LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Quality changes of hazelnut kernels subjected to different cold plasmas and T

gamma irradiation treatments
Baran Onal-Ulusoya,∗, Yasin Senb, Mehmet Mutluc
a
Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Çankırı Karatekin University, Çankırı, Turkey
b
Tourism and Hotel Management Department, School of Business, Atılım University, Ankara, Turkey
c
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Ankara, Turkey (on leave)

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, physicochemical parameters of hazelnuts after atmospheric-pressure (AP:air, 3000 L/h, 655 W,
Non-thermal food processing 25 kHz, 1.7 min) and low-pressure (LP:air, 25 Pa, 100 W, 13.56 MHz, 30 min) cold plasmas, and gamma irra-
Corylus avellana L. diation (GMI:10 kGy, 10 min) treatments, and untreated and treated hazelnuts after accelerated storage for 30
Phenolic days(60 °C) were investigated. All treatments significantly reduced moisture (26–47%), aw (16–48%), oil
Sugar
(13–15%), soluble phenolic content (SPC; 26–36%) and total tocopherols (TT; 8–38%) compared to untreated
Storage
hazelnut (Control-1) while no significant changes determined between treatments and Control-1 in terms of
L*a*b*, protein, total sugars (TS) and total phenolic compounds. However, TS of all treatments after storage
were significantly increased (3.2–33%) while aw (7–27%) and TT (13–31%) of all treatments were significantly
decreased compared to both Control-2 and before storage (p < 0.05). Among treatments, cold plasmas showed
great potential for conservation of most tested parameters.

1. Introduction Plasma refers to partially or completely ionized gas composed of a

Hazelnuts are one of the most nutritious nuts that contain valuable
nutrients, such as proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, phyto-
chemicals, and micronutrients, including tocopherols, polyphenols,
essential minerals (potassium, calcium, magnesium, selenium), and B-
complex vitamins (Alasalvar, Shahidi, Liyanapathirana, & Ohshima,
2003).
Nuts are easily contaminated with aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus
spp. in the field and during storage. These fungi are transmitted to nut-
containing products and animal feeds. Among aflatoxin species, afla-
toxin-B1 (AFB1) is classified as a Group-1 carcinogen. Pankaj, Shi, and
Keener (2018) published a summary regarding degradation of AFB1 on
various food samples using conventional methods (roasting and mi-
crowave heating) and novel technologies (ozone, UV irradiation,
gamma-irradiation (GMI), electron-beam irradiation, and cold plasma).
Among these, GMI is the most commonly used for AFB1 degradation on
nuts. However, usage of some of these methods is limited owing to
safety issues, possible nutritional losses of food, limited efficacy, and
cost implications (Dasan, Mutlu, & Boyaci, 2016).
Cold plasma offers a residue-free, harmless, eco-friendly, fast, and
applicable technique to decontaminate fungal and mycotoxin con-
tamination on heat-sensitive food products (Pankaj et al., 2018).
variety of energetic and charged species (electrons and positive and
negative ions), radicals, neutral species (excited atoms and molecules),
and photons (UV/visible). These are formed mainly from collisions of
energetic electrons with heavy particles (atoms, molecules, and ions).
The reactive plasma species are able to break down covalent bonds and
initiate numerous chemical reactions that are important for various
technological applications (Dasan et al., 2017).
Over the last decade, there have been few studies focused on de-
contamination of Aspergillus spp. or aflatoxins on hazelnuts using low-
pressure (LP) and atmospheric-pressure (AP) plasmas generated with
various gases (air, sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), nitrogen, and humid air
(45.3% humidity)) at different power-time combinations (Dasan et al.,
2016; Pankaj et al., 2018; Sen, Onal-Ulusoy, & Mutlu, 2019a,b). How-
ever, none of these published studies have reported possible changes in
different physicochemical parameters of hazelnut after cold plasma
treatments. These properties need to be evaluated not only for nutri-
tional value and consumer perception of food but also for their influ-
ence on microbial resistance during cold plasma treatments and pro-
liferation of plasma-treated microorganisms during food storage.
Plasma technology ensures microbial safety of food without addi-
tion of preservatives at low operation temperatures. Few studies have
reported the physicochemical properties of foods other than hazelnuts

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: baran@karatekin.edu.tr (B. Onal-Ulusoy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108549
Received 3 March 2019; Received in revised form 16 August 2019; Accepted 25 August 2019
Available online 28 August 2019
0023-6438/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Onal-Ulusoy, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549

