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Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education

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 LEARNING AND TEACHING STYLES
IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION
[Engr. Education, 78(7), 674–681 (1988)]

Author’s Preface — June 2002

by Richard M. Felder

When Linda Silverman and I wrote this paper in 1987, our goal was to offer some insights about
teaching and learning based on Dr. Silverman’s expertise in educational psychology and my
experience in engineering education that would be helpful to some of my fellow engineering
professors. When the paper was published early in 1988, the response was astonishing. Almost
immediately, reprint requests flooded in from all over the world. The paper started to be cited in
the engineering education literature, then in the general science education literature; it was the
first article cited in the premier issue of ERIC’s National Teaching and Learning Forum; and it
was the most frequently cited paper in articles published in the Journal of Engineering Education
over a 10-year period. A self-scoring web-based instrument called the Index of Learning Styles
that assesses preferences on four scales of the learning style model developed in the paper
currently gets about 100,000 hits a year and has been translated into half a dozen languages that I
know about and probably more that I don’t, even though it has not yet been validated. The 1988
paper is still cited more than any other paper I have written, including more recent papers on
learning styles.
A problem is that in recent years I have found reasons to make two significant changes in
the model: dropping the inductive/deductive dimension, and changing the visual/auditory
category to visual/verbal. (I will shortly explain both modifications.) When I set up my web
site, I deliberately left the 1988 paper out of it, preferring that readers consult more recent
articles on the subject that better reflected my current thinking. Since the paper seems to have
acquired a life of its own, however, I decided to add it to the web site with this preface included
to explain the changes. The paper is reproduced following the preface, unmodified from the
original version except for changes in layout I made for reasons that would be known to anyone
who has ever tried to scan a 3-column article with inserts and convert it into a Microsoft Word
document.

Deletion of the inductive/deductive dimension

I have come to believe that while induction and deduction are indeed different learning
preferences and different teaching approaches, the “best” method of teaching—at least below
the graduate school level—is induction, whether it be called problem-based learning, discovery
learning, inquiry learning, or some variation on those themes. On the other hand, the traditional
college teaching method is deduction, starting with "fundamentals" and proceeding to
applications.

The problem with inductive presentation is that it isn't concise and prescriptive—you
have to take a thorny problem or a collection of observations or data and try to make sense of it.
Many or most students would say that they prefer deductive presentation—“Just tell me exactly
what I need to know for the test, not one word more or less.” (My speculation in the paper that
more students would prefer induction was refuted by additional sampling.) I don't want
 2

instructors to be able to determine somehow that their students prefer deductive presentation and
use that result to justify continuing to use the traditional but less effective lecture paradigm in
their courses and curricula. I have therefore omitted this dimension from the model.

Change of the visual/auditory dimension to the visual/verbal dimension

“Visual” information clearly includes pictures, diagrams, charts, plots, animations, etc.,
and “auditory” information clearly includes spoken words and other sounds. The one medium of
information transmission that is not clear is written prose. It is perceived visually and so
obviously cannot be categorized as auditory, but it is also a mistake to lump it into the visual
category as though it were equivalent to a picture in transmitting information. Cognitive
scientists have established that our brains generally convert written words into their spoken
equivalents and process them in the same way that they process spoken words. Written words
are therefore not equivalent to real visual information: to a visual learner, a picture is truly worth
a thousand words, whether they are spoken or written. Making the learning style pair visual and
verbal solves this problem by permitting spoken and written words to be included in the same
category (verbal). For more details about the cognition studies that led to this conclusion, see
R.M. Felder and E.R. Henriques, “Learning and Teaching Styles in Foreign and Second
Language Education,” Foreign Language Annals, 28 (1), 21–31 (1995).
<http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/FLAnnals.pdf>.

