Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems
Andreas Hauer and Amadeus Teuffel
ZAE Bayern, Garching, Germany
1 INTRODUCTION
Today energy storage is high on the public agenda within
the discussion on our future energy system design. This
public debate has to remain on the surface, as the topic
“energy storage” turns out to be quite complex, particularly
when observed as part of a complete system. Energy storage,
in general, is strongly connected to the system, because it
is placed between an energy source and the final energy
consumer. Both sides may provide totally different require-
ments.
In order to offer a solid basis for further discussions, some
fundamental definitions will be given in this section.
1.1 Energy storage definition
1.1.1 What is energy?
In order to define energy storage in general, “energy” has
to be defined first. Energy is a fundamental physical value.
Energy cannot be “produced” or “consumed” in a physical
sense. Energy can only be transformed into another form of
energy (e.g., from electricity into heat). The sum of all forms
of energy within a closed system remains constant, which is
the first law of thermodynamics.
The quality of energy and the ability to do “work,”
however, can be “produced” or “consumed.” This ability
is called exergy and is usually decreasing within any
transformation step or storage process.
1.1.2 What is an energy storage?
Energy storages are able to take up energy and to deliver it at
a later stage. The storage process, in general, consists of three
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems
in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
steps: the charging, the storage itself, and the discharging.
After the discharging, the energy storage is back at the same
state as before the charging and can be charged again.
Energy storages try to preserve the exergy content of the
charged energy, but owing to storage losses over time, it will
decrease from the first principle.
1.1.3 What is stored?
The form of energy—electricity, heat, cold, mechanical
energy, or chemical energy—taken up by an energy storage,
will be also discharged in general. However, in many cases,
the charged form will be transformed into another form
for storing (e.g., pumped hydro storage or batteries). For
discharging, it will be converted again to be delivered in the
original form.
In some storage applications, the transformed form of
energy will be delivered, for example, in power-to-gas or
power-to-heat applications.
1.1.4 Energy storage/energy storage system
Any energy storage system consists of the following
elements: charging unit, storage unit, and discharging unit.
The energy storage itself is connected to the energy system
(“energy sources” and “energy consumer”) by the charging
and discharging unit. As an example, a power-to-gas storage
has the electrolysis as charging, the gas cavern as storage,
and the fuel cell as discharging device.
1.1.5 Energy storage and its application
The technical and economic requirements of any energy
storage are determined by the application within the energy
system. This is the reason why energy storage technologies
2 Integrated Storage Systems
can only be evaluated or compared within the context of an
actual application.
The application defines the technical requirements (form
of energy, focus on energy or power, storage period, reaction
time, etc.) of operation. The application also determines the
economic environment in which the storage will be operated.
2 ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
There are many possibilities to store energy. The different
energy storage technologies can be assigned to the energy
form they are providing within an actual storage applica-
tion. In this context, these technologies are referred to as
electrical, thermal, mechanical, or chemical. Energy storage
technologies can be classified by their storage properties.
2.1 Energy storage properties
In order to describe the different energy storage technologies,
some technical properties will be defined:
• Capacity: The storage capacity gives the possible
amount of energy stored within and finally delivered
from the storage unit. The capacity is linked to the
energy density of the storage. The energy density is the
capacity, the storage energy, related to the volume or
the mass of the storage.
• Power: The power—energy per time—defines how fast
the energy storage can be charged and discharged. The
power density gives the power of a certain unit related to
its volume or mass.
• Efficiency: The efficiency of the energy storage is the
ratio between the energy provided to the consumer and
the energy charged to the storage. Usually, the effi-
ciency is below 100% because of losses over the storage
period or inefficiencies of the charging and discharging
processes.
• Storage period: The storage period defines for how
long the charged energy can be stored until it will be
discharged. This time can go from seconds (or less!) to
months. The storage period is limited by the losses of the
system.
• Cost: The cost of an energy storage system can refer
to either the capacity (money per energy, e.g., euro per
kilowatt hour) or the power (money per power, e.g., euro
per kilowatt).
The properties listed in this section are not independent
of each other. An energy storage system designed for high
power output is designed in a different way compared to a
system optimized for high storage capacity. Capacity and
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
power are in this case complimentary. Another example
would be an efficient long-term thermal energy storage
(TCS) with high cost for the insulation of the system. Here
efficiency, storage period, and cost are related.
So far, the properties were discussed as properties of the
storage technology. In the following articles, it will become
clear that the actual application of any storage system
influences very strongly all these properties. In general,
energy storage systems are linked to their application much
more intense than any other components within the energy
system! They are not only delivering a certain energy form
or consuming it. They have to do both and match supply and
demand.
2.2 Electrical energy storage
Electrical energy storages store electricity in most cases as
mechanical or (electro-) chemical energy. Direct storage of
electricity, by supercapacitors or superconducting magnetic
energy storage (SMES) is a topic of basic R&D today. The
by-far largest contribution of electricity storage today comes
from mechanical energy storage systems, as illustrated in
Figure 1, which shows that pumped storage hydro power
stations (PSH), compressed air energy storage (CAES), and
flywheels currently contribute to more than 99% of all elec-
trical energy storage systems in terms of installed capacity.
2.2.1 Mechanical energy storage
Mechanical energy storages store electrical energy by
converting it into mechanical energy. During discharge, the
mechanical energy is converted back into electrical energy.
Mechanical energy storages are characterized by their
large storage capacities and electrical power, and they are
currently the most economical solution to store electrical
energy.
Redox-flow 10
Others 976
Flywheel 25
Nickel-cadmium 27
Lead acid 70
Lithium-ion 100
Sodiumsulphur 304
PSH 140000 CAES 440
Figure 1. Current installed gird-connected electricity storage
power in megawatts. Source: Created by the author using data from
IEA, 2014a.