Table 1
Linearity range, LOD, LOQ and recovery values for chemical analyses.
Compounds Linearity range R2 LOD LOQ Recovery(%)

Phenolic compounds Gallic acid 0.26–10.3 μg/mL 0.998 0.69 μg/g 1.72 μg/g 101
Protocatechuic acid 0.28–11.0 μg/mL 0.999 1.83 μg/g 3.67 μg/g 83
Catechin 0.26–10.4 μg/mL 0.999 1.93 μg/g 3.47 μg/g 104
Pyro-catechol 0.25–10.1 μg/mL 0.999 1.68 μg/g 3.37 μg/g 84
Chlorogenic acid 0.30–12.1 μg/mL 0.999 0.40 μg/g 2.02 μg/g 87
Caffeic acid 0.30–11.9 μg/mL 0.999 0.40 μg/g 1.98 μg/g 95
Syringic acid 0.29–11.6 μg/mL 0.999 0.39 μg/g 0.77 μg/g 101
Vanilic acid 0.26–10.3 μg/mL 0.999 0.34 μg/g 0.69 μg/g 76
p-Coumaric acid 0.33–13.3 μg/mL 0.999 0.89 μg/g 2.22 μg/g 71
Ferulic acid 0.28–11.0 μg/mL 0.999 0.73 μg/g 1.83 μg/g 91
Sugars Stachylose 0.01–0.18 mg/mL 0.997 0.36 mg/g 0.71 mg/g 105
Raffinose 0.02–0.31 mg/mL 0.999 0.62 mg/g 1.24 mg/g 100
Sucrose 0.11–2.17 mg/mL 0.999 0.87 mg/g 2.17 mg/g 91
Glucose 0.02–0.38 mg/mL 0.999 0.76 mg/g 1.52 mg/g 109
Fructose 0.02-0.39mg/mL 0.998 0.78mg/g 1.56mg/g 105
Tocopherols α-tocopherol 0.69–55.5 μg/mL 0.999 0.69 mg/100 g dry matter 1.38 mg/100 g dry matter 97
γ-tocopherol 0.31–31.3 μg/mL 0.999 0.62 mg/100 g dry matter 1.24 mg/100 g dry matter 105
δ-tocopherol 0.81–21.5 μg/mL 0.999 0.8 mg/100 g dry matter 1.07 mg/100 g dry matter 80
SPC Gallic acid 50–150 mg/L 0.991 0.01 mgGAE/g 0.05 mgGAE/g 89

R2: Correlation coefficient, LOD:limit of detection, LOQ:limit of quantification, SPC:Soluble phenolic content, GAE:gallic acid equivalent (mg gallic acid/g).

