Volcanic Eruptions and Their Effects on Human and Animal Health

Haley R. Lambert Zielomski, Jenee Odani, Birendra Mishra

Dept. of Human Nutrition, Food and Animal Sciences, College of Tropical Agriculture and

Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822

1. Introduction

Throughout history, primitive cultures have believed that volcanoes were associated

with demons and deities. These unseen forces were known to be dangerously aggressive and

unpredictable due to bad temper. For centuries, humans believed that they could appease

these angry spirits with the sacrifice of a life. Societies like the Incas, Mayans and Aztecs

believed that human offerings would appeal their gods while Nicaraguans believed that only

a child sacrifice every 25 years could keep their volcano Cosiguina quiet. Young women

were also thrown into the crater of the Masaya volcano to ease the fires. The Java people of

the Bromo volcano also preformed human sacrifices and only recently switched to the

sacrifice of a live chicken once a year. In Africa, those who dwell near the Nyamuragira and

Nyiragongo volcanoes believe that if they sacrifice 10 of their finest warriors every year that

they will be spared from the brutal god Nyudadgora. Although there have been skeptics and

disbelief in practice, arguments were met with the rebuttal that without said sacrifice the

punishment would have been far worse, even if an eruption had occurred.1 The eruption of a

volcano can depend on many factors, such as the geographical location. Other factors that

influence the intensity of an eruption include climate, time of year and how long the volcano

has been dormant. Hawaii’s Kilauea has been erupting continuously since 1982 and seems to

pose a negligible threat. Although the more recent eruption of May 2018 decimated hundreds

of acres of land, destroying properties and belongings. The affected areas can vary by several

tens of square kilometers, depending on eruption size.2

Volcanic eruptions and their effects can cause many issues for livestock and other

mammals. The lava flows and atmospheric gases kill many. Eruptions can also cause distress

or death by pyroclastic flows, tsunamis, famine, earthquakes, fires, and more. Aquatic life

can also be affected by volcanic eruptions through increase in acidity, turbidity, temperature

change and food supply. Birds have their migration, flying, and feeding affected as well.
Although, the long-term effects of eruption have been found to be quite small, with flora and

fauna returning within a year.3 Ashfall can have some of the more serious effects on crops

and livestock due to thickness, soluble fluoride, rainfall, and uncontaminated feed and water.

Fluorine poisoning occurs in livestock when grazing on grass that has been covered in ash by

causing gastrointestinal blockages. When there is a shortage of uncontaminated food, this can

lead to starvation.4

“Vog” is especially concerning because it can have detrimental effects that are

prolonged, and fallout contaminates feed and water supplies. Vog is a gas produced by

volcanic activity that contains hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen

chloride, and carbon dioxide (along with others). The ash is composed of minerals,

pulverized rock, and volcanic glass. The earthquakes are strong enough to cause damage to

infrastructure on ranches and the lava can destroy most of the property.5

2. Components of Volcanic Eruption

2.1. Vog

“Vog” is a term used in Hawaii to describe the “volcanic smog” which creates

gaseous emissions that cause haze throughout the islands. Vog is an air pollutant composed

of a mixture of acidic aerosols and sulfate species, such as sulfuric acid. Vog is formed in a

matter of hours or days because SO2 reacts with atmospheric gases, water and O2 in the

presence of sunlight. The levels of sulfur dioxide (SO2) can become noxious and cause

residents to evacuate. Vog can contain other gases such as hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen

fluoride, hydrogen chloride and carbon dioxide (along with others).5 The presence of vog

poses a huge threat to the respiratory system and can also affect cardiometabolic health as

well as blood pressure. On average, Kīlauea releases 500-14,000 metric tons of sulfur dioxide

daily. The recent eruption increased these numbers dramatically and impaired the health of
many surrounding residents. Depending on wind conditions, the effects of vog can spread to

other islands and last for days.6 On May 30, 2018, the AQI was 154 and PM2.5 levels reached

approximately 80 µg/m3. This value is qualified as “unhealthy,” even for those without