In Figure 1, PSH, CAES, and flywheel energy storages
represent the most common mechanical energy storages
currently used.
PSH store electrical energy by converting it into poten-
tial energy of water, which is pumped from a lower level
to an upper level storage reservoir. In order to discharge the
storage, water flows in the opposite direction through water
turbines that drive electricity generators. Overall storage effi-
ciencies of PSH range from 63% to 85% (Hauer, Quinnell,
and Lävemann, 2013). The storage capacities depend on the
volume of water that can be used and on the difference in
altitude between the water reservoirs. Maximum electrical
power of PSH depends on the electrical power of the turbines
and therefore on their size. Generally, power and capacities
of current storages range from 1 MW up to several 100 MW
and MWh (Oertel, 2008).
PSH can be used to store excess energy but also for
ancillary services such as reactive power and voltage control
or load following.
For further reading on PSH, see Pumped Hydro Energy
Storage.
CAES convert electrical energy into potential energy
of air, which is compressed and stored in underground
caverns or pressure vessels. For discharge of the storage,
the compressed air is expanded in gas turbines (Crotogino,
2002). The storage efficiency of CAES depends on the
efficiencies of compression and expansion. The air entering
the gas turbines during discharge has to be heated up,
which leads to a relatively low overall efficiency of around
55% (Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013). In “adiabatic
CAES,” the heat generated during the compression process
when charging the CAES can be stored in a separate heat
storage and later on be used to heat up the expanding air.
The efficiency can thus be increased up to 70% (Hauer,
Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013). Nevertheless, the efficiency
decreases with time as the heat cannot be stored infinitely.
The storage capacities depend on the volume of and air
pressure in the storage volumes. Maximum electrical power
of CAES depends on the power of the gas turbines.
For further reading on CAES, see Compressed Air Energy
Storage (CAES).
Flywheel energy storages convert electrical energy into
rotating energy of a flywheel. During charging, the flywheel
is accelerated by an electrical motor, and thus the rota-
tional speed increases. During discharge, the flywheel drives
the electrical motor used as generator, which leads to a
decreasing rotational speed of the flywheel (Oertel, 2008).
Efficiencies of about 85–95% can be reached with the latest
flywheel energy storage generation (Lang, 2003). Neverthe-
less, stored energy decreases at rates of 20% per hour because
of mechanical losses that occur mainly because of frictional
losses in the bearing (Diekmann and Rosenthal, 2014). Latest
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems 3
generation flywheels are hence equipped with magnetic bear-
ings and operated in vacuum housings. Storage capacities
and electrical power depend on the moment of inertia of the
flywheel and its rotational speed and therefore on the strength
of rotating materials and the bearing.
For further reading on flywheel energy storages, see
Flywheel Energy Storage Systems.
2.2.2 Electrochemical energy storage
Electrochemical energy storages (battery/accumulator) store
electrical energy by converting it into chemical energy.
There is a wide range of different battery technologies that
differ in materials, voltages, power ranges, temperature
ranges, and so on. If storage capacity and conversion unit
are not spatially divided, the capacity and electrical power
are codependent (Sterner et al., 2010). This is the case for
sodium–sulfur, lithium-ion, lead-acid, and nickel–cadmium
batteries. In contrast, redox-flow batteries have separate
storage and conversion units and therefore capacities and
power output can be chosen independently. Hence, there are
different fields of application for these technologies ranging
from mobile use in vehicles to stationary applications and
from short-time power quality services to measures for
integration of renewables with larger storages.
For further reading on electrochemical storage, see
Rechargeable Battery Energy Storage System Design, Flow
Battery Technology, and Sodium–Sulfur Batteries.
Figure 2 depicts power ranges and typical discharge
periods for different electrical energy storage technologies.
Storages for the integration of renewable energies need
discharge times of minimum 1 h and electrical power of
100 kW to have a considerable effect on the system (Hauer,
Discharge period (h)
CAES PSH
10
NaS
Redox flow
1
Lead acid
0.1 battery
Flywheel
0.01
Double
0.001 layer
capacitor SMES
0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10,000
Power rating (MW)
Figure 2. Electricity storage technologies: typical discharge
periods and power ratings. Source: Reproduced with permission
from Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013. © Wiley-VCH Verlag
GmbH & Co. KGaA.
4 Integrated Storage Systems
Hiebler, and Reuß, 2013). From this viewpoint, PSH and
CAES but also redox-flow, sodium-sulfur, and lead-acid
batteries might be suitable solutions, whereas the discharge
periods of SMES, flywheels, and double-layer capacitors
are more suitable for short-time applications.
2.3 Thermal energy storage
Another way to store energy is by thermal energy stor-
ages(TES). Thermal energy can be stored in sensible and
latent thermal storages or by converting the energy in ther-
mochemical reactions.
2.3.1 Sensible thermal energy storage
In sensible TES, the temperature of storage materials
changes when heat is charged or discharged. The stored
energy is proportional to the temperature difference, the
mass, and the specific heat capacities of the storage material,
which is why materials with large specific heat capacities
are preferred. Water has a large specific heat capacity
besides being inexpensive and is therefore prevalently used
as storage material. Common temperatures for sensible
thermal storages range from −10 to 100◦ C (Hauer, Quinnell,
and Lävemann, 2013). These relatively low temperatures
make sensible storage most suitable for heating/hot water
and cooling applications in buildings.
A typical application is small hot-water tanks in combina-
tion with solar thermal appliances in domestic use to account
for daily or weekly fluctuations/mismatch in heat production
and consumption. Larger sensible storage appliances are
thus able to account for seasonal fluctuations. Another
application is to store sensible thermal energy underground
in combination with heat pumps. In this combination, heat is
discharged during wintertime at around 5◦ C and supplied to
the domestic heating circuit through the heat pump. During
warmer seasons, the cold ground serves as “cold” source
for air-conditioning purposes. The storage material in the
ground can be water in aquifers or vessels but also, for
example, rock, sand, or soil (for more details on heat pumps,
see Geothermal Heat Pumps).
2.3.2 Latent thermal energy storage
During charging and discharging of latent TES, thermal
energy is used to change the aggregate phase of the storage
material [hence the name phase change materials (PCM)],
whereas the sensible temperature of the material does not
change (Mehling and Cabeza, 2008). Most applications
use phase change from liquid to solid state, as large gas
volumes at normal conditions are more difficult to handle.
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
Stored energy is proportional to the storage material’s mass
and its specific melting heat. At standard pressure, 1 kg of
water needs 333.5 kJ of thermal energy to be melted/frozen.
Compared to sensible thermal heat supply, 1 kg of water
could be heated by ΔT = 80 K with the same amount of
energy. Thus, high storage densities can be reached in latent
TES (Diekmann and Rosenthal, 2014).
As different materials show different melting tempera-
tures, storage materials have to be chosen according to
the needed temperatures in the specific storage application.
Exemplary applications for PCM storages are ice storage for
cooling purposes (see also Ice Storage) or micro encapsu-
lated PCM with melting temperature around 20◦ C to buffer
daytime heat changes in buildings. One drawback of PCM
is their relatively low thermal conductivity, which leads to
poor charging and discharging power, although increasing
the surface of PCM storages is one way to approach this
problem (Zalba et al., 2003).
For further reading on PCM, see PCM Storage.
2.3.3 Thermochemical thermal energy storage
In thermochemical energy storages (TCS), reversible chem-
ical reactions are used to convert and store the thermal
energy. One benefit of thermochemical storages is when reac-
tants are separated no thermal losses occur. This enables TCS
for long-term thermal storage applications (Diekmann and
Rosenthal, 2014; Abedin and Rosen, 2011).
Most investigated TCS uses the sorption of water to/from
a storage substrate such as zeolite or silica gel as reac-
tion to store thermal energy. During charging, heat is
supplied to the substrate, which causes the water previously
absorbed/adsorbed to be separated from the substrate.
For discharging, humid air is fed to the substrate, water
is absorbed/adsorbed and heat of reaction is released.
This leads to applications for thermal storage, industrial
drying processes, and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning).
Analogous to PCM, thermochemical storage materials
(TCM) have relatively low thermal conductivity and mass
transfer rates, which results in poor charging/discharging
power and reduced efficiencies.
Figure 3 compares energy densities with respect to the
storage volume of different storage materials (or mate-
rial combinations) of TES technologies. TCS theoretically
reaches the highest energy densities compared to latent
and sensible TES. Nevertheless, it applies to all thermal
storage technologies that for higher energy densities, oper-
ating temperatures have to be increased.
The blue dotted line shows the theoretical sensible energy
density for liquid water, which is impaired by the restricted
temperatures of the storage applications as well as by heat