after plasma treatments. Studies have shown no difference in sensory
acceptability (color, taste, aroma, etc.) after plasma treatment of dried
squid shreds, despite a decrease in humidity and increase in lipid oxi-
dation, and no significant changes in vitamin C content, brix, and pH of
orange juice. Further, reports have shown insignificant color changes in
fresh products, such as tomatoes, carrots, and lettuce, lighter meat
color, inactivation of polyphenol oxidase, and no changes in anti-
oxidant activity of kiwi and walnut (Amini & Ghorannevis, 2016;
Bourke, Ziuzina, Boehm, Cullen, & Keener, 2017). Therefore, plasma
can be considered as a minimal food-processing technology that ensures
food safety and flavor preservation.
The aims of this study were to (i) determine effects of two different
plasma and GMI treatments on various quality parameters of hazelnuts,
such as water activity (aw), humidity, color stability, oil, protein, sugar,
soluble phenolic content (SPC), phenolic compounds and tocopherols,
and (ii) evaluate stability of each quality parameter for untreated and
treated hazelnuts after 30 days of accelerated storage at 60 °C.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
A Turkish natural hazelnut blend, consisting of three major cultivars
(Çakıldak, Sivri, and Tombul), was supplied from Gürsoy A.Ş (Ordu,
Turkey). Raw hazelnut kernels (1.08 ± 0.07 cm in diameter and
0.54 ± 0.03 g) with testas (outer skins on kernels) were vacuum-
packed in non-permeable polyethylene bags and stored at 4 °C before
treatments.
External calibration standards for analysis of phenolic composition
(gallic, protocatechuic, chlorogenic, caffeic, p-coumaric, syringic, va-
nilic and ferulic acids; (+)-catechin and pyro-catechol), sugars (sta-
chyose, raffinose, glucose, fructose and sucrose), and tocopherols (α-, γ-
and δ-tocopherols) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Munich,
Germany). All other chemicals used in this study were of HPLC or
analytical grade and purchased from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany).
2.2. Plasma and gamma irradiation treatments
The AP-plasma (Plasmatreat AS400 GmbH, Hauptsitz, Germany)
was operated at 3000 L/h air (purity 99.99%), 25 kHz frequency,
655 W of power, 7 cm distance between the plasma jet and sample, and
cycle number of 5 (1 cycle = 20.7 s; total 1.7 min). The LP radio fre-
quency (RF, 13.56 MHz) plasma system (Diener Electronics
GmbH + Co., Ebhausen, Germany) was operated with air, 25 Pa,
100 W, 30 min (Sen et al., 2019a). These plasma conditions were se-
lected because Sen et al. (2019a,b) showed that spore inactivation of
5.6 and 5.5 log10(cfu/g) in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus,
and 89% and 75% of AFB1 reduction were achieved after LP- and AP-
air-plasmas, respectively. The hazelnut samples (10 g) were placed in a
rotary drum chamber, which was adapted externally into the plasma
systems. GMI (Sarayköy Nuclear Research and Training Center, Ankara,
Turkey) was operated at 10 kGy with Cobalt-60 for 10 min (Sen, Onal-
Ulusoy, & Mutlu, 2019b).
2.3. Physical quality parameters
The Hunter L*a*b* values of whole hazelnut with testas before
plasma and GMI treatments and after storage were measured using a
Minolta spectrophotometer CM-3600d (Minolta Camera Co., Tokyo,
Japan). Total color difference (ΔE) values were calculated according to
the following equation:
∗ ∗ ∗
ΔE = (L∗ − Ltarget )2 + (a∗ − atarget )2 + (b∗ − btarget )2
The L*a*b* values of raw hazelnut and untreated stored hazelnut
were used as targets. Moisture content was determined using an oven at
105 °C (AOAC, 2005). Water activity (aw )values were determined using
AquaLab CX-2 (Decagon Devices, Pullman, WA, USA) at a constant
temperature of 25 °C.
2.4. Chemical quality parameters
Method validation results consisted of linearity, limit of detection
(LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ) and recovery values of each
chromatographic and spectrophotometric analysis are given in Table 1.
2.4.1. Total oil and protein content
Total oil in hazelnut was determined using the Soxhlet extraction
with hexane (AOAC, 2005). Oil-free hazelnut (100–120 mg) was put in
zinc sample cups of the DUMAS protein analysis instrument (Velp,
Barcelona, Spain) with a thermal conductivity detector and analyzed on
a combustion reactor. EDTA was used for external calibration for ni-
trogen detection. Oven and ashing temperatures were set as 65 °C and
950 °C, respectively. Flow rates of helium, oxygen, and reference col-
umns were set as 140, 250, and 100 mL/s, respectively. Factor of 6.25
was used to convert nitrogen into protein content.