preexisting health conditions.7

2.2. Ash

Ash is the smallest component of an eruption and can be classified as anything less

than 2 mm. These grains can sometimes even be less than a micron small.8 The ash is made

up of crushed rocks, minerals, and volcanic glass. Ash minerals can vary but the most

plentiful is fluorine and this poses the most threat towards livestock. Volcanic glass and

particularized rock can accumulate in a ruminant’s digestive tract and cause issues, irritate the

eyes, rot away the teeth, block nasal passages and the lungs when ingested.9 This ashfall can

affect a vast range of populations that are near the eruption. A single, large eruption can

deposit ash deep into settlements by blanketing an area. This can cause major air pollution

that inhibits daily activities due to ash resurfacing with wind and other factors. The

concentration of particulate matter can be <2.5 μm (PM2.5) during a normal day, and PM10

is much higher during an explosive episode. This concentration is more than three times the

normal measurement we encounter from outdoor sources such as traffic and factories.

Removing such high concentrations can be difficult with dependence on natural rainfall,

weathering process and clean-up measures. Even though this effect is time-limited, it

surpasses regulatory air quality standards for particles and can leave deep deposits in

inhabited areas.10 Volcanic ash is not just harmful to the land but can cause complete engine

failure in aircrafts.11
 Ash is not damaging to plant life when removed in a timely manner, but otherwise, it

may block essential sunlight needed for photosynthesis. The fallout can also become toxic

when combined with moisture, causing damage to foliar and flowers. When ash contaminates

plant fruits and flowers, they should be washed before being consumed. The ash is composed

of fine rick particles from the eruption, and when they fall, they cool, therefore not causing a

heat-related threat. In the communities of Pāhala, Nā‘ālehu, and the South Point, an ashfall

was reported. Any harvested crops from these areas were recommended to be thoroughly

washed before consuming.5 Ashfall can cause clinical diseases including hypocalcemia,

fluorosis, forestomach and intestinal damage and secondary metabolic disorders.4

2.3. Lava

Molten hot magma and its wake of destruction can pose immediate threats to

livestock and ranch infrastructure, although this is only a threat to those in the path while the

threat minimizes as the location moves further away from the volcano.12

2.4. Pyroclastic flows

Pyroclastic flows can be generated by explosive volcanic eruptions, causing a

widespread flow covering hundreds of cubic kilometers. Although the dynamics are not fully

understood, it is concluded that a sustained high-eruption discharge may be more significant

than an initially large velocity. Promotion of long pyroclastic flow is associated with long-

lived high-pore pressure that promotes dense granular dispersion. When volcanoes erupt, they

expel magma several hundred cubic kilometers or more and generate particle-gas flows called

pyroclastic density currents. These pumice-rich currents can extend more than 100 kilometers

from their original source.13

2.5. Gas/Steam

When eruptions are steam-driven, they can be either phreatic or hydrothermal. Both

eruptions hurl fragments of mature disintegrated rocks into nearby areas. These rocks are

disintegrated by the act of water expanding as a liquid or in a gaseous phase. Eruptions can

occur with variable degrees of explosivity based on the magnitude of decompression and the

fluid expansion. Steam flashing can cause an energy surplus that may lead to faster

fragmentation due to gags expansion and ejection velocities. These can both contribute to

projected fragment particles.14

2.6. Acid Rain

Sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide can cause an anomaly known as acid rain. This

occurs when the chemicals precipitate and turn into condensation or dew. This can negatively

impact ranchers as the replacement of fences, water lines, gates, tanks, and other metal

structures are more frequent rather than long lasting.5 When SO2 mixes with the atmospheric

moisture, sulfuric acid is produced, also known as acid rain. This rain may also take the form

of fog when near a volcano. During this process, sulfur and/or nitrogen oxidizes when the

molecules are suspended and combine with the airborne moisture. Each component of the

ecosystem is at risk from this type of rain and it can have widespread effects. The pH of the

rain can range from 4.0 to 0.0. Some of the effect's acid rain can have include increased soil