The Index of Learning Styles

The Index of Learning Styles (ILS) is a self-scoring web-based instrument that assesses
preferences on the Sensing/Intuiting, Visual/Verbal, Active/Reflective, and Sequential/Global
dimensions. It is available free to individuals and instructors who wish to use it for teaching and
research on their own classes, and it is licensed to companies and individuals who plan to use it
for broader research studies or services to customers or clients. To access the ILS and
information about it, go to <http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSpage.html>.

And now, the paper.

 674
“Professors confronted by low test grades, unresponsive or hostile classes, poor attendance
and dropouts, know that something is wrong.” The authors explain what has happened and how
to make it right.

Learning and Teaching Styles

In Engineering Education
Richard M. Felder, North Carolina State University
Linda K. Silverman, Institute for the Study of
[Engr. Education, 78(7), 674–681 (1988)]
Students learn in many ways— by
seeing and hearing; reflecting and
acting; reasoning logically and
intuitively; memorizing and
visualizing and drawing analogies
and building mathematical models;
steadily and in fits and starts.
Teaching methods also vary. Some
instructors lecture, others
demonstrate or discuss; some focus
on principles and others on applica-
tions; some emphasize memory and
others understanding. How much a
given student learns in a class is
governed in part by that student’s
native ability and prior preparation
but also by the compatibility of his
or her learning style and the
instructor’s teaching style.
Mismatches exist between com-
mon learning styles of engineering
students and traditional teaching
styles of engineering professors. In
consequence, students become
bored and inattentive in class, do
poorly on tests, get discouraged
about the courses, the curriculum,
and themselves, and in some cases
change to other curricula or drop
out of school. Professors,
confronted by low test grades,
unresponsive or hostile classes,
poor attendance and dropouts, know
something is not working; they may
become overly critical of their
Advanced Development
students (making things even worse)
or begin to wonder if they are in the
right profession. Most seriously,
society loses potentially excellent
engineers.
In discussing this situation, we will
explore:
1) Which aspects of learning style
are particularly significant in engi-
neering education?
2) Which learning styles are pre-
ferred by most students and which are
favored by the teaching styles of most
professors?
3) What can be done to reach stu-
dents whose learning styles are not
addressed by standard methods of
engineering education?
Dimensions of Learning Style
Learning in a structured educa-
tional setting may be thought of as a
two-step process involving the recep-
tion and processing of information. In
the reception step, external in-
formation (observable through the
senses) and internal information
(arising introspectively) become
available to students, who select the
material they will process and ignore
the rest. The processing step may
involve simple memorization or in-
ductive or deductive reasoning, re-
flection or action, and introspection or
interaction with others. The outcome is
that the material is either “learned” in
one sense or another or not learned.
A learning-style model classifies
students according to where they fit on a
number of scales pertaining to the ways
they receive and process information. A
model intended to be particularly
applicable to engineering education is
proposed below. Also proposed is a
parallel teaching-style model, which
classifies instructional methods
according to how well they address the
proposed learning style components. The
learning and teaching style dimensions
that define the models are shown in the
box.
Most of the learning and teaching
style components parallel one another.*
A student who favors intuitive over
sensory perception, for example, would
respond well to an instructor who
emphasizes concepts (abstract content)
rather than facts (concrete content); a
student who favors visual perception
would be most comfortable with an
instructor who uses charts, pictures, and
films.
* The one exception is the active/
reflective learning style dimension and
the active/passive teaching style dimen-
sion, which do not exactly correspond.
The difference will later be explained.
 675