2
B. Onal-Ulusoy, et al.
2.4.2. Soluble phenolic content (SPC)
SPC measurements were obtained on ground hazelnuts (1 g) ex-
tracted with 10 mL of ethanol (800 mL/L) under reflux conditions in a
60 °C water bath for 40 min (Chandrasekara & Shahidi, 2011). A high-
speed blender (Philips HR1615/90, Eindhoven, Holland) was used for
grounding of hazelnuts. Samples were centrifuged at 1792×g for 5 min
and then filtered through Whatman #1 paper (Sigma-aldrich, Munich,
Germany). The phenolic-rich supernatant was removed, and the residue
was extracted twice (10 and 5 mL) with ethanol (800 mL/L). The rest of
the steps applied on combined supernatants were the same as
Chandrasekara and Shahidi (2011) and SPC was determined using the
colorimetric Folin–Ciocalteu method using 350 g/L of sodium carbo-
nate. The absorbance of each sample was measured using a Perkin-
Elmer-Lambda-3 (Waltham, MA, USA) spectrophotometer at 765 nm.
SPC was expressed as the gallic acid equivalent (GAE).
2.4.3. Phenolic composition
Phenolic extraction was performed according to the method of
Pelvan, Alasalvar, and Uzman (2012) with some modification. Briefly,
ground hazelnut (0.9 g) was mixed with 9 mL of mixture of methanol,
containing 2 g/L butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and 100 mL/L acetic
acid (85:0.015 mL/L), and the mixture was ultra-sonicated at 25 °C for
30 min. Following, 3 mL of water was added to the mixture, and the
upper phase of the mixture (12 mL) was filtered through a 0.2 μm syr-
inge filter and injected to the Agilent 1100 HPLC system (Santa Clara,
CA, USA) equipped with a UV-variable detector at 280 nm and Hi-
Chrom ODS-3 column (Berkshire, UK, 150 × 4.6 μm × 5 μm). A mix-
ture of solvent-A (50 mmol/L phosphoric acid) and solvent-B (acet-
onitrile) was used as mobile phase, and the column temperature,
column flow rate, and injection volume were set to 30 °C, 0.7 mL/min,
and 10 μL, respectively. The elution profile was programmed as follows:
0–7 min, 5–8 (V/V)% B; 7–10 min, 8 (V/V)% B; 10–25 min, 8–20 (V/
V)% B; 25–40 min, 20–25 (V/V)% B; and 40–60 min, 25–50 (V/V)% B.
2.4.4. Sugar content
Sugar extraction from hazelnuts was performed according to
Alasalvar et al. (2003) with some modifications. Briefly, ground ha-
zelnut (12.5 g), mixed with 50 mL water, was first agitated at 250 rpm
and 25 °C for 30 min and then agitated at 3×g and 60 °C for 15 min.
After centrifugation (1372×g, 5 min), the upper phase was filtered
through a Whatman 541 filter (Sigma-aldrich, Munich, Germany).
Permeate was filtered through a 0.2 μm syringe filter before injecting
into the Agilent 1100 HPLC equipped with a Agilent Hi-Plex-Ca column
(Santa Clara, US, 300 mmx 7.7 mm, 8 μm) and refractive index detector.
The column temperature, mobile phase (100% water) flow rate, and
injection volume were kept at 80 °C, 0.6 mL/min and 10 μL, respec-
tively.
2.4.5. Tocopherol composition
Because tocopherols are very susceptible to heat, the cold solvent
extraction method was used. Briefly, 6 g of ground hazelnut was put
into a beaker and 15 mL of n-hexane was added. The beaker was cov-
ered with aluminum foil and mixed in a magnetic stirrer at 3×g for
15 min. After removing and filtering the supernatant, the remaining
residue was extracted twice by adding 15 mL of n-hexane. The rest of
the steps were the same as the first one. The hexane extract was reduced
to a 1 mL volume under nitrogen and then injected into the Agilent
1100 HPLC equipped with a Hypersil 100 (Thermo Fisher Scientific,
Waltham, MA, 250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm) column and fluorescence detector
(Ex:290 nm: Em:330 nm). The column temperature, mobile phase
(hexane:isopropyl alcohol (99.5:0.0005 mL/L)) flow rate, and injection
volume were kept at 25 °C, 1.3 mL/min and 20 μL, respectively (Onal-
Ulusoy, Tur, & Mutlu, 2013).
3
LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549
2.5. Accelerated storage
The AOCS Cg 5–97 accelerated storage test of (Firestone, 1998) was
adapted to hazelnuts because of their rich and relatively stable oil
content. This test is usually used for estimating the shelf-life of oils/fats.
Hazelnuts were put in a petri dish and stored in an oven at 60 ± 1 °C
for 30 days. The oven was not opened during storage; thus, oxygen was
consumed and degradation products were accumulated. According to
the Arrhenius approach, 1-day oil/fat storage at 60 °C is equivalent to
storage of approximately 1 month at 25 °C (Li et al., 2013).
2.6. Statistical analysis
The quality of a hazelnut after each treatment was compared against
raw hazelnut (untreated, control-1), and the quality of each stored
hazelnut after treatments was compared against the untreated-stored
hazelnut (control-2). For these purposes, data were analyzed by ana-
lysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 21.0. Differences between mean
values were compared using Scheffe's multiple-comparison test with a
significance level of p = 0.05. All data were the average of at least two
replicate experiments (N ≥ 2) and at least two measurements in each
replicate.
3. Results
3.1. Moisture, aw, total oil, protein and color
Several extrinsic factors such as humidity and temperature can af-
fect hazelnut quality. If humidity is too high, mold growth and rancidity
increase. In contrast, if it is too low, hazelnuts are shriveled, and their
color is changed (Ghirardello et al., 2013). The initial moisture content
of hazelnut (control-1) (Table 2) was higher than industrial standard
level of ~60 g/kg determined for hazelnut kernels (Wang et al., 2018),
while hazelnuts treated with both plasmas and GMI had moisture
contents lower than 60 g/kg. Among treatments, the highest decrease in
moisture content was obtained with LP-plasma followed by AP-plasma
and GMI, respectively (p < 0.05). However, differences in moisture
content of all treated samples after storage compared to that in control-
2 were insignificant (p > 0.05). Ghirardello et al. (2013) reported no
difference in moisture content of hazelnuts stored at 4 °C in nitrogen
atmospheres or at 20–22 °C for 12 months, but no data were available
for storage at 60 °C.
The microbiological stability of food can be measured by aw value
rather than moisture content. A decrease in aw is an important para-
meter for preventing microorganism growth. After treatments and
storage, the highest decrease in aw (Table 2) was obtained for LP-
plasma treatment due to testa loss and vacuum application (p < 0.05).
Like moisture content, aw of all hazelnuts decreased after storage.
Generally, storage of treated samples for 30 days caused a decrease in
aw between 7% and 27% compared with control-2 due to increasing the
temperature from 25 °C to 60 °C. A similar decreasing trend was also
observed by Wang et al. (2018) for aw of three Oregon hazelnuts dried
at 38 and 43 °C (RH 40/60%), but aw was increased during drying at
49 °C. They suggested that a safe aw level for hazelnut kernels should
be < 0.65.
The initial total oil content of hazelnut was 441 (g/kg) or (478 g/kg
dry matter), which was consistent with Matthaus and Ozcan (2012)
who reported the oil content of Turkish hazelnuts as 80–640 (g/kg).
The oil content of hazelnut was significantly reduced after both of the
two plasmas and the GMI treatments (p < 0.05) before and after sto-
rage, but the differences among these treatments were found insignif-
icant (p > 0.05).
The initial protein content of the control-1 (159 g/kg or 172 g/kg
dry matter) (Table 2) was consisted with Köksal, Artık, Şimşek, and
Güneş (2006) who reported that the protein content of 17 varieties of
Turkish hazelnuts, including Çakıldak and Tombul, was 117–208 (g/
B. Onal-Ulusoy, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549