acidity and availability of toxic heavy metals in soil, reduced soil fertility and plant growth

and reproductivity, foliar and flower damage. Acid rain effects can be seen in plants that are

displaying signs of necrosis or chlorosis between leaf veins.5

2.7. Earthquakes
 Seismic activity can be a potential threat to livestock and poses a threat to ranch

infrastructure. It can also cause stress in animals, including livestock. Behavioral changes can

occur due to how situations are handled and whether their location will be affected by

moving pastures.5 Increased seismic activity can precede volcanic eruptions. Although, it is

found that volcano-related earthquakes are no different from those unrelated. It is found that

Omega-sequences are formed by earthquakes under volcanoes. Earthquakes and future

eruptions can be determined by future T-synchronizations that are associated with various

seismic activity. However, it is also found that the global seismic activity of the Earth is

synchronous with larger earthquakes under volcanoes. From this it can be concluded that

increased seismic activity is a product of not only local geological situations but also the state

of the Earth. It can be assumed that volcanoes play a key role in globally synchronized

tectonic activity.11

2.8. Tsunamis

Tsunamis that are generated due to volcanic activity can vary based on a variety of

mechanisms. Mechanisms including earthquakes, pyroclastic flows, underwater explosions,

slope stability, shock waves, and caldera collapse. Waves can vary in their period, form,

amplitude, dispersion, and more. It can cause difficulties in creating tsunami hazard maps

because integration and harmonization sources cannot be used as numerical models.

Monitoring and warning for volcanic tsunamis can and will remain challenging until further

scientific and technical develops occur.15

3. Chemical Components of Volcanic Gas

3.1. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is a nonflammable gas that can create an environment for

asphyxiation, although poisoning is rare. When erupting, volcanoes cause a flux of this gas

globally, although our understanding of this remains poorly quantified. There are only a small

number of accessible volcanoes so our ability to extrapolate this flux is biased. Being able

quantify this would allow us to understand the deep carbon cycle that occurs during geologic

time.16 Eruptions are one of the main routes for carbon and other volatiles to be released from

beneath Earth’s crust. Carbon dioxide is one of the most key atmospheric regulators,

contributing the control of Earth’s climate.17

3.2. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

This gas may be released into the upper atmosphere to form an aerosol that poses a

global threat. If it does not escape into the air, it can mix with water vapor to create acid

rain.11 This mixture can vary in its adverse health effects based on length of exposure, age,

health conditions, and other pollutants in the air at simultaneously. This substance is usually

present as a gas and enters through the respiratory system. For plants, it enters through the

stomata of the leaves that regulate gas exchange. Unfortunately, plants do not exhibit signs of

damage from this gas until the human toxicity is met or exceeded. The recent levels of SO2 in

the atmosphere have been enough to negatively impact both plants and animals downwind of

Kīlauea. Although plants may open and close their stomata to avoid injury, those affected

have the SO2 seep into their mesophyll tissue, where it may combine with water. This

combination converts the gas into sulfuric acid, which then burns the plant's tissue and can

affect animal diet. It is notable to keep in mind that this noxious gas is not only produced by

volcanic eruptions, but also human events such as the burning of coal, manufacturing of steel
and refining oils like petroleum. When this gas combines with moisture in the atmosphere, it

can create a precipitation known as acid rain or acid fog. This rain or fog can have

detrimental effects as it spreads easily and can affect all aspects of an ecosystem. Acid rain

can cause an increase in soil, acidity, and availability of toxic heavy metals (in soil). It can

also lead to a reduction in soil fertility, plant growth and reproductivity, as well as foliar and

flower damage.5

3.3. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

One of the main pollutants of natural events such as volcanic eruptions, geysers,

fumaroles, and hot springs is hydrogen sulfide. This compound is sometimes found at

geothermal plants that produce heat and electricity as well.18 This gas is highly flammable,

colorless, and toxic. Naturally, it is found in sewages, geysers, hot springs, swamps, manure,

and volcanoes. It can also be found in the oil and gas industries and food processing, paper

mills, and tanneries. It may also occur in some homemade cleaning mixtures that are used in

suicide attempts.19 Some studies have investigated the ability to retain biological properties in