The proposed learning style di- Models of Learning &

mensions are neither original nor Teaching Styles
comprehensive. For example, the first
dimension—sensing/intuition— is one A student’s learning style may be defined in large part by the answers to
of four dimensions of a well-known five questions:
model based on Jung’s theory of 1) What type of information does the student preferentially perceive:
psychological types,1’2 and the fourth sensory (external)—sights, sounds, physical sensations, or intuitive (in-
dimension—active/reflective ternal)—possibilities, insights, hunches?
processing—is a component of a 2) Through which sensory channel is external information most effectively
learning style model developed by perceived: visual—pictures, diagrams, graphs, demonstrations, or auditory—
Kolb.3 Other dimensions of these two words, sounds? (Other sensory channels—touch, taste, and smell—are
models and dimensions of other mod- relatively unimportant in most educational environments and will not be
els4’5 also play important roles in considered here.)
determining how a student receives 3) With which organization of information is the student most com-
fortable: inductive—facts and observations are given, underlying principles
and processes information. The hy-
are inferred, or deductive—principles are given, consequences and
pothesis, however, is that engineering applications are deduced?
instructors who adapt their teaching 4) How does the student prefer to process information: actively— through
style to include both poles of each of engagement in physical activity or discussion, or reflectively— through
the given dimensions should come introspection?
close to providing an optimal learning 5) How does the student progress toward understanding: sequentially—in
environment for most (if not all) continual steps, or globally—in large jumps, holistically?
students in a class.
There are 32 (25) learning styles in Teaching style may also be defined in terms of the answers to five
questions:
the proposed conceptual framework,
1) What type of information is emphasized by the instructor: concrete—
(one, for example, is the sensory/ factual, or abstract—conceptual, theoretical?
auditory/deductive/active/sequential 2) What mode of presentation is stressed: visual—pictures, diagrams,
style). Most instructors would be films, demonstrations, or verbal— lectures, readings, discussions?
intimidated by the prospect of trying 3) How is the presentation organized: inductively—phenomena leading to
to accommodate 32 diverse styles in a principles, or deductively— principles leading to phenomena?
given class; fortunately, the task is not 4) What mode of student participation is facilitated by the presentation:
as formidable as it might at first active—students talk, move, reflect, or passive—students watch and listen?
appear. The usual methods of engi- 5) What type of perspective is provided on the information presented:
neering education adequately address sequential—step-by-step progression (the trees), or global—context and
relevance (the forest)?
five categories (intuitive, auditory,
deductive, reflective, and sequential), Dimensions of Learning and Teaching Styles
and effective teaching techniques
substantially overlap the remaining Preferred Learning Style Corresponding Teaching Style
categories. The addition of a relatively sensory concrete
small number of teaching techniques perception content
to an instructor’s repertoire should intuitive abstract
therefore suffice to accommodate the visual visual
learning styles of every student in the input presentation
class. Defining these techniques is the auditory verbal
principal objective of the remainder of inductive inductive
organization organization
this paper. deductive
deductive
active active student
processing participation
reflective passive
sequential sequential
understanding perspective
global global