Table 2
Changes in moisture (g/kg), water activity (aw), protein (g/kg dry matter), oil (g/kg dry matter) and color values of untreated and treated hazelnuts before and after
storage.
Treatments Before storage After storage

Control-1 LP plasma AP plasma GMI Control-2 LP plasma AP plasma GMI

Moisture 77 ± 4c 41 ± 2a 54 ± 2b 57 ± 4b 21 ± 4A 27 ± 7A 29 ± 7A 24 ± 2A
MC (%)b – 46.8 29.9 26.0 – −28.6 −38.0 −14.3
aw 0.58 ± 0.05c 0.30 ± 0.02a 0.49 ± 0.02b 0.44 ± 0.04b 0.30 ± 0.01C 0.22 ± 0.01A 0.28 ± 0.01B,C 0.26 ± 0.02B
awC (%)b – 48.3 15.5 24.1 – 26.6 12.7 7.0
Oil 478 ± 8b 415 ± 2aa 407 ± 10aa 406 ± 17aa 507 ± 4B 421 ± 21Aa 417 ± 11Aa 420 ± 7Aa
OC (%)b – 13.2 14.9 15.1 – 16.9 17.8 17.2
Protein 172 ± 3a 200 ± 9b,ca 213 ± 6ca 194 ± 1ba 183 ± 6A 208 ± 8B,Ca 219 ± 4Ca 201 ± 6Ba
PC (%)b – −16.3 −23.8 −12.8 – −13.7 −20.0 −9.8
Color L∗ 45.5 ± 3.5a 44.9 ± 3.6a 44.4 ± 3.7a 44.3 ± 2.2a 35.1 ± 2.1A 35.7 ± 3.0A 34.4 ± 2.5A 35.1 ± 2.8A
a∗ 16.3 ± 0.9aa 16.2 ± 1.3aa 16.6 ± 1.2aa 16.1 ± 1.5aa 15.3 ± 1.4Aa 16.1 ± 1.7Aa 14.9 ± 2.1Aa 14.3 ± 2.6Aa
b∗ 23.4 ± 1.8a 22.9 ± 3.4 a 22.6 ± 2.7a 23.2 ± 2.4a 13.4 ± 3.1A 14.8 ± 2.5A 13.2 ± 2.5A 12.9 ± 3.3A
ΔE 0a 0.7 ± 0.2 b 1.3 ± 0.2c 1.2 ± 0.1 c 0A 2.4 ± 1.8B 2.4 ± 1.3B 3.7 ± 1.7C