H2S. It has also been found that it may be able to modulate pathways that are linked to

cardiovascular pathophysiology. Its beneficial/adverse role has not yet been determined in

reference to cardiovascular disease.18

3.4. Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)

Fluoride contamination of groundwater is a major issue for the world and poses a big

health hazard for bone density. Fluorosis can affect both dental and skeletal makeup.20 In the

Andosols, prolonged acid inputs have reduced pH levels and decreased the amount of

exchangeable base cation concentrations.21 In Vanuatu, the volcano Ambrym is consistently

degassing and causing adverse environmental effects. The inhabitants have been noted to

harvest rainwater and studies have linked this to dental fluorosis throughout the population.
Fluoride contamination of rainwater is linked to the volcanic plumes. In one dental survey,

835 children of ages 6-18 were assessed using the Dean’s Index of Fluorosis. In West

Ambrym, dental fluorosis prevalence was found in 96% of the population. North Ambrym

had 71% prevalence and Southeast Ambrym had a prevalence of 61%. The rainfall patterns

and prevailing winds are congruent with this spatial distribution. West Ambrym being the

driest part of the island, was most affected by the volcanic plume and therefore saw the most

severe cases. Surrounding areas also saw an unprecedented prevalence of dental fluorosis. On

Malakula Island, over 50 kilometers downwind, prevalence was 85% and on Tonga Island it

was 36%. West Ambrym drinking water samples were collected and found fluoride levels to

be from 0.7 to 9.5 ppm. The recommended concentration is 1.0 ppm F, their average was 4.2

ppm F, n=158. This is important to consider for all populations surrounding degassing

volcanos because compromised rainwater can threaten water supply for both humans and

animals.22

3.5. Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

This is a colorless gas at room temperature that forms white fumes of hydrochloric

acid when exposed to atmospheric water vapor. Both compounds are relevant in technology

and industry. Hydrochloric acid, HCl, is formed by one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom

polar covalently bonded. When in contact with water, hydronium cations and chloride anions

can be formed through a reversible reaction.23 Trace amounts may not be enough to be

noteworthy.

4. Volcanic Zones

4.1 Southeast Asia

 There are approximately 750 active and/or potentially active volcanoes spread

throughout southeast Asia. The volcanic ash poses a threat to local communities and can

devastate populations. It has been known to affect their trade, travel, and daily life. Their

volcanoes can be classified based on their morphology, eruptive history, and degassing style.

Eruptions throughout Southeast Asia are some of the most notable throughout our history.

Although their volcanoes are unable to be examined as closely as others due to thick

vegetation and rough terrain, they give is a good understanding of how eruptions affect our

lives.24

Philippines

The Taal volcano is currently being closely monitored by researchers. A major

eruption is predicted to occur soon because of recent steam and ash levels. An explosive

eruption could threaten clean water supply and power generators for millions. On January 12th

at 2:30 pm, the volcano Taal began erupting. Lava was ejected and large plume of rock

fragments (tephra) were thrown as high as 15 kilometers (about twice the height of Mount

Everest). A city 70 kilometers away, Quezon, witnessed a blanket of ash that forced residence

and nearby providences to evacuate. This is the second-highest level volcano monitored by

the country’s alert system, remaining at level 4. A hazardous eruption may occur in a matter

of days or hours at this capacity. Threat of a major eruption remains high as reports of

hundreds of earthquakes, fissure formations and lake water recession occurring in a 24-hour

time period are reported. Continuous seismic activity tells us that the magma is continuing to

emerge from the volcano’s surface and deep within the Earth.25

Japan
 In September of 2018, seismic activity was recorded in Ioto (formerly Iwojima).

