorporate a temporal dimension to the current study. As a result,
we are confident in our interpretation of study findings underscor-
ing the importance of providing youth with opportunities to
engage in physical activities, especially among those who took
part in organized sports prior to confinement.
Other limitations are important to consider for the generalizabil-
ity of study findings. For instance, participant recruitment via
social media could have affected the representativeness of the
sample (e.g., adolescents with access to social media and techno-
logical devices). In addition, adolescents most affected and most
in need of sharing their experiences may have been more likely to
participate in the present study. However, the high distress rates
found in this sample are comparable to those found in other similar
study (Zhou et al., 2020), adding to the validity of our findings.
Finally, adolescent girls were overrepresented in our sample.
 COVID-19: PURSUIT OF SPORTS FOR YOUTH MENTAL HEALTH
However, we controlled for gender in the regression analyses,
which reduces the impact of this limitation on our results.
Conclusion
Despite these limitations, our study innovated by providing a
clearer understanding of the moderating role of prior participation
in organized sports in the association between time devoted to
sports or physical activities in the last week and depression levels
among adolescents facing the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore,
this interaction effect was found to be significant beyond the influ-
ence of attachment security toward parents and peers, known pre-
dictors of youth adaptation (Moreira et al., 2021; Zimmer-
Gembeck et al., 2017).
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The results regarding the associations between attachment secu-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
rity to close others and adolescents' psychological distress demon-
strate the extent to which, in the context of the pandemic, parents
and peers (to a lesser extent), have a central role to play in provid-
ing a secure base for adolescents. Also, the interaction effect
between preconfinement participation in organized sports and time
devoted to sports or physical activities in the last week under-
scores the importance of preserving as many elements of continu-
ity as possible in the lives of adolescents facing multiple changes
and restrictions related to COVID-19. In fact, young people who
were active before confinement and during confinement were
found to be the least vulnerable with regard to depression. Future
research will be necessary to assess the long-term effects of these
personal and environmental factors on youth mental health
throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Additional research could
also shed light on whether these associations can be extended to
other activities such as cultural and artistic hobbies.
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Received December 23, 2020
Revision received May 15, 2021
Accepted May 26, 2021 n