Control-1: Raw (untreated) hazelnut; Control-2: Untreated hazelnut stored at 60 °C for 30 days, AP-plasma:Hazelnut treated with atmospheric pressure plasma; LP-
plasma:Hazelnut treated with low pressure plasma, GMI:Hazelnut treated with gamma irradiation.
Moisture: N = 6 for control-1; N = 6 for control-2; N = 5 for treated hazelnuts, mean ± SD.
aw: N = 6 for control-1; N = 6 for control-2; N = 5 for treated hazelnuts, mean ± SD.
Oil: N = 6 for control-1, N = 4 for treated samples before storage; N = 2 for control-2 and treated hazelnuts after storage, mean ± SD.
Protein: N = 2 for control-1; N = 2 for control-2; N = 2 for treated hazelnuts, mean ± SD.
Color: N = 11 for control-1, N = 11 for control-2; N = 10 for treated hazelnuts, L*: lightness; a*: green to red; b*: blue to yellow.
MC: moisture change; awC: aw change; PC: Protein change, OC:Oil change, ΔE:color difference.
Values in the same row for the same storage type with different lowercase and capital superscript letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
a
Values in the same row for the same treatment before and after storage are not significantly different (p > 0.05).
b
Control- 1 and 2 were used to calculate % changes in all test parameters before and after storage, respectively.

kg). Among all treated and stored hazelnuts, AP-plasma treated ha-
zelnut had the highest protein content followed by both LP-plasma and
GMI treated hazelnuts due to an increase in dry matter while control-1
had the lowest protein value.
Color (L*a*b) values of control-1 and treated hazelnuts were not
significantly different (p > 0.05) (Table 2). This was also valid for the
same samples after storage. However, storage at 60 °C resulted in a
significant decrease in L* and b* values, i.e., darkening, decrease in
yellowness, and increase in ΔE values of control-1 and treated hazel-
nuts. Color values for GMI-treated hazelnut were comparable with a
study that reported no significant effects of different irradiation doses
on color values of hazelnuts (0.5–1.5 kGy) and the effect of storage
period (18 months at 20 ± 0.5 °C) on color values of GMI-treated ha-
zelnuts was significant (Koç Güler, Bostan, Çon, & Şen, 2017).
Storage had significant decreasing effects on moisture, aw, L* and b*
color values of both control and treated hazelnuts (p < 0.05) (Table 1S
in Supplementary Material).
3.2. Sugars
Cristofori, Ferramondo, Bertazza,& Bignami (2008) studied 24 Ita-
lian hazelnut cultivars and reported that sucrose represented about 80%
of the total sugar followed by stachyose (5–10%), raffinose, glucose and
fructose (up to 4%). Initial sucrose levels in control-1 were consistent
with the findings of Cristofori, Ferramondo, Bertazza, and Bignami
(2008), but the other sugar levels were twice as high. The amount of
glucose and fructose decreased significantly after AP-plasma and GMI
treatments (Table 3) compared to that in control-1.
After storage, the highest increases in raffinose, sucrose, fructose
and total sugars (TS) levels were determined for LP-plasma treated
hazelnuts followed by GMI-treated hazelnuts. The highest increases in
stachyose and glucose levels were obtained for GMI-treated hazelnuts
followed by LP-plasma treated hazelnuts.
Storage had significant increasing effects on raffinose and sucrose
contents of control and treated hazelnuts while it had significant de-
creasing effects on stachyose, glucose and fructose contents of control
and LP-plasma treated hazelnuts (Table 2S in Supplementary Material).
3.3. Tocopherols
Hazelnuts are important sources of tocopherols, and the con-
centration of α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol in different hazelnut oils in
Turkey range from 19.9 to 63.9 and 1.3 to 15.5 (mg/100 g oil), re-
spectively (Matthaus & Ozcan, 2012). Among tocopherols identified in
control-1 (Table 4), α-tocopherol was more abundant than γ-toco-
pherol. Among all treatments, GMI treatment caused the highest re-
duction in α-tocopherol and total tocopherols (TT) than control-1. After
storage, GMI and LP-plasma treated hazelnuts had lower contents of α-
and γ-tocopherols than both control-2 and AP-plasma treated hazelnuts.
Storage had significant decreasing effects on individual and total to-
copherol contents of control and treated hazelnuts except α-tocopherol
of GMI (Table 2S in Supplementary Material).
3.4. Soluble phenolic content (SPC)
The initial SPC of control-1 (Table 5) was consistent with Pelvan
et al. (2012), who reported that SPCs of seven Turkish natural hazelnut
cultivars were between 1.78 and 7.27 (mg GAE/g), and Cristofori et al.
(2008) who reported the SPC of Sivri and Tombul as 3.26 and 3.63 (mg
GAE/g), respectively. The SPC of control-1 was significantly decreased
after all treatments. After storage, SPC of LP-treated hazelnut was sig-
nificantly increased compared to that of before storage, while SPCs of
GMI-treated hazelnut and control were significantly decreased
(p < 0.05). Similar increase in SPC was reported by Amini and
Ghorannevis (2016) for cold plasma-treated walnuts stored at 4 °C for
15 and 30 days.
Storage at 60 °C for 30 days significantly reduced SPC of control and
treated hazelnuts except AP-plasma (Table 3S in Supplementary Ma-
terial). Similar decreases in SPC were reported for hazelnuts stored for
12 months at 25 °C (Ghirardello et al., 2013).
3.5. Phenolic compounds
Control-1 contains several phenolic compounds as listed in Table 5,
and the most abundant phenolics were (+)-catechin and pyro-catechol.

