ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS Second Edition Leonard Meirovitch College of Engineering Virgina Polytectnic Institute and State University COTO KUTUPHANES! M.E.T.U. LIBRARY il Boston, Massachusetts Burr Ridge, linois Dubuque, Iowa Madison, Wisconsin New York, New York San Francisco, California St. Louis, MissouriQas35 To My Wife and to the MSs3 Memory of My Parents z (9&4 as “This book was set in Times Roman by Ea Services Lid. ‘The editor was Anne Murphy the cover was designed ty Kar H. Steinbrenner, the production supervisor was Charles Hess ‘rofet supervision was done by Albeet Harrison, Haley Edo Services. McGraw-Hill 328681 A Dino of The McGrane EI Compares ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS copyright © 1986, 1975 by McCrsw-Hil, Inc. All ights reserved. Typeset in che United SEE ceric Eacept as penited under the Untod Stats Copyright Act of 1976, 20 Set or th publication may be reproduced or dsebuted in any frm or by any means, oc ee, Pda bare or reuoval sem, witout Ge peor writen permission of the ier. joiri2 1914 15 16 17 18 19 BKMBKM 909876545210 ISBN O-07-O41342-8 . Library of Congress Cataloging in Pubication Data Meirovitch, Leonard. ‘lament of vibration analysis Bibliography: Ineldes index Te Vibration 1 Tie. Qko3s.Ms3 1986 531.32 SBN 0-07-081382-8PREFACE Inthe last several decades, impressive progress has been made in vibration analysis, prompted by advances in technology. On the one hand, the requirement for the tnalysis of neresingly complex systems has been instrumental inthe development of powerful computational techniques. On the other hand, the development of fast. 0, b> 0. In this case the roots are either real and negative or complex conjugates with negative real part, so that x(¢) approaches zero as f — co. Hence, y(@) approaches y, so that the equilibrium position is asymptotically stable. 2a=0, b>0. The roots are pure imaginary, so that the solution x(¢) is Oscillatory. Hence, the motion is bounded and the equilibrium position is stable, 3. a<0, or a2 0, b <0. The roots are either complex conjugates with positive real part or they are both real, with one root being positive and the other being negative. In either case the solution is divergent and the equilibrium position is. unstable. ‘The subject of system stability is discussed in greater detail and in a more rigorous ‘manner in Chap. 9. In the special case in which y_ = 0 the equilibrium position is sai This is a case encountered very frequently in practice. to be rivial. Example 14 The system shown in Fig. 1.12a represents a simple pendulum. It consists of a bob of mass m attached to one end of an inextensible string of16 ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS Cr) Figure 112 length L, where the other end of the string is fixed at point 0. Derive the ‘equation for the angular motion 6() of the pendulum, identify the equilibrium positions and determine the nature of motion in the neighborhood of the ‘equilibrium positions. To derive the equation of motion, we consider the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1.126. The forces acting on the bob are the string tension T and the gravity force mg. Note that the string is not capable of carrying transverse forces. Using Newton's second law and summing up forces in the transverse direction, we obtain LF = —mg sin 6= ma, = mod oe where a, ~ LUis the acceleration in the transverse direction. Division of Eq (a) through by mL yields © where £0) © Equation (b) has the same form as Eq, (1.16), except that f does not depend on the angular velocity 6. “To identify the equilibrium positions, we use Eq, (I-17) and write @ g S(0.) = —F-sin 6 which has the solutions 0,20, $n, 42m... © [Although Eq, (¢) indicates that mathematically there is an infinite number of, equilibrium positions, physically there are only two positions Ox=0 O2=% n Of course, the first one is recognized as the trivial solution.[REE RESPONSE OF SINOLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM LINEAR SYSTEMS. 