Sensing and Intuitive Learners
In his theory of psychological types,
Carl Jung6 introduced sensing and
intuition as the two ways in which
people tend to perceive the world.
Sensing involves observing, gathering
data through the senses; intuition
involves indirect perception by way of
the unconscious—speculation, imagin-
ation, hunches. Everyone uses both
faculties, but most people tend to favor
one over the other.
In the 1940s Isabel Briggs Myers
developed the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI), an instrument that
measures, among other things, the
degree to which an individual prefers
sensing or intuition. In the succeeding
decades the MBTI has been given to
hundreds of thousands of people and
the resulting profiles have been
correlated with career preferences and
aptitudes, management styles, learning
styles, and various behavioral
tendencies. The characteristics of
intuitive and sensing types7 and the
different ways in which sensors and
intuitors approach learning1,2 have been
studied.
Sensors like facts, data, and ex-
perimentation; intuitors prefer prin-
ciples and theories. Sensors like solv-
ing problems by standard methods and
dislike “surprises”; intuitors like
innovation and dislike repetition.
Sensors are patient with detail but do
not like complications; intuitors are
bored by detail and welcome
complications. Sensors are good at
memorizing facts; intuitors are good at
grasping new concepts. Sensors are
careful but may be slow; intuitors are
quick but may be careless. These
characteristics are tendencies of the
two types, not invariable behavior
patterns: any individual—even a strong
sensor or intuitor—may manifest signs
of either type on any given occasion.
An important distinction is that
intuitors are more comfortable with
symbols than are sensors. Since words
are symbols, translating them into what
they represent comes naturally to
intuitors and is a struggle for sensors.
Sensors’ slowness in translating words
puts them at a disadvantage in timed
tests: since they may have to read
questions several times before
beginning to answer them, they
frequently run out of time. Intuitors
may also do poorly on timed tests but
for a different reason—their impa-
tience with details may induce them to
start answering questions before they
have read them thoroughly and to
make careless mistakes.
Most engineering courses other than
laboratories emphasize concepts rather
than facts and use primarily lectures
and readings (words, symbols) to
transmit information, and so favor
intuitive learners. Several studies show
that most professors are themselves
intuitors. On the other hand, the
majority of engineering students are
sensors,8-10 suggesting a serious
learning/teaching style mismatch in
most engineering courses. The
existence of the mismatch is
substantiated by Godleski,11,12 who
found that in both chemical and
electrical engineering courses intuitive
students almost invariably got higher
grades than sensing students. The one
exception was a senior course in
chemical process design and cost
estimation, which the author
characterizes as a “solid sensing
course” (i.e. one that involves facts
and repetitive calculations by well-
defined procedures as opposed to
many new ideas and abstract
concepts).
While sensors may not perform as
well as intuitors in school, both types
are capable of becoming fine engineers
and are essential to engineering
practice. Many engineering tasks
require the awareness of surroundings,
attentiveness to details, experimental
thoroughness, and practicality that are
the hallmarks of sensors; many other
tasks require the creativity, theoretical
ability, and talent at inspired
guesswork that characterize intuitors.
To be effective, engineering edu-
cation should reach both types, rather
than directing itself primarily to
intuitors. The material presented
should be a blend of concrete in-
formation (facts, data, observable
phenomena) and abstract concepts
(principles, theories, mathematical
models). The two teaching styles that
correspond to the sensing and intuitive
learning styles are therefore called
concrete and abstract.*
Specific teaching methods that
effectively address the educational
* Concrete experience and abstract
conceptualization are two poles of a
learning style dimension in Kolb’s ex-
periential learning model7 that are
closely related to sensing and intuition.
676
needs of sensors and intuitors are
listed in the summary.
Visual and Auditory Learners
The ways people receive informa-
tion may be divided into three cate-
gories, sometimes referred to as mo-
dalities: visual—sights, pictures,
diagrams, symbols; auditory— sounds,
words; kinesthetic—taste, touch, and
smell. An extensive body of research
has established that most people learn
most effectively with one of the three
modalities and tend to miss or ignore
information presented in either of the
other two.13-17 There are thus visual,
auditory, and kinesthetic learners.*
Visual learners remember best what
they see: pictures, diagrams, flow
charts, time lines, films, dem-
onstrations. If something is simply
said to them they will probably forget
it. Auditory learners remember much
of what they hear and more of what
they hear and then say. They get a lot
out of discussion, prefer verbal
explanation to visual demonstration,
and learn effectively by explaining
things to others.
Most people of college age and
older are visual13,18 while most college
teaching is verbal—the information
presented is predominantly auditory
(lecturing) or a visual representation of
auditory information (words and
mathematical symbols written in texts
and handouts, on transparencies, or on
a chalkboard). A second learning/
teaching style mismatch thus exists,
* Visual and auditory learning both
have to do with the component of the
learning process in which information
is perceived, while kinesthetic learning
involves both information perception
(touching, tasting, smelling) and in-
formation processing (moving,
relating, doing something active while
learning). As noted previously, the
perception-related aspects of
kinesthetic learning are at best
marginally relevant to engineering
education; accordingly, only visual
and auditory modalities are addressed
in this section. The processing compo-
nents of the kinesthetic modality are
included in the active/reflective learn-
ing style category.