600
Storage energy density (kW/m3)
500
400
300
CaCl2 • NH3 Silicagel • H O
200
Salt hydrates
100
Paraffines
0
0 25 50 75
Temperature (°C)
Figure 3. Thermal energy storage technologies: storage capacities
and temperatures. Source: Created by the author using data from
ZAE Bayern.
differences in heat exchangers. The solid blue line represents
a resulting reduced storage energy density.
Figure 3 depicts energy density under optimum boundary
conditions. Further it should be noticed that storage capacity
is not an intrinsic property of storage materials but of the
particular storage system under its specific operating condi-
tions (Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013).
2.4 Energy storage by chemical conversion
Energy can also be stored by chemical conversion. For this
purpose, energy is used to produce chemical energy carriers
with high energy density and nearly infinite storage periods.
Most investigated energy carriers for conversion of elec-
tricity (or heat) are hydrogen and methane.
2.4.1 Hydrogen energy storage
One way to generate hydrogen is using excess electrical
energy from renewables for electrolysis of water. In the
process of electrolysis, water is split up into oxygen and
hydrogen, which then can be stored. Hydrogen can also be
generated by thermal split-up of water, but high tempera-
tures are required for this process (Hamacher, 2014). During
surplus energy periods, the generation of hydrogen is there-
fore a possible solution to store the energy. The reconversion
of electricity can follow in fuel cells or in gas turbines. Owing
to a relatively low energy density with respect to the volume,
hydrogen has to be compressed to reach energy density levels
of other fuels. After compression, hydrogen can also be used
in transport. Hydrogen can be stored in caverns or engineered
tanks. It can also be fed to the natural gas network but only
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems 5
to a certain amount, as other natural gas applications tolerate
only small amounts of hydrogen.
MgSO4 • 6H2O
For further reading on hydrogen energy storage, see
MgCl2 • 6H2O Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems for Grid and Community
Applications, Clean Energy-Based Production of Hydrogen:
TCM An Energy Carrier, and Hydrogen Blending in Natural Gas
NiCl2NH3
Pipelines.
Zeolite • H2O
2
Nitrates
2.4.2 Renewable methane
PCM lcohols
Sugar a
Hydrogen can also be used to synthesize methane. In the
Water process of methanation, CO2 and H2 form methane (CH4 )
100 125 150 175 200
and water. Advantage is the versatility of methane. Fed to
the existing natural gas infrastructure (with no limits), it
can be used in all fields of the energy sector (Trost et al.,
2012). The reconversion of electricity via gas turbines or
fuel cells is an investigated option to bridge longer periods
of insufficient renewable power supply (Stadermann, 2010).
When compressed or liquefied, methane can reach energy
densities that make it suitable for mobility applications.
Methane, like conventional natural gas, can also be used for
heating purposes.
Figure 4 depicts the basic concept of a renewable methana-
tion plant. CO2 for the methanation can be extracted from the
atmosphere or separated from exhaust gas in power plants.
The process of methanation links the electricity with the gas
sector and creates new ways of using excess power.
3 THE ROLE OF ENERGY STORAGE IN
THE ENERGY SYSTEM
Whenever the energy supply does not match the energy
demand, energy storage can help balancing this mismatch.
Energy storage decouples energy supply and demand and,
by doing this, adds flexibility to the system.
Today, this flexibility needed by the system comes from
fossil fuels, which are somehow the “ideal” fuel. They have
a very high storage capacity (6.7–12.8 MWh/t) and can
provide very high power outputs. Their problem is only
that they need far too long to be charged again! Today,
“discharging” rate is so high that we soon have to face
empty fossil “batteries.” One psychological problem for all
energy storage technologies is the fact that we are used to
these very high capacities and it is difficult to accept the
achievable storage capacities within our energy system.
Best example is the mobility sector. Here, we are not
willing to accept short distances and reduced power of our
future vehicles. At the same time, we would not accept a
car without heating and air-conditioning and many other
additional assets, which contribute to our personal comfort.
6 Integrated Storage Systems