17 ‘Next, let us use the notation x = @ — @, and write the linearized equation of motion + bx=0 @ where, from the first of Eqs. (1.19), wy In the case of the equilibrium point 8, = 0, we obtain a baf>o 0 so that the equilibrium is stable. We will discuss Eq. (g) for this case extensively later in this chapter. In the case of the equilibrium point 8; = x, we have o so thatthe equilibrium is unstable ‘The above results conform to expectation. Any small deviation from the equilibrium position in which the pendulum hangs down results in oscillation about the equilibrium. On the other hand, any small deviation from the ‘upright equilibrium position tends to increase without bounds. The case in which the pendulum oscillates about the equilibrium position 0; = Oi by far the most important one, which explains why the equilibrium postion 8,2 = = is discussed so seldom, 15 FORCE-FREE RESPONSE OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS Let us consider the spring-damper system of Sec. 13 and assume thatthe external excitation is zero. Setting F(?) = 0 in Eq, (1.12), we obtain the homogeneous equation ex() + kx() =0 (125) Using the approach of Sec. 14, we let the solution of Eq. (125) have the exponential form a(t) = Ae (126) Inserting Eq. (1.26) into Eq, (1.25) and dividing through by Ae, we obtain the characteristic equation stk=0 a2n18 ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS 0 a Figure 113 Which has the single root : (1.28) so that the general solution of Eq, (1.25) is x() = Ae (1.29) where 4 is a constant of integration and (130) is known as the time constant. ‘The constant of integration A depends on the initial excitation. Letting -x(0) = xo be the initial displacement, we can easily verify from Eq. (1.29) that ‘A = xo, 60 that the solution to the force-free problem is fee >. 0 <0 x (ast) Equation (1.31) indicates that the response decays exponentially with ‘The homogeneous solution (1.31) is plotted in Fig. 1.13 as a function of time. We observe that, after being displaced initially by an amount x, the system returns to the zero equilibrium position without any oscillation. The time constant © provides a measure of the speed of return of the system to equilibrium. Indeed, the fate of return is greater for small time constants and vice versa. Hence, for a stiff spring, or for light damping, the rate of return is fast, and vice versa. 16 HARMONIC OSCILLATOR Let us consider now the second-order system described by Eq. (I-14). Before we discuss the general response, we wish to investigate the force-free case, namely, the ‘case in which the force F(e) is identically zero. Moreover, quite often damping is extremely small, $0 that for all practical purposes it can be ignored. Hence, weFREE RESPONSE OF SINGLE-DEGRES-OF-FREEDOM LINEAR SYSTEMS 19 ‘concern ourselves with the undamped case for which ¢ = 0. Upon dividing Eq (1.14) by m, the differential equation of motion reduces to 5) +03) =0 wf == 32) [As shown in Sec. 14, the solution of Eq. (1.32) has the exponential form x) = Ae" (133) Introducing Eq, (1.33) into Eq, (1.32) and dividing through by Ae", we obtain the characteristic equation S+or=0 (134) ‘which has the solutions tio, (133) where 1= /=1. Inserting 5, and s, into Eq, (1.33), the general solution of Ea, (1.32) can be written as Xt) = Aye + Ane (136) where Ay and Az are constants of integration. Their values depend on the initial displacement x(0) and initial velocity (0). Because the roots s, and s2are'pure imaginary, we conclude from Sec. 1.4 that the solution, Eq, (1.36), must represent stable motion. This stable motion consists of pure oscillation and the quantity a, is known as the natural frequency of oscillation of the undamped system, The reason for the term natural frequency is that a force-free undamped second-order system, when set in motion by some initial conditions, wll always oscillate with the same frequency Solution (1.36) isin terms of complex quantities. Yet, on physical grounds, it can be argued thatthe solution must be real. Hence, the interest lies in reducing the solution to real form. To this end, consider the series Jon 1 cage + eat)? + Cent + 2 Gag? + 2 Cage)? emt mL ti 5 (loa)? +p (lat) + aplenty + pleat)? + et Pe = Float? + Float ot ‘fon ~ Flea? + Fou] = cos cnt + isin og (1372) In a similar manner, it is easy to verify that eon = 608 at — isin gt (1376) Inserting Eqs. (1.37) into Eq, (1.36), introducing the notation Apt r= Acs (Ay ~ Az) = Asing (138)120 ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS and recalling the trigonometric relation cos «cos f + sin asin, solution becomes £08 (a ~ f), the X(0) = A cos (at — 6) 39) where now the constants of integration are A and @. ‘The constants A and ¢ are referred to as the amplitude and phase angle, respectively. Because A and depend on A, and Az, they can also be regarded as constants of integration depending on the initial conditions x(0) and %(0). Equation (1.39) indicates that the system executes simple harmonic oscillation with the natural frequency «,, for which reason the system itself is called a harmonic ‘oscillator. The motion described by Eq, (1.39) is the simplest type of vibration. The harmonic oscillator represents more of a mathematical concept than a physical reality, Nevertheless, the concept is valid for negligible damping, if the interest lies in the response for atime duration too short for extremely light damping to make its effect fet. ‘The discussion of the nature of harmonic oscillation is perhaps enhanced by the vector diagram shown in Fig. 14a. IFA represents a vector of magnitude A and the vector makes an angle «%t — @ with respect to the vertical axis x, then the projection of the veetor A on x represents the solution x(t) = 4 cos (wt — @). The ‘angle et — ¢ increases linearly with time, with the implication that the vector A. rotates counterclockwise with angular velocity a. As the vector’ rotates, the projection varies harmonically, so that the motion repeats itself every time the vector A sweeps a 2x angle. The projection x(t) is plotted in Fig, .14b as a function of time. 7 “The time necessary to complete one cycle of motion defines the period T given by (140) Figure 114FREE RESPONSE OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM LINEAR SYSTEMS. 21 where ©, is measured in radians per second (rad/s) if T is measured in seconds. Physically, T represents the time necessary for one complete oscillation to take place; it is equal to the difference between two consecutive times at which the Oscillator reaches the same state, where the state is to be interpreted as consisting of both position and velocity. As an illustration, the period is measured in Fig. 1.14 between two consecutive peaks, It is also customary to measure the natural frequency in cycles per second (cps). In such a case the natural frequency is denoted by fa, and because one cycle is equal to 2x radians we have ial RonF (aly so that the natural frequency f, and the petiod T are the reciprocals of each other. One eycle per second is a unit generally known as one hertz (H2). Finally, it wll prove interesting to evaluate the constants of integration A and 6 in terms of the initial conditions. Introducing the notation x(0) = xo, X(0) = vo, ‘where xo is the initial displacement and vp the initial velocity, and using Eq. (1.39), it is easy to verify that the response of the harmonic oscillator to the initial conditions is te X(0) = X9 008 wt + asin gt (1.42) Moreover, we conclude that the amplitude A and the phase angle $, when expressed in terms of the initial displacement and velocity, have the values an far(2) omar «aay A lege variety of dynamical systems behave lke harmonic oclators, quite often when restricted to small motions. Asan ilusraion, the simple pendulum of Example 14, when restricted (o small angular motions about the val equi rium B = 0, can be desribed bythe difrental equation 20 = aged G4 a20=0 afmt (1.44) Which represents a harmonic oscillator with the natural frequency o, = /@/L Note that Eq (144) is valid a long as sin O =, whichis approximately tre for surprisingly large values of @. For example, 930° = 03236 ed and sin d= Sin 30° 0.000 are close in vale, Infact, there is es than 5 percent eror in ting @ instead of sin @ for 830° Example 1.5 The semicircular thin shell of radius R shown in Fig. 1.15a is. allowed to rock on a rough horizontal surface. Derive the differential equation ‘of motion for the case of no slip, show that for small motions the shell behaves like harmonic oscillator, and calculate the natural