“Inductive learners need to see phenomena before they can understand underlying theory.”
this one between the preferred input
modality of most students and the pre-
ferred presentation mode of most
professors. Irrespective of the extent
of the mismatch, presentations that use
both visual and auditory modalities
reinforce learning for all stu-
dents.4,14,19,20 The point is made by a
study carried out by the Socony-Vac-
uum Oil Company that concludes that
students retain 10 percent of what they
read, 26 percent of what they hear, 30
percent of what they see, 50 percent of
what they see and hear, 70 percent of
what they say, and 90 percent of what
they say as they do something.21
How to teach both visual and au-
ditory learners: Few engineering in-
structors would have to modify what
they usually do in order to present
information auditorily: lectures
accomplish this task. What must
generally be added to accommodate all
students is visual material—pictures,
diagrams, sketches. Process flow
charts, network diagrams, and logic or
information flow charts should be used
to illustrate complex processes or
algorithms; mathematical functions
should be illustrated by graphs; and
films or live demonstrations of
working processes should be presented
whenever possible.
Inductive and Deductive
Learners
Induction is a reasoning progression
that proceeds from particulars
(observations, measurements, data) to
generalities (governing rules, laws,
theories). Deduction proceeds in the
opposite direction. In induction one
infers principles; in deduction one
deduces consequences.
Induction is the natural human
learning style. Babies do not come
into life with a set of general princi-
ples but rather observe the world
around them and draw inferences: “If I
throw my bottle and scream loudly,
someone eventually shows up.” Most
of what we learn on our own (as
opposed to in class) originates in a real
situation or problem that needs to be
addressed and solved, not in a general
principle; deduction may be part of the
solution process but it is never the
entire process.
On the other hand, deduction is the
natural human teaching style, at least
for technical subjects at the college
level. Stating the governing prin-
ciples and working down to the
677
applications is an efficient and elegant
way to organize and present material
that is already understood.
Consequently, most engineering cur-
ricula are laid out along deductive
lines, beginning with “fundamentals”
for sophomores and arriving at design
and operations by the senior year. A
similar progression is normally used to
present material within individual
courses: principles first, applications
later (if ever).
Our informal surveys suggest that
most engineering students view
themselves as inductive learners. We
also asked a group of engineering
professors to identify their own
learning and teaching styles: half of
the 46 professors identified them-
selves as inductive and half as de-
ductive learners, but all agreed that
their teaching was almost purely de-
ductive. To the extent that these re-
sults can be generalized, in the or-
ganization of information along
inductive/deductive lines—as in the
other dimensions discussed so far—a
mismatch thus exists between the
learning styles of most engineering
students and the teaching style to
which they are almost invariably ex-
posed.