4
B. Onal-Ulusoy, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549

Table 3
The changes in sugar compositions (mg/100 g dry matter) of untreated and treated hazenuts before and after storage.
Treatments Before storageb After Storageb

Control-1 LP plasma AP plasma GMI Control-2 LP plasma AP plasma GMI

a a aa aa A A,B A,Ba
Stachyose 20.7 ± 1.7 21.4 ± 3.0 17.4 ± 0.2 18.8 ± 0.5 16.0 ± 0.2 16.9 ± 0.9 17.5 ± 1.5 18.9 ± 0.0Ca
Raffinose 9.3 ± 0.3a 9.1 ± 0.3a 9.4 ± 0.3a 9.3 ± 0.7a 14.5 ± 0.4B 19.4 ± 0.5C 14.3 ± 0A 15.5 ± 0.0B
Sucrose 76.8 ± 8.2a 73.8 ± 7.4a 71.9 ± 6.0a 71.6 ± 0.1a 89.6 ± 0.4B 121.0 ± 0.4D 85.5 ± 2.7A 95.7 ± 1.3C
Glucose 11.2 ± 2.6b 10.8 ± 4.3 a,b 5.9 ± 0.2aa 6.3 ± 0.6aa 4.4 ± 0.2A 6.7 ± 0.4B 6.1 ± 0.8A,Ba 7.1 ± 0.6Ba
Fructose 12.6 ± 3.6b 9.8 ± 1.8 a,b 7.4 ± 0.3a 6.9 ± 1.3aa 4.2 ± 0.3A 7.3 ± 0.0C 6.7 ± 0.1B 7.1 ± 0.0Ba
Total sugars (TS) 131 ± 16aa 125 ± 7a 112 ± 4a 114 ± 3a 129 ± 2Aa 172 ± 2D 130 ± 3B 144 ± 2C
Changes inTS (%)c – 4.6 14.5 13.4 – −33.4 −3.2 −12.3

N = 7 for control-1; N = 2 for treated hazelnuts and control-2, mean ± SD.

Values in the same row for the same storage type with different lowercase and capital superscript letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
a
Values in the same row for the same treatment before and after storage are not significantly different (p > 0.05).
b
Recovery corrected results.
c
Control-1 and 2 were used to calculate % changes in TS before and after storage, respectively.