Nearby waters were reported to be discolored which gave evidence for an underwater

eruption. Volcanic earthquakes were able to be identified separately from underwater

eruptions as well. Hydroacoustic signals were recorded during this period which allowed

identification of the origin of seismic activity. Mud and phreatic eruptions have been reported

in the past ten years from Ioto. Japan reports most of its volcanic activity along the Izu-

Ogasawara-Mariana volcanic chain. This is along the Pacific plates that overlay with the

Philippine Sea plate.26

Indonesia

In August 2017, Mount Aung began to increase in seismic activity and cause

deformities in the ground. This mountain is said to be sacred to the Hindu population of Bali

and is also a well-known tourist attraction. This volcano was dormant for nearly 53 years

before awakening. The eruptions did not begin until November 21st with the most intensive

explosivity a few days later. Over 140,000 evacuations have taken place between the start of

the eruption and June 2019. It has been difficult to assess the danger as the eruptions have

delays in between that can be hard to estimate. This volcano helps support intense agriculture

at its south flank. The springs help form the basis of a water distribution system that supports

the rice paddies located on the lower flowers. The volcanic ash is quarried for aggregate use

and helps to support development of urban growth near the capital.27

4.2 Iceland

Since the first settlement of Iceland, volcanic eruptions have posed a threat to human

health and caused problems. Eruptions have led to migration, shortage of food, settlement,

grazing land, and livestock destruction. As a hotspot, accidents, illness, and death have also
resulted. The oceanic ridge that the land is formed on contributes largely to the increased

volcanic activity. In Iceland, there are two types of eruptive belts: the drift belts and no drift.

The drift belts mark the separation of the Eurasia plate and the America plate. The eruptive

belts where no drift occurs as in the southern part of the eastern belt. The Laki fissure of 1784

caused the highest mortality in Iceland and impacted the well-being of residents the greatest.

Eruptions have occurred in the last few decades but mortality rate and impact on human

health have been significantly lower. However, studies have showed that due to eruptions,

there is an increase on physical and mental symptoms, especially for those with respiratory

disorders.28

4.3 Latin America

Guatemala

In June of 2018, the Fuego volcano of Guatemala City led over a 100 people dead,

hundreds injured and more missing.30

4.4 Hawaii

Maui

In Maui, the shield volcano Haleakala has been dormant for centuries with an

estimated eruption occurring between 1480 and 1600.30 Located on the Leeward

(Southwestern) slope of Haleakala is a 20,000- acre ranch located just below the 2,000-foot

elevation mark, but it reaches from the sea to 6,000 feet (about the elevation of Denver,

Colorado) above sea level. Their terrain includes that of hard basalt lava and low-quality

pasture grass. Hawaii’s largest volcano, Haleakala, makes up 75% of the island and is home

to a few ranches that grow island beef. Ulupalakua Ranch is more than 150 miles from the
nearest eruption site. The cattle here have a lower chance of being affected by volcanic

activity but depending on the winds can still be impacted.31

Big Island

Southern coast ranches on the Big Island have dealt with vog since the 2008

Halemaumau eruption. The most significant threat to the health of livestock and ranch

infrastructure seems to be vog. Hydrogen fluoride, one of the main components of the vog, is

the most potent and life threatening. This can seep into grasses and become replicated into

their tissue before it is then consumed by livestock. This fluoride can also contaminate water

sources and cause health concerns for the livestock. The Big Island remains to be an active

erupting volcano and poses a threat to nearby farmers and ranchers. One of the largest

ranches exists in the North end of the Hawaiian island and is only a mere 85 miles away from

the active volcano. Kahua ranch is another cattle farm located in Waimea on the Big Island

that is at risk for contaminated feed and water supply due to volcanic eruption. Reports of a

decrease in bone density of bovines has been reported by farmers following a period of

eruptions.5

5. Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Human and Animal Health

During eruptions, volcanic gases that are expelled can be highly toxic to humans

when concentrations are high. Irritation of mucus membranes of the eyes and upper

respiratory tract can occur, as well as skin irritation.28 It has also been reported that the

cardiovascular system is affected by the presence of volcanic irritants.8 Significant bone loss