One problem with deductive
presentation is that it gives a seriously
misleading impression. When students
see a perfectly ordered and concise
exposition of a relatively complex
derivation they tend to think that the
author/instructor originally came up
with the material in the same neat
fashion, which they (the students)
could never have done. They may then
conclude that the course and perhaps
the curriculum and the profession are
beyond their abilities. They are correct
in thinking that they could not have
come up with that result in that
manner; what they do not know is that
neither could the professor nor the
author the first time around. Un-
fortunately, students never get to see
the real process—the false starts and
blind alleys, the extensive trial-and-
error efforts that eventually lead to the
elegant presentation in the book or on
the board. An element of inductive
teaching is necessary for the instructor
to be able to diminish the students’
awe and increase their realistic
perceptions of problem-solving.
Much research supports the notion
that the inductive teaching approach
promotes effective learning. The
benefits claimed for this approach
include increased academic achieve-
ment and enhanced abstract reasoning
skills;22 longer retention of in-
formation;23’24 improved ability to
apply principles;25 confidence in
problem-solving abilities;26 and in-
creased capability for inventive
thought.27’28
Inductive learners need motivation
for learning. They do not feel
comfortable with the “Trust me—this
stuff will be useful to you some day”
approach: like sensors, they need to
see the phenomena before they can
understand and appreciate the
underlying theory.
How to teach both deductive and
inductive learners: An effective way
to reach both groups is to follow the
scientific method in classroom
presentations: first induction, then
deduction. The instructor precedes
presentations of theoretical material
Active learners do not learn
much in situations that require
them to be passive, and reflective
learners do not learn much in
situations that provide no
opportunity to think about the
information being presented.
with a statement of observable
phenomena that the theory will
explain or of a physical problem the
theory will be used to solve; infers the
governing rules or principles that ex-
plain the observed phenomena; and
deduces other implications and con-
sequences of the inferred principles.
Perhaps most important, some home-
work problems should be assigned that
present phenomena and ask for the
underlying rules. Such problems play
to the inductive learners strength and
they also help deductive learners
develop facility with their less-
preferred learning mode. Several such
exercises have been suggested for
different branches of engineering.29
Active and Reflective Learners
The complex mental processes by
which perceived information is con-
verted into knowledge can be conve-
niently grouped into two categories:
active experimentation and reflective
observation.3 Active experimentation
involves doing something in the
external world with the information—
discussing it or explaining it or testing
it in some way—and reflective
observation involves examining and
manipulating the information in-
trospectively. * An “active learner” is
someone who feels more comfortable
with, or is better at, active ex-
perimentation than reflective ob-
servation, and conversely for a reflec-
* The active learner and the reflec-
tive learner are closely related to the
extravert and introvert, respectively, of
the Jung-Myers-Briggs model.1 The
active learner also has much in
common with the kinesthetic learner
of the modality and neurolinguistic
programming literature.14,15
678
tive learner. There are indications that
engineers are more likely to be active
than reflective learners.20
Active learners do not learn much
in situations that require them to be
passive (such as most lectures), and
reflective learners do not learn much
in situations that provide no opportu-
nity to think about the information
being presented (such as most lec-
tures). Active learners work well in
groups; reflective learners work better
by themselves or with at most one
other person. Active learners tend to
be experimentalists; reflective learners
tend to be theoreticians.
At first glance there appears to be a
considerable overlap between active
learners and sensors, both of whom
are involved in the external world of
phenomena, and between reflective
learners and intuitors, both of whom
favor the internal world of abstraction.
The categories are independent,
however. The sensor preferentially
selects information available in the
external world but may process it
either actively or reflectively, in the
latter case by postulating explanations
or interpretations, drawing analogies,
or formulating models. Similarly, the
intuitor selects information generated
internally but may process it
reflectively or actively, in the latter
case by setting up an experiment to
test out the idea or trying it out on a
colleague.
In the list of teaching-style catego-
ries (table 1) the opposite of active is
passive, not reflective, with both terms
referring to the nature of student
participation in class. “Active”
signifies that students do something in
class beyond simply listening and
watching, e.g., discussing, question-
ing, arguing, brainstorming, or re-
flecting. Active student participation
thus encompasses the learning pro-
cesses of active experimentation and
reflective observation. A class in
which students are always passive is a
class in which neither the active
experimenter nor the reflective ob-
server can learn effectively. Unfortu-