Electricity Natural gas

network network

Wind - For heat

- For transport
CHP,
Solar
turbines

Other
renewables Power generation

Power storage Gas storage

- Atmosphere H2O O2
- Biomass, waste H2
Electrolysis
- Industry H2-tank CH4
- Fossil fuels
CO2 Methanation
CO2 CO2-tank
H2O
Renewable power methane
plant

Figure 4. Basic concept of a renewable power to methane plant. Source: Reproduced with permission of Michael Sterner, 2009.
Power

Power

Surplus demand
from storage Surplus supply
to storage

Surplus supply Surplus demand

to storage from storage

Supply Demand

Demand Supply

Time Time
(a) Supply management (b) Demand management

Figure 5. (a, b) Supply and demand balancing. Source: Reproduced with permission from Hauer, Hiebler, and Reuß, 2013. © Fraunhofer
IRB.

It is impossible to keep the standards set by fossil fuels by
battery-driven cars.
However, as the resources are limited, any future energy
system will need the same flexibility and energy storage will
be one of the possible solutions to this problem.
3.1 Balancing supply and demand
Energy storage, in general, can be applied wherever there
is a power difference between energy supply and demand,
which has to be balanced. Without any storage, the consumer
has to include the energy as it is supplied or the supplier has
to adapt to the consumer’s demand. Both possibilities are
quite rare in reality. Figure 5 shows two cases, where either
the supplied power is constant and the demand varies with
time or the power demand is constant and the supply shows
a variation in time.
In case (a), energy is supplied, for example, by a conven-
tional power plant based on the combustion of fossil fuels
and energy storage manages the variation of the demand in
order to keep the operation of the plant in a constant and
optimal range without the need to follow the demand fluc-
tuations. As the energy storage in this application provides
energy for the demand peaks, the highest energy prices can

Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215

be achieved. A second example would be a combined heat
and power unit running on biogas, which is operated at
a constant electricity production. The heat is stored sepa-
rately and supplied from the storage at times of actual heat
demand.
In case (b), energy supply varies, for example, because it is
based on fluctuating renewable sources such as photovoltaic
(PV), wind, or solar thermal. The energy storage in this appli-
cation is necessary to provide a base load at constant demand
to the consumer. In this context, energy storage systems are
contributing to the integration of variable renewable ener-
gies.
In reality, the energy system of the future will face both
cases at the same time. There will be a growing fraction
of variable renewables as well as further diversified and
highly nonconstant demand pattern on the demand side.
This development clearly highlights the necessity of energy
storage capacities in our energy systems.
3.2 Distributed energy storage
Distributed energy storages (DES) can be defined by their
location within an energy system. They are generally located
at the consumer side, from household up to industrial appli-
cations (Figure 6). In case of an electricity grid, this would
be the low voltage distribution grid, where the storage can be
placed at the transformation unit or even in the building. In
case of a district heating net, it would be at the level of heat
substations. Facing a growing impact of distributed renew-
able energy generation by PV, solar thermal, or biomass (via
combined heat and power), DESs are most suitable to balance
the storage demand at this level.
Renewable
energy
PV
Wind
Bio/CHP
Solarthermal
TES Thermal energy storage
Figure 6. Location of distributed energy storages in the energy system. Source: Created by the author using data from ZAE Bayern, IEA
ECES Annex 28.
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems 7
Provided that the grid is able to transport the energy to the
DES locations, DES could contribute to the storage demand
given by the fluctuations of larger wind and PV installations.
In this case, a number of DES can be connected to build a
larger storage capacity. In any case, the economic framework
and the communication between the distribution net and the
DES (e.g., by “smart grids”) are important questions.
DES can be “real” storage systems, such as a lithium-
ion battery in a PV-system or a hot-water storage in a solar
thermal installation. In this case, electricity or heat will be
charged and discharged later on demand. However, DES can
also be a “virtual” storage. An example is the conversion
of electricity from wind power into cold, which can be
stored thermally (“power-to-cold”): TES is used to create
a dispatchable load (in this case, the cold demand). No
electricity can be discharged from this storage. However, this
DES can contribute to the integration of renewable energy
sources as well.
A variety of technologies can be used for decentralized
energy storage applications (real and virtual). From the first
principle, mechanical, electrical, electrochemical, thermal,
and chemical energy storages could be implemented. In
addition, hybrid solutions based on two or more technolo-
gies could be promising. Some of the storage technologies
considered are operated (or under investigation) in different
applications such as peak shifting at the moment. One
example is the use of ice storage in Japan in order to reduce
the electricity peak for air-conditioning.
A diversified energy system based on a number of different
energy storage sizes and technologies is able to provide high
system stability and reliability.
Distribution Distributed Consumer
energy storage
EES
Electricity
grid Final
TES energy
District demand
heat/cold
EES Electrical energy storage
8 Integrated Storage Systems
4 RELEVANT ENERGY STORAGE
APPLICATIONS
More than any other energy technology, energy storages
are depending very strongly on the actual application. This
application defines the energy input during the charging
process as well as the energy output during the discharging
process. The possible fields of applications are as diverse as
the energy storage technologies described earlier.
Any clean energy system of the future will be based on
the integration of renewable energies and an improvement
in energy efficiency. These measures have to be applied to
the electricity as well as the heat/cold supply. Energy storage
technologies can substantially contribute in all fields.
The following will give a list of the most relevant energy
storage applications within future energy systems. This list,
however, is not complete.
4.1 Integration of renewable electricity
4.1.1 Grid stability
• Frequency regulation: Balances continuously shifting
supply and demand within a control area under normal
conditions. Management is frequently done automati-
cally, on a minute-to-minute basis.
• Voltage support: The injection or absorption of reactive
power to maintain voltage levels in the transmission and
distribution system under normal conditions.
• Fast power reserve: In the case of an unexpected loss of
electricity supply, fast power reserves can be called upon
to rapidly compensate and keep the system balanced.
Reserve capacity is classified by the amount of time it
takes to bring the power online.
• T&D congestion relief and infrastructure investment
deferral: In order to relieve congestion points in the
transmission and distribution grids, energy storage can
be added to facilitate the relief of this transmission.
Moreover, energy storage can be used to defer the need
for a large investment in transmission and distribution
infrastructure.
• Black start: In the very rare situation when the power
system collapses and all other ancillary mechanisms
have failed, black start capabilities allow electricity
supply resources to restart without pulling electricity
from the grid.
4.1.2 Grid balancing
• Variable supply resource integration: Energy storage can
smooth and optimize the output from variable supply
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
resources (e.g., wind and solar) in order to increase its
quality and value.
• Load following: The second continuous electricity
balancing mechanism for operation under normal
conditions, following frequency regulation. Manages
systems fluctuations on a 15-minute to hours timeframe
and can be controlled automatically through automatic
generation control or manually.
• Demand side integration—power-to-heat: The integra-
tion of renewable electricity can be achieved by conver-
sion into heat and TES technologies in order to match
(electricity) supply and (heat) demand. This way of inte-
gration was identified as the most inexpensive within
the GIVAR Project “Grid Integration of Variable Renew-
ables” at the IEA (2014b).
• Peak shaving: Storing low priced energy during periods
of low demand and subsequently selling it during high
priced periods. This service is particularly valuable in
systems with inflexible supply resources.
• PV self-consumption: The self-consumption of
distributed PV installation can be increased (from
about 30% to 70%) using local, distributed battery
systems. Connected to a “smart grid,” these batteries
can also be used as a “virtual electricity storage” for
other flexibility measures (see “Benefit Stacking”).
• Off-grid: Off-grid energy consumers frequently rely on
diesel generators to provide power and other fossil or
biofuel resources to provide heat. To ensure reliable off-
grid energy supplies, storage is necessary to fill gaps in
variable supply resources with demand.
4.2 Integration of renewable thermal energy
• Solar thermal power plants: For concentrated solar
power based on solar-thermal power plants, high temper-
ature TES technologies are able to provide a nonstop
operation.
• Solar thermal process heat: Process heat for industrial
applications can be provided by solar collectors (see
Solar Heating and Cooling Roadmap, IEA). In order to
overcome the mismatch between supply and demand,
TES can be applied.
• Solar thermal heating and cooling: Solar thermal energy
can be utilized for the heating and cooling of buildings.
TES systems can help to integrate this fluctuating energy
resource. In this context also long-term storages are able
to provide seasonal storage by charging solar heat in
summer time and discharge this heat in winter at high
heating demand.
 Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems 9

4.3 Energy efficiency the energy storage device and would certainly lead to an
improved economic performance.
All relevant applications are listed in Table 1.
• Waste heat utilization: TES technologies are able to
utilize waste heat from industrial processes. The stored
thermal energy can be discharged whenever there is heat
demand. The overall efficiency of the processes will be
5 TECHNICAL COMPARISON OF
increased by this measure.
• Heating and cooling demand: Owing to the temperature
ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
difference between night and day in most climates, the
The main technical parameters, based on the energy storage
heating and cooling demand of building can be reduced
properties listed earlier, for several established and emerging
by storing day’s heat or night’s cold. Daily TES oper-
energy storage technologies are given in Table 2 (see refer-
ation can contribute remarkably to a heating/cooling
ences from Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013). These
demand reduction.
parameters are the typical storage capacity, power output
• Combined heat and power: If combined heat and power
and storage period, the energy density (related to mass
units are equipped with TES system, they would be able
and volume), expected efficiencies and lifetime, and some
to be operated only following the electricity demand
different cost metrics. The given data are rather examples
(may it be ruled by economic or technical means). This
of typical values from literature. For some parameters, no
would open new flexibility options and keep up the high
values are available, while others are determined under
energy efficiency given by the utilization of heat and
different assumptions (Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann,
power.
2013).
The first distinction among the different storage technolo-
Energy storage technologies may be able to cover several gies is the form of stored energy. The first six technolo-
of the listed tasks. This would lead to a multiple benefit of gies in Table 2 store electrical energy by different storage

Table 1. Relevant energy storage applications.