and loss of calcium deposits has been reported in both humans and livestock. This is caused

by the contamination of feed and water supply.32,34 Skin damage has also been reported in

areas where acid rain and noxious gases have been observed.37,8 Finally, reproduction is also
reported to be affected by volcanic emissions, resulting in birth defects and negative birth

rates.8,38,39,40,41

5.1. Respiratory system

Vog contains elevated levels of SO2 which can cause mucosal irritation (conjunctiva,

nasopharynx), coughing, and asthma. Living in areas that are consistently low in air quality

can increase the risk for long-term health effects by 10% per year.6 Airway problems like

asthma, chronic bronchitis and other airway problems have shown an increase during

volcanic eruptions, when levels of ash deposits are heightened. Inhalation of crystalline silica

has shown to be a significant factor in this exacerbation of fine particles.32 When volcanic ash

travels through the lungs, small particles can invade the alveoli, causing irritation and

respiratory issues. These particles only need to be 4 microns of less to travel through the

lungs. The effects of volcanic ash are well known, causing symptoms like a runny nose and

nasal irritation sore throats and coughs. When ash invades the alveoli, it affects the

phagocytes, making them unable to kill or cause inflammatory responses. Bactericidal

peptides are inhibited, and the proliferation of bacteria is increased. One study found that 9%

of particles <10 microns were able to enter the alveoli. Particles that were less than 100

microns were considered inhalable and ale to irritate the throat. Those less than 10 microns

could invade the bronchus and cause acute disease while particles less than 4 micron were

considered respirable and could reach the alveoli, causing chronic disease. This invasion can

damage the lungs tissue on a cellular level.8

The long-term effects of volcanic ash on human health are still poorly understood

because it is difficult to pinpoint specific air pollutants. Low concentrations of gasses can

inhibit the upper respiratory tract while higher concentrations can affect the lower respiratory

tract and cause pulmonary edema by acute lung damage. Carbon dioxide and monoxide can
cause suffocation by inhibiting the transport of oxygen and the respiratory chain in cells.

Extremely high concentrations cause dizziness and unconsciousness by inhibiting

cytochrome oxidase in the cellular respiratory chain.8

On the island of Hawaii, the continual eruption of Kilauea has released thousands of

metric tons of sulfur dioxide daily. The mixture with water vapor that creates that “vog” was

found to be associated with increased asthma prevalence, respiratory symptoms, and reduced

pulmonary function in school children across the island. The exposure to acid vog caused

coughing and a chronic persistent wheeze or bronchitis within a 12-month period.33

5.2. Cardiovascular

Blood Pressure

There is also evidence to support that when air pollution levels are persistently high,

blood pressure (BP) is impacted. The elevation in BP can be long lasting and increase the risk

of development of hypertension. There is also reason to believe that high air pollution can

lead to insulin resistance.6 When there is a large quantity of carbon dioxide it the atmosphere,

it can lower the oxygen concentration and cause a disruption in the binding of oxygen to

hemoglobin. This is what leads to cell respiration, which then leads to unconsciousness and

death.8

5.3 Skeletal System

Bone Loss

As a heterogeneous dust, volcanic ash fragments contain crystalline silica have been

linked to inducing inflammatory immune responses. A study was preformed that exposed

immortalized bone marrow-derived macrophages of genetically engineered mice to

crystalline silica. The NLRP3 inflammasome was activated by the inhaled volcanic ash and
showed initiation of mitochondrial stress pathways that lead to the production of reactive

oxygen species. The destabilization of lysosomes involving cysteine protease was associated

with cellular uptake.32

Teeth

Fluoride toxicity (fluorosis) can result in the erosion of teeth and bone loss as well as

other growth deformities. The sulfur contamination of feed and water supply can result in

copper absorption complications. This then leads to copper deficiency in many ruminants and

more severe issues. Acute and chronic cases of fluorosis have been reported all around the

world in grazing animals following eruptions. Direct ingestion of F-rich ash deposits in either

feed or drinking water are the main issue for livestock. After the eruption of Mt. Hekla in