nately, most engineering classes fall
into this category.
As is true of all the other learning-
style dimensions, both active and re-
flective learners are needed as engi-
neers. The reflective observers are the
theoreticians, the mathematical
modelers, the ones who can define the
problems and propose possible
solutions. The active experimenters are
the ones who evaluate the ideas, design
and carry out the experiments, and find
the solutions that work—the
organizers, the decision-makers. How
to teach both active and reflective
learners: Primarily, the instructor
should alternate lectures with
occasional pauses for thought
(reflective) and brief discussion or
problem-solving activities (active), and
should present material that
emphasizes both practical problem-
solving (active) and fundamental un-
derstanding (reflective). An excep-
tionally effective technique for
reaching active learners is to have
students organize themselves at their
seats in groups of three or four and
periodically come up with collective
answers to questions posed by the
instructor. The groups may be given
from 30 seconds to five minutes to do
so, after which the answers are shared
and discussed for as much or as little
time as the instructor wishes to spend
on the exercise. Besides forcing
thought about the course material, such
brainstorming exercises can indicate
material that students don’t
understand; provide a more congenial
classroom environment than can be
achieved with a formal lecture; and
involve even the most introverted
students, who would never participate
in a full class discussion. One such
exercise lasting no more than five
minutes in the middle of a lecture
period can make the entire period a
stimulating and rewarding educational
experience.31
Sequential and Global Learners
Most formal education involves the
presentation of material in a logically
ordered progression, with the pace of
679
global learners. Since they do not learn
Global learners should be given in a steady or predictable manner they
tend to feel out-of-step with their
the freedom to devise their own fellow students and incapable of
methods of solving problems meeting the expectations of their
rather than being forced to teachers. They may feel stupid when
they are struggling to master material
adopt the professor’s strategy, with which most of their
and they should be exposed contemporaries seem to have little
trouble. Some eventually become
periodically to advanced
discouraged with education and drop
concepts before these concepts out. However, global learners are the
would normally be introduced. last students who should be lost to
higher education and society. They are
the synthesizers, the multidisciplinary
learning dictated by the clock and
researchers, the systems thinkers, the
the calendar. When a body of material
ones who see the connections no one
has been covered the students are
else sees. They can be truly
tested on their mastery and then move
outstanding engineers—if they survive
to the next stage.
the educational process.
Some students are comfortable with
How to teach global learners: Ev-
this system; they learn sequentially,
erything required to meet the needs of
mastering the material more or less as
sequential learners is already being
it is presented. Others, however,
done from first grade through graduate
cannot learn in this manner. They
school: curricula are sequential, course
learn in fits and starts: they may be
syllabi are sequential, textbooks are
lost for days or weeks, unable to solve
sequential, and most teachers teach
even the simplest problems or show
sequentially. To reach the global
the most rudimentary understanding,
learners in a class, the instructor
until suddenly they “get it”—the light
should provide the big picture or goal
bulb flashes, the jigsaw puzzle comes
of a lesson before presenting the steps,
together. They may then understand
doing as much as possible to establish
the material well enough to they apply
the context and relevance of the
it to problems that leave most of the
subject matter and to relate it to the
sequential learners baffled. These are
students’ experience. Applications and
the global learners.32
“what ifs” should be liberally
Sequential learners follow linear
furnished. The students should be
reasoning processes when solving
given the freedom to devise their own
problems; global learners make intu-
methods of solving problems rather
itive leaps and may be unable to ex-
than being forced to adopt the
plain how they came up with solu-
professor’s strategy, and they should
tions. Sequential learners can work
be exposed periodically to advanced
with material when they understand it
concepts before these concepts would
partially or superficially, while global
normally be introduced.
learners may have great difficulty
A particularly valuable way for in-
doing so. Sequential learners may be
structors to serve the global learners in
strong in convergent thinking and
their classes, as well as the sequential
analysis; global learners may be better
learners, is to assign creativity
at divergent thinking and synthesis.
exercises—problems that involve
Sequential learners learn best when
generating alternative solutions and
material is presented in a steady
bringing in material from other
progression of complexity and
courses or disciplines—and to en-
difficulty; global learners sometimes
courage students who show promise in
do better by jumping directly to more
solving them.31’33 Another way to
complex and difficult material. School
support global learners is to explain
is often a difficult experience for