Application Output Focus on Power Size (MW) Discharge Duration Cycles (Typical) Response Time
(Electricity, Thermal) or Energy (s, min, h, d, a) (# per day) (s, min, h)
Frequency regulation e Power 1–2000 1–15 min 20–40 1 min
Voltage support e Power 1–40 1 s–1 min 10–100 ms–s
Fast power reserve e Power 10–100 15 min–2 h 0.5–2 <15 min
T&Da congestion relief e, t — 10–500 2–4 h 0.14–1.25 >1 h
T&Da infrastructure e, t — 1–500 2–5 h 0.75–1.25 >1 h
investment deferral
Black start e Power 0.1–400 1–4 h <1 per year <1 h
Variable supply resource e, t Power/energy 1–400 1 min to hours 0.5–2 <15 min
integration
Load following e, t Power 1–2000 15 min–1 day 1–29 <15 min
DSIb (power-to-heat) t Energy, power 0.001–10 Hours to days 0.5–10 <15 min
Peak shaving e, t Power, energy 0.001–1 Minutes to hours 1–24 <15 min
PVc self-production e Energy 0.001–1 Minutes to hours 1–24 <15 min
Off-grid e, t Power, energy 0.001–0.01 3–5h 0.75–1.5 <1 h
Concentrated solar power t Energy 0.5–150 6–8 h 2–4 10–15 min
Solar-thermal process t Energy 0.5–400 Minutes to hours 1–10 <15 min
heat
Solar heating and cooling t Energy 0.002–1 Hours, days to seasonal 0.003–1 <15 min
Waste heat utilization t Energy 0.25–10 1 h–1 day 1–20 <10 min
Heating and cooling of t Energy 0.002–1 Hours to days 0.5–1 <15 min
buildings
Combined heat and t Power, energy 0.25–5 Minutes to hours 1–10 <15 min
power
Source: Created by author using data from IEA, 2014a and ZAE Bayern.
a Transmission and distribution.
b Demand side integration.
c Photovoltaic.

Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
 10

Table 2. Relevant energy storage technologies.

Storage Storage Power (MW) Capacity Storage Period Density Efficiency Lifetime Cost

DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
Technology Mechanism (MWh) (time) (%) (# cycles)
kWh/t kWh/m3 $/kW $/kWh ct kW/h
Delivered
Integrated Storage Systems

This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Lithium ion Electrochemical <1.7 <22 Day to 84–160 190–375 89–98 2960–5440 1230–3770 620–2760 17–102
month
Sodium sulfur Electro 1–60 7–450 Day 99–150 156–255 75–86 1620–4500 260–2560 210–920 9–55
battery chemical
Lead -acid Electro 0.1–30 <30 Day to 22–34 25–65 65–85 160–1060 350–850 130–1100 21–102
battery chemical month
Redox/flow Electro <7 <10 Day to 18–28 21–34 72–85 1510–2780 650–2730 120–1600 5–88
battery chemical month

Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Compressed air Mechanical 2–300 14–2050 Day — 2–7 at 40–75 8620–17,100 15–2050 30–100 2–35
energy 20–80 bar
storage
Pumped hydro Mechanical 450–2500 8000–190,000 Day to 0.27 at 100 m 0.27 at 63–85 12,800–33,000 540–2790 40–160 0.1–18
energy month 100 m
storage
Hydrogen Chemical Varies Varies Indefinite 34,000 2.7–160 at 22–50 1 384–1408 — 25–64
1–700 bar

This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Methane Chemical Varies Varies Indefinite 16,000 10 at 1 bar 24–42 1 — — 16–44
Sensible Thermal <10 <100 Hour to 10–50 <60 50–90 ∼5000 — 0.1–13 0.01
storage— year
water
Phase change Thermal <10 <10 Hour to 50–150 <120 75–90 ∼5000 — 13–65 1.3–6
materials week
Thermoche- Thermal <1 <10 Hour to 120–250 120–250 80–100 ∼3500 — 10–130 1–5
mical week
storage
Source: Reproduced with permission from Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013. © Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