1693 in Iceland, a farmer began to report cases of teeth deformities in his cattle, sheep, and

horses. Livestock death was also reported heavily following an eruption and led to famine

among Icelanders.34 A study conducted that analyzed the effects of fluorosis in bovine found

that fluoride levels in grass reached values of 14 ppm and higher values of 40 ppm. Most

animals exposed were affected for a period of several years, receiving contaminated hay. The

determination for acceptable fluoride contamination that would avoid chronic fluorosis was

40 ppm. It was concluded that forage may be a possible threat to animals for at least 2 years

following an eruption.35

In June of 2011, the eruption of the Puyehue-Cordon Caulle volcano deposited tephra

(ashes) on about 36 million kilometers of Argentina. Although the tephra was deposited in

substantial amounts, it was considered chemically in-noxious based on water levels.

Livestock losses were said to be attributed to inanition and excessive teeth wear since surface

fluoride levels were determined to be safe. Wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) was sampled at

100 km from the volcano in September of 2012 to evaluate the effects on wild ungulates.
Bone fluoride levels were found to be up to 5,175 ppm, concluding that tephra caused severe

dental fluorosis. It was also found that tephra was linked to pathologic development of newly

emerging teeth in subadults. This included enamel hypoplasia, breakages, pitting, mottling,

and extremely rapid ablation of crowns to their underlying pulp cavities. Physical condition

was affected by the loss of teeth functionality and subadult were unable to conceive. These

herbivores are more susceptible to fluorosis because of how ruminant food is processed.

Mastication and tephra size can play a role, as well as how it is thoroughly and repeatedly

mixed with alkaline saliva. The water-soluble extraction that occurs in the rumen and the

extraction in the acidic abomasum are thought to be contributors as well. Initially, it was

thought that water and tephra were not a concern, but ruminants are a major part of the

ecosystem and have shown to be extremely sensitive to the risk of fluorosis. In the first 15 ½

months of tephra exposure the bone level increased over 38-fold. This case study was the first

to report fluorosis in wild ungulates because of volcanic eruptions. This impact affects many

factors of nearby environment: population dynamics, morbidity, predation susceptibility,

scavenger, and plant communities. Livestock production is expected to be further impacted

by fluorosis.36

5.4 Organs

Gastrointestinal

Fluoric acid is a known toxin in volcanic gas that is absorbed into the gastrointestinal

tract by 90% at fast rates. Body tissues having calcium are often the main target, but acute

symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. When fluoride binds to calcium the

calcium levels in the blood decrease and painful muscle contractions occur. So far, this

poisoning has been prevalent in sheep.8

 Eyes

Eyes may become red, itchy, and sore from volcanic activity. Irritation, burning,

redness and itching can occur, especially when the ash is acidic. Corneal ulcers may occur

due to ash fallout and tear production can be shown to increase as well as discharge. Presence

of volcanic gases will also cause irritation to the eyes and upper respiratory tract. Those

exposed to an eruption reported obstructive pulmonary disease and ash related symptoms.8

Skin

Hydrofluoric acid can pose potential health concerns to the skin by causing dermal

burns. This acid has a corrosive nature and is highly toxic to humans and animals because it

can affect deep tissues. Tissue damage can cause liquefactive necrosis and release of cellular

products.37 At high concentrations, gases can cause skin irritation and burns. Sulfur dioxide

and sulfuric avid are two examples of gases that become noxious in air.8

5.5 Effects on Reproduction

Birth Defects

One study conducted in Uruguay after a recent eruption concluded that particulate

matter (with a diameter of ≤ 10) was associated with preterm births, term birth weight, and

term low birth weight. Exposure to PM10 during the third trimester was linked with high

probability of preterm birth while exposure during the second trimester was linked with

higher birth weight.38 The impact of the Wenchuan Earthquake was assessed to decide its

effects on birth outcomes. It was found that low birthweight was significantly high, and the

overall ratio of birth defects post-earthquake (1.18%) were higher than pre-earthquake

(1.47%). Ear malformations were noted to be a repeat outcome following earthquakes.