frequency of the oscillator.22 ELEMENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSS Figure 118 This example provides us with the opportunity to derive the differential cquation of motion for a relatively more complicated system than a spring- 20,51 ~+ Oand s; + ~co. In the sequel, we relate the position ofthe roots sy and 52 in the s plane to the system behavior. Inserting the roots given by (1.49) into (47), we can write the general solution x(t) = Aye" + Ane = Avex [(—0+ JF = Doo] + Az exp (6 = P= Doge] =[Avexp (VE =T oy) + Asexp(—YE=T ole (1.50) Solution (1.50) is in a form suitable forthe cases in which £ > 1. For €> 1 the motion is aperiodic and decaying exponentially with time. The exact shape of the curve depends on Ay and 2, which, in turn, can be evaluated in terms ofthe initial displacement xp and initial velocity vg. The case { > | is known as the overdamped case. Typical response curves for ¥(0) = 0 and #(0) =v are given in Fig. 1.17 In the special case in which ¢ = 1, Eq, (148) has a double root, s, In this case the solution can be shown to have the form (see Prob. 1.29) X() = (Ay + tdae“™ ast) ‘whieh again represents an exponentially decaying response. The constants Ay and ‘Az depend on the intial conditions. The case { = 1 is known as critical damping, and response curves for certain intial conditions are show in Fig 1.18. From the expression { = ¢/2my, we see that for { = | the coefficient of viscous damping has the value cy = 2ma, = 2/km. The importance of the concept should not be overstressed, because critical damping merely represents the bordertine between the cases in which £ > Land ¢ < 1. Ttmay be interesting to note, however, that fora given inital excitation a critically damped system tends to approach the ‘equilibrium position the fastest (see Fig. 1.17). ‘When 0-< { < J, solution (1.50) is more conveniently written in the form (0) = [Ay exp T= gt) + Aa exp (1 T= F ont) (Aye + Agee So as)216 ELENENTS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS sn | Sta ogee yi o 2 nso Pia 1 ote | co | op : ° 5 7 > o xe.ia Pfr eesti 7 Sola 2 Figure 1.17FREE RESPONSE OF SINGLE-DEGRES-OF-FREEDOM LINEAR SYSTEMS 27 sovin wo : =sbie oape a | seston a he a Q 1 2 5 sin : T oa bat i syrinne (iy =3 rads via o 1 7 y » Figure 118 where 04" (1 2)!0 (1.53) is often called the frequency of the damped free vibration. From Eqs. (1.37), we can write e*H = cos ct + isin @,t, Moreover, using the notation of Eqs. (1.38), Eq. (1.52) reduces to x(t) = Ae“ cos (wat — 8) (asa) ‘which can be interpreted as an oscillatory motion with the constant frequency and phase angle ¢ but with the exponentially decaying amplitude Ae", wheresiP.in esFRE RESPONSE OF SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM LINEAR SYSTEMS. 29 the constants A and depend on the initial conditions, The case 0<{ <1 is roferred (0 as the underdamped case, and typical response curves are shown in Fig 1.19. The curves + Ae” provide the envelope bounding the oscillatory response. Clearly, as ¢+ ©, x(¢) 0, so that the response eventually dies out, which represents the observed behavior of real systems, Example 1.7 Consider the system of Fig, 1.9 and caleulate its response to the initial conditions x(0) = 0, (0) = vo, for {> 1, [= 1, and 0<¢ <1. For { > 1 we make use of the formula (1.50), and write x)= Ay + AZ=0 A= Ay @ so that now the solution has the form x(0) = 2AyeS"' sin SF =T ont o Differentiating Eq. (b) with respect to time, we obtain 20 = 24 (JF =T 0, cosh JF =T at ~ Cog sinh JET enters" © Letting %(0) = v9, Eq. (€) yields 2A, = @ yea Ic follows that for {> 1 the general solution is 24) e-sink JT aot © VF-10, For = 1, itis easy to show from Ea. (1.51) that A, = Oand Az = v9, 50 that the response is X(t) = vote" Ww For 0<{<1, the intial displacement being equal to zero leads to = m/2 in Eq, (1.54). Moreover, the amplitude is related to the initial velocity by A= vp/ay, So that Eq. (1.54) reduces to x)= et sin cat Oe = Or @ Expressions (e), (f), and (g), corresponding to overdamping, critical damping, and underdamping, are plotted in Figs. 1.17, 1.18, and 1.19, respectively for the indicated values ofthe system parameters { and «and the initial velocity vo.