Teaching Techniques to Address
All Learning Styles
 Motivate learning. As much as possible, relate the material being
presented to what has come before and what is still to come in
the same course, to material in other courses, and particularly to
the students’ personal experience (inductive/global).
 Provide a balance of concrete information (facts, data, real or
hypothetical experiments and their results) (sensing) and abstract
concepts (principles, theories, mathematical models) (intuitive).
 Balance material that emphasizes practical problem-solving
methods (sensing/active) with material that emphasizes
fundamental understanding (intuitive/reflective).
 Provide explicit illustrations of intuitive patterns (logical
inference, pattern recognition, generalization) and sensing
patterns (observation of surroundings, empirical experimentation,
attention to detail), and encourage all students to exercise both
patterns (sensing/intuitive). Do not expect either group to be able
to exercise the other group’s processes immediately.
 Follow the scientific method in presenting theoretical material.
Provide concrete examples of the phenomena the theory
describes or predicts (sensing/ inductive); then develop the
theory or formulate the mod(intuitive/inductive/ sequential);
show how the theory or modcan be validated and deduce its
consequences (deductive/sequential); and present applications
(sensing/deductive/sequential).
 Use pictures, schematics, graphs, and simple sketches liberally
before, during, and after the presentation of verbal material
(sensing/visual). Show films (sensing/visual.) Provide
demonstrations (sensing/visual), hands-on, if possible (active).
 Use computer-assisted instruction—sensors respond very well to
it34 (sensing/active).
 Do not fill every minute of class time lecturing and writing on the
board. Provide intervals—however brief—for students to think
about what they have been told (reflective).
 Provide opportunities for students to do something active besides
transcribing notes. Small-group brainstorming activities that take
no more than five minutes are extremely effective for this
purpose (active).
 Assign some drill exercises to provide practice in the basic
methods being taught (sensing/active/sequential) but do not
overdo them (intuitive/reflective/ global). Also provide some
open-ended problems and exercises that call for analysis and
synthesis (intuitive/reflective/global).
 Give students the option of cooperating on homework assignments
to the greatest possible extent (active). Active learners generally
learn best when they interact with others; if they are denied the
opportunity to do so they are being deprived of their most
effective learning tool.
 Applaud creative solutions, even incorrect ones (intuitive/global).
 Talk to students about learning styles, both in advising and in
classes. Students are reassured to find their academic difficulties
may not all be due to personal inadequacies. Explaining to
struggling sensors or active or global learners how they learn
most efficiently may be an important step in helping them
reshape their learning experiences so that they can be successful
(all types).
680
their learning process to them. While
they are painfully aware of the draw-
backs of their learning style, it is
usually a revelation to them that they
also enjoy advantages—that their
creativity and breadth of vision can be
exceptionally valuable to future
employers and to society. If they can
be helped to understand how their
learning process works, they may
become more comfortable with it, less
critical of themselves for having it, and
more positive about education in
general. If they are given the
opportunity to display their unique
abilities and their efforts are
encouraged in school, the chances of
their developing and applying those
abilities later in life will be substan-
tially increased.
Conclusion
Learning styles of most engineering
students and teaching styles of most
engineering professors are in-
compatible in several dimensions.
Many or most engineering students are
visual, sensing, inductive, and active,
and some of the most creative students
are global; most engineering education
is auditory, abstract (intuitive),
deductive, passive, and sequential.
These mismatches lead to poor student
performance, professorial frustration,
and a loss to society of many
potentially excellent engineers.
Although the diverse styles with
which students learn are numerous, the
inclusion of a relatively small number
of techniques in an instructor’s
repertoire should be sufficient to meet
the needs of most or all of the students
in any class. The techniques and
suggestions given on this page should
serve this purpose.
Professors confronted with this list
might feel that it is impossible to do all
that in a course and still cover the
syllabus. Their concern is not entirely
unfounded: some of the recommended
approaches—particularly those that
involve the inductive organization of
information and opportunities for
student activity during class—may
indeed add to the time it takes to
present a given body of material.
The idea, however, is not to use all

A class in which students are
always passive is a class in which
neither the active experimenter
nor the reflective observer can
learn effectively. Unfortunately,
most engineering classes fall into
this category.
the techniques in every class but rather
to pick several that look feasible and
try them; keep the ones that work; drop
the others; and try a few more in the
next course. In this way a teaching
style that is both effective for students
and comfortable for the professor will
evolve naturally and relatively
painlessly, with a potentially dramatic
effect on the quality of learning that
subsequently occurs.
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