mechanisms—electrochemical and mechanical. The possi-
bilities of direct storage of electricity by superconductors or
SMES are not considered, as these technologies will not play
any relevant role in our energy systems until 2050. The next
category of technologies deals with the conversion of elec-
tricity into hydrogen or methane, where the possibility of
supplying electricity again (e.g., by a fuel cell) is also given.
Finally, the different technologies of TES are listed (Hauer,
Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013).
Looking at the storage forms that can provide electricity,
they are generally differentiated by scale, both in size
and storage period. Mechanical energy storage units such
as pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) and CAES are
mostly effective for large centralized applications and are
highly dependent on the local geology. However, they
offer the largest capacity and power of all technologies
with capacities between 2 MWh and 190 GWh and power
outputs between 2 MW and 2.5 GW. Today, almost 99%
of all installed electricity storage capacity is based on
PHES (Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013). Today,
the use of chemical energy storages, for example, in a
power-to-gas application for integration of renewable
electricity, is focused on large-scale centralized units
(ETOGAS GmbH, http://www.etogas.com). However, also
in the field of DES devices, activities have been started
(GP Joule GmbH, http://www.gp-joule.de). The typical
lower power and capacity of electrochemical storage are
better suited to smaller scales, such as the transportation
sector.
The power and capacity of energy storage are related
to the physical size via the energy density. In terms of
energy density, the major distinction is the very high densi-
ties of chemical fuels (16–34 MWh/t) compared with the
relatively low energy densities of all other technologies.
CAES and PHES typically have among the lowest energy
densities (0.27–7 kWh/m3 ). Meanwhile, at smaller DES
scales, the differences in energy density between lithium-
ion (84–160 kWh/t) and lead-acid (22–34 kWh/t) batteries,
or thermochemical storage (120–250 kWh/t) and sensible
energy storage (10–50 kWh/t), are likely to have a substan-
tial impact on the volume and mass of the storage, easily
becoming the critical factor for many applications. However,
a clear definition of the “energy density” of a certain energy
storage technology is missing. For some storage technolo-
gies, the density is exclusively related to the active storage
material, for some to the actual storage component and others
consider the complete storage system.
Storage generally degrades the overall efficiency of the
energy system during charging and discharging (see Table 1),
except for thermochemical heat storage, where a heat pump
effect allows “efficiencies” over 100%! For many technolo-
gies, the efficiency depends on the storage period because
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems 11
of losses. Technologies such as batteries and sensible energy
storage have self-discharge or thermal losses, which effec-
tively reduce the efficiency over time. Mechanical and chem-
ical storage systems tend to have efficiencies that are some-
what independent of storage period because of extremely low
losses.
5.1 Energy storage technologies can only be
compared within their actual application
A reliable comparison of energy storage technologies is not
possible by only considering Table 2. It is only possible
to compare energy storage technologies with respect to an
actual application. The application gives the operating condi-
tions and by this the requirements to the technology. Looking
at Table 1 containing the list of relevant applications and
matching this with the list of energy storage properties in
Table 2 could lead to a matrix of suitable storage technologies
for each application.
In this context, not only the technical properties of the
storage technology such as capacity and power, but also the
properties such as type of stored energy, scale and scope of
the storage, and last but not least the economic factors of the
application are important.
5.1.1 Example: long-term energy storage for the
integration of renewable energies
As an example, suitable energy storage technologies for
long-term storage of renewable electricity should be iden-
tified. From Table 2, it can be derived that only chemical
storage and sensible thermal storage could be options for this
purpose. Comparing these technologies, it becomes clear that
a straight comparison based on the numbers in Table 2 is not
sufficient.
Assuming to take surplus electricity and convert it by elec-
trolysis (efficiency up to 80%) into hydrogen and producing
again electricity via a fuel cell after the long storage period,
this system would end up with a round-trip efficiency in the
range around 35–40%. If the same surplus electricity from
wind or PV will be used to run a heat pump, about 300%
usable heat can be produced. This heat can be stored over a
year with an efficiency of around 75%. The overall efficiency
of the complete system from renewable electricity to heating
of a building will be around 225%.
The big difference is that the first case provides hydrogen,
which can be, for example, used in the mobility sector or the
chemical industry, or electricity, which is also much more
valuable compared to low temperature heat. The second case
can only provide heat, but with a comparable high overall
efficiency. This example shows how crucial the application
12 Integrated Storage Systems
and the final energy demand—may it be fuel for transporta-
tion, electricity for lighting, or simply thermal energy for
heating—is.
6 ECONOMICS OF ENERGY STORAGE
Besides technical comparison, energy storage tech-
nologies are evaluated regarding their economics. In a
bottom-up economic evaluation costs for R&D, manufac-
turing, installation, materials, and so on are considered
and combined to an overall storage cost estimate. A
problem of this approach is the wide variation of cost
estimates as many factors and cost uncertainties prevail.
Estimates for the different technologies are shown in
Table 2.
6.1 Maximum acceptable storage cost
Another way for economic evaluation is a top-down
approach considering the maximum acceptable storage costs
in comparison with terminal costs of energy production
(Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013). One benefit of
this approach is that detailed information about storage
technologies is not necessary. Economic operation of
storages is achieved when storage costs per kilowatt hour do
not exceed costs of energy generated in power plants. This
maximum acceptable storage cost can be calculated from
the payback period and the corresponding discount rate of
the investment, the storage cycle periods, and the energy
price to be compared to.
In different areas of application, different payback
periods and discount rates apply. When defining “industry,”
“buildings,” and “private” as sectors in which investments
in storage solutions are done, it has to be considered
that these sectors show different investment behav-
iors.
In the industry, investments are done with short payback
periods and high interest rates.
The annuity factor AF can be defined as
(1 + i)n ⋅ i
AF =
(1 + i)n − 1
where i is the interest rate and n the payback time. For
the industry sector, annuity factors from AF = 25–30% are
required. In the buildings sector, longer payback periods
and moderate interest rates are applicable, which leads to
AF = 7–10%. Private investors (or “enthusiasts”) that might
do the investment by political or environmental motivation
can accept even longer payback periods and smaller interest
rates, which leads to annuity factors of AF = 4–6%.
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
The maximum acceptable storage cost results as
Cenergy 365
Cmax = ⋅ (€ ∕kWh) (2)
AF SCP
where Cmax is the maximum acceptable storage cost in euro
per kilowatt hour, Cenergy the energy costs, and SCP the
storage cycle period. Cmax is therefore inversely proportional
to the storage cycle period or—when related to the 365
days of the year—proportional to the number of storage
cycles per year and proportional to the energy cost of energy
generated in power plants. Operational costs are neglected
in this approach as well as varying energy costs over time.
Nevertheless, this equation illustrates well the dependency
of acceptable storage costs on energy costs and storage cycle
periods and is therefore a great alternative to estimate storage
costs.
Figure 7 depicts maximum acceptable storage costs
over storage cycle periods in a full log graph for the
different sectors described earlier. For each sector, two
combinations of annuity factors and energy prices show
the typical range for these parameters in each sector. Red
lines and blue lines represent industry sector and build-
ings sector, respectively. Green lines represent the private
or “enthusiast” sector. As can be seen from the graph,
maximum acceptable storage costs decrease with the length
of storage cycle periods. Thus, for seasonal storage, the
maximum acceptable costs have to be less than for high
frequency storage. For example, in the buildings sector,
with energy prices of €0.06/kWh and AF = 10%, a seasonal
storage with storage cycle periods of 365 days maximum
acceptable storage costs are about €0.60/kWh. Comparing
Maximum acceptable storage costs (€/kWh)
1000
Buildings (7%, 0.1 €/kWh)
Buildings (10%, 0.06 €/kWh)
Private (4%, 0.16 €/kWh)
100 Private (6%, 0.12 €/kWh)
10
(1) Industry (25%, 0.04 €/kWh)
1
Industry (30%, 0.02 €/kWh)
0.1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Storage cycle period (days)
Figure 7. Acceptable energy storage costs as function of annuity
factor, energy price, and storage cycle period. Source: Reproduced
with permission from Hauer, Quinnell, and Lävemann, 2013. ©
Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
 Integration of Energy Storage into Energy Systems 13