Preterm births were also at an increased weight, and it was found that those in the first
trimester during the day of the eruption were at a higher risk. In twins, the differences in ratio

of twins, birth weight, and low birth weight were increased after the earthquake as well. A

major earthquake may have a significant impact on the physiological and intellectual

development of a fetus. Cleft lip/ palate, polydactylia, microtia/anotia were among the most

common birth defects although patients in the first trimester during an eruption had a ratio of

more than half their birth defects involving the ears.39

Birth Rate

After the eruption of the Icelandic volcano Laki in 1783, over 122 megatons off sulfur

dioxide were produced. The following study investigated their perinatal health implications.

The secondary sex ratio, gender of child at birth, decreased by 3% compared to the expected

levels in 1784. Although both male and female infants had an increased mortality rate by

37% and 54%, respectively. A reduction in male live births was also recorded.40 It was

estimated that the population decreased by 10,500 during the period of eruption.8 One study

researched the relationship between volcanism and whimbrel demography and found that

breeding densities and pairs with chicks were significantly reduced after an eruption in 2010.

Locations both near and far from the volcano were concluded to be affected but with a more

pronounced decrease in the location closer to the volcano.41 Another study conducted in

Argentina reported that two rodent species, Ctenomys hiagi and Ctenomys sociabilis, were

negatively affected by a local volcanic eruption. Female reproductive success was found to be

reduced in both species during the breeding season post-eruption. This led to a decrease in

genetic variability among the C. sociabilis population. Due to this, reproduction was carried

out by older females who had bred the previous year as yearling females were not as

successful. The structure for breeding age females was altered and effected population size

which contributed to the loss in genetic variability. 42

 Following the Puyehue volcanic eruption, changes in female reproduction and body

condition in a lizard, Phymaturus spectabilis, was reported. Only 12% of adult females were

able to reproduce during the breeding season but were found to have skipped reproduction the

year of the eruption. The second mating season following eruption saw an increasing in

females that were reproductive, but clutch size was reduced to one offspring instead of the

usual two reported before the eruption. The body condition of offspring during the second

season were also lower than before the eruption. Juvenile and adult male body condition was

also found to be significantly lower during the first season. A skip in reproduction gave

explanation for lack of improvement in body condition and non-reproductive females in the

first years. It was concluded that good body condition is critical for reproduction and

survival.43

6. Mitigation Strategies

As volcanic eruptions can be sudden and unpredictable as far as size, it can be

difficult to assess potential danger and practical solutions. Animals can be moved as much as

possible to safety from the lava flows, vog and ash, even if it means relocating to another part

of the island or moving to a safer elevation above the vog and flow. Owners should watch for

signs of eye irritation, weakness, abnormalities, and breathing complications.44 Further, water

sources can be consistently monitored and analyzed for increased levels of sulfur and fluoride

levels as a preventative measure to avoid complications such as bone loss, deterioration of

teeth, respiratory and digestive issues, deficiencies, and behavioral problems. Treating water

supplies to remove fluoride can be done through flocculation and adsorption. These methods

involve using chemicals that coagulate and sink impurities or filter the water down through a

column of components like activated charcoal. It has also been noted that volcanic soils are

capable of defluorination properties naturally.45

 The animals should be moved as much as workable to pastures unaffected by vog and

ash fall and continued to be closely monitored for health issues. If there are producers in

affected areas that they should consider supplementing their ruminants with additional copper

to counteract the effects of high sulfur diets and calcium and vitamin D deficiencies that

cause fluorosis. Those who are producers of sheep should consult with a veterinarian or a

local extension agent for the recommendation of copper since this can be toxic to sheep.

Copper Sulfate (CuSO4), and Vitamin D can be used as a copper supplement either separately

or mixed with trace mineral salt or a complete premixed mineral. Dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2]

can also be used as a supplement in the same ways. Vitamin D injection are done primarily

through injection.44
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