these costs with the cost estimates given in Table 2, it The same holds for any economic evaluation. The actual
gets evident that only sensible heat storage reaches costs application delivers the achievable number of storage cycles
as low as this. All other storage technologies need cost and the economical environment where the storage will
reductions of one or more orders of magnitude to reach be operated. Both values can lead to maximum acceptable
economical operation. In contrast to this, storages with storage cost, which any chosen storage technology has to
cycle periods of 1 day can cost up to €219/kWh and still deal with.
be operated economically, which leads, when comparing
with estimates in Table 2, to a broader range of possible
technologies.
RELATED ARTICLES
When comparing different sectors, it becomes apparent
that in industry, acceptable storage costs are up to 30 times
Geothermal Heat Pumps
lesser than in the private/enthusiast sector. This illustrates
Ice Storage
the dependence of acceptable storage cost on storage cycle
PCM Storage
periods as well as the dependency on different investment
Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems for Grid and Community
boundary conditions.
Applications
In summary, it can be stated that for certain scenarios,
Pumped Hydro Energy Storage
multiple storage technologies can be operated economi-
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES)
cally; however, for a given storage cycle period, economics
Flywheel Energy Storage Systems
strongly depend on the investment environment, for example,
Rechargeable Battery Energy Storage System Design
the energy costs, interest rates, and payback periods.
Flow Battery Technology
Sodium–Sulfur Batteries

7 CONCLUSION

Future energy systems worldwide will have to face a growing

REFERENCES
fraction of renewable energies to be integrated and at the
same time need to improve their overall energy efficiency, Abedin, A.H. and Rosen, M.A. (2011) A critical review of thermo-
if the goal to keep the global warming at 2◦ C shall be chemical energy storage systems. The Open Renewable Energy
reached. Energy storages are able to contribute in both Journal, 4 (1), 42–46.
sectors substantially. However, energy storage is only one Crotogino, F. (2002) Einsatz von Druckluftspeicher-
possible measure, but it will play its role, if it is able to bring Gasturbinenkraftwerken beim Ausgleich fluktuierender
in its technical and economic advantages. Windenergie-Produktion mit aktuellem Strombedarf. Siebentes
Kasseler Symposium Energie-Systemtechnik, Institut für Solare
Energy storage technologies cover a wide range of tech- Energieversorgungstechnik, Kassel.
nical properties. They are able to store electricity, heat, and
Diekmann, B. and Rosenthal, E. (2014) Energie: Physikalische
cold or to transform electricity into chemical energy carriers. Grundlagen ihrer Erzeugung, Umwandlung und Nutzung,
Their storage capacity ranges from kilowatt hour to hundreds Springer, Wiesbaden.
of gigawatt hour and their discharging power from kilowatt to Hamacher, T. (2014) Wasserstoff als strategischer
some gigawatt. They can store energy from seconds through Sekundärenergieträger, in Wasserstoff und Brennstoffzelle
to a year. (eds J. Töpler and J. Lehmann), Springer, Berlin, pp. 1–23.
On the other hand, energy storage applications unfold Hauer, A., Quinnell, J., and Lävemann, E. (2013) Energy storage
a huge variety of requirements for the integration of technologies—characteristics, comparison, and synergies, in Tran-
renewables—electrical and thermal—and increasing energy sition to Renewable Energy Systems (eds D. Stolten and V.
Scherer), Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, pp.
efficiency, for example, in the building sector or in industry
555–577.
and transportation. Especially DES units represent a
Hauer, A., Hiebler, S., and Reuß, M. (2013) Wärmespeicher, BINE-
commonly underestimated area of applications. All energy
Fachbuch, vol. 5, vollst. überarb. Aufl, Fraunhofer IRB Verlag,
storage technologies will be needed for future challenges to Stuttgart.
ensure a stable energy system. International Energy Agency (IEA) (2014a) Technology Roadmap:
In order to provide optimal energy storage performance, Energy Storage, OECD Publishing, Paris.
the technology has to match the actual application. Any International Energy Agency (IEA) (2014b) The Power of Transfor-
evaluation of different storage solutions on a technical level mation: Wind, Sun and the Economics of Flexible Power Systems,
has to be carried out with respect to this application. OECD Publishing, Paris.

Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
14 Integrated Storage Systems
Lang, J. (2003) Kinetische Speicherung von Elektrizität. BINE
Informationsdienst Projektinfo, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, ISBN
0937-8367.
Mehling, H. and Cabeza, L.F. (2008) Heat and Cold Storage with
PCM: An Up to Date Introduction into Basics and Applications,
Heat and Mass Transfer, Springer, Heidelberg.
Oertel, D. (2008) Energiespeicher – Stand und Perspektiven: Sach-
standbericht zum Monitoring “Nachhaltige Energieversorgung”,
TAB – Büro für Technikfolgen-Abschätzung beim Deutschen
Bundestag, Berlin.
Stadermann, D. (ed.) (2010) Energiekonzept 2050–Eine Vision für
ein nachhaltiges Energiekonzept auf Basis von Energieeffizienz
und 100% erneuerbaren Energien, Forschungsverbund Erneuer-
bare Energien, FVEE, Berlin.
Sterner, M. (2009) Bioenergy and renewable power methane in inte-
grated 100% renewable energy systems. Limiting global warming
Handbook of Clean Energy Systems, Online © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article was published in the Handbook of Clean Energy Systems in 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118991978.hces215
by transforming energy systems. Dissertation, Universität Kassel,
Kassel.
Sterner, M., Gerhardt, N., Saint-Drenan, Y.-M., et al. (2010)
Energiewirtschaftliche Bewertung von Pumpspeicherwerken und
anderen Speichern im zukünftigen Stromversorgungssystem,
Endbericht.
Trost, T., Horn, S., Jentsch, M., and Sterner, M. (2012) Erneuerbares
Methan: Analyse der CO2 -Potenziale für Power-to-Gas Anlagen in
Deutschland. Zeitschrift für Energiewirtschaft, 36 (3), 173–190.
Zalba, B., Marı́n, J.M., Cabeza, L.F., and Mehling, H. (2003) Review
on thermal energy storage with phase change: materials, heat
transfer analysis and applications. Applied Thermal Engineering,
23 (3), 251–283.