Pelvan et al. (2012) reported free phenolic acids contents were com-
posed of gallic and protocatechuic, and bounded phenolics acids com-
posed of gallic, protocatechuic, p-coumaric and (ferulic + sinapic) in
seven natural Turkish hazelnut varieties including Tombul, Çakıldak
and Sivri. Recently, Pelvan, Olgun, Karadağ, and Alasalvar (2018) re-
ported that total (bound and free) gallic, protocatechuic, syringic were
in the range of 0.54–6.79 (μg/g) and caffeic, ferulic, o-coumaric, and
sinapic were in the range of 0.090–3.13 (μg/g) in Turkish Tombul ha-
zelnut. There were no significant differences determined between AP-
plasma or GMI treated hazelnuts and control-1 in terms of individual
phenolic compounds and total phenolic compounds (TPCs) except va-
nilic acid for AP-plasma and caffeic acid for GMI. However, the
amounts of (+)-catechin significantly increased and syringic or vanilic
acids significantly decreased in LP-plasma treated hazelnut compared
to control-1 (p < 0.05).
The amounts of gallic, protocatechuic, (+)-catechin, vanillic, p-
coumaric, and TPC contents of control-2 and all treated samples were
not significantly different after storage. Among treatments, the highest
decrease in chlorogenic and syringic acids were determined for GMI
whereas the highest decrease in pyro-catechol and caffeic acid were
determined for LP compared to that in control-2. The highest increase
in ferulic acid was determined for AP plasma.
4. Discussion
The longer treatment time and low pressure application during LP-
plasma treatment resulted in higher loosening on the hazelnut kernel
compared to those of AP and GMI treatments and higher partial re-
moval of testa compared to those of AP-treatment. Partial testa removal
could facilitate moisture loss in both cold plasma treated hazelnuts
while radiolysis of water forming free radicals might have resulted in
moisture loss in GMI treated hazelnuts (Sanchez-Bel, Egea, Romojaro, &
Martínez-Madrid, 2008). Water activity (aw) values of controls and
treated hazelnuts before and after storage were lower than 0.65. At this
level of water activity (aw), microbial growth on kernels, lipid oxida-
tion, enzyme activity, and browning reaction of kernels would be well
prevented during storage (Wang et al., 2018).
Hazelnuts were rubbed against each other and also the sidewalls of
the drum system, which facilitated partial removal of the testa, and
these hazelnut samples had higher oil loss in the kernel (Krysiak, 2011)
compared to control-1. However, the oil loss in the GMI-treated ha-
zelnut could be attributed to the destruction potential of gamma rays on
oil components.
The significant reduction in color values especially in L* and b*
values after storage were attributed to oxidation of colored components
due to oxygen in the oven and heat treatment (60 °C).
During irradiation of sugars, the action of free radicals produced by
water could cause oxidation of certain functional groups, such as hy-
droxyl, and formation of compounds, such as gluconic acid and 2-
deoxy-gluconolactone (Sanchez-Bel et al., 2008). In the presence of
oxygen, the main products identified after irradiation of simple sugars
are acids, short-chain derivatives, and modified sugars, including sugars
with two carbonyl groups. On the other hand, irradiation of carbohy-
drates could provoke the rupture of glycosidic bonds between hexose
residues in starch and cellulose, such that the content of mono-
saccharides may rise in this process (Siddhuraju, Makkar & Becker,
2002). Yet, Koç Güler et al. (2017) did not determine a significant effect
of 1.5 kGy treatment on crude cellulose. Apparently, these effects were
also valid for AP-plasma treatment because formation of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), such as
atomic oxygen (O), ozone (O3), hydroxyl (OH), NO, and NO2 (Graves,
2012) during air plasma generation could catalyze sugar oxidation.
The significant increase in raffinose, sucrose and total sugar con-
tents (except for control) for the same sample after storage (Table 2S in

Table 4
Tocopherol contents (mg/100 g dry matter) of untreated and treated hazelnuts before and after storage.
Treatments Before Storageb After Storageb

Control-1 LP plasma AP plasma GMI Control-2 LP plasma AP plasma GMI

α-tocopherol 21.7 ± 1.5c 18.5 ± 0.7b 19.2 ± 0.0b 11.5 ± 1.4aa 16.7 ± 1.8B 12.8 ± 1.2A,B 15.5 ± 0.2B 10.0 ± 0.9Aa
γ-tocopherol 6.2 ± 0.5a,b 5.0 ± 0.3a 6.5 ± 0.6c 5.8 ± 0.9a,b 4.8 ± 0.6B 2.8 ± 0.2A 3.3 ± 0.0A,B 4.8 ± 0.4B
Total tocopherols(TT) 28.0 ± 2.0c 23.5 ± 0.5b 25.6 ± 0.6b,c 17.3 ± 2.3a 21.5 ± 2.4A 15.6 ± 1.4A 18.7 ± 0.2A 14.8 ± 1.3A
Changes in TT(%)c – 15.9 8.3 38.1 – 27.6 13.1 31.1

N = 5 for Control-1, N = 2 for treated hazelnuts and Control-2, mean ± SD.

Values in the same row for the same storage type with different lowercase and capital superscript letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
a
Values in the same row for the same treatment before and after storage are not significantly different (p > 0.05).
b
Recovery corrected results and δ-tocopherol in control was lower than LOD (0.8 mg/100 g dry matter).
c
Control-1 and 2 were used to calculate % changes in TS before and after storage, respectively.

5
B. Onal-Ulusoy, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549

Table 5
Soluble phenolic content (mg GAE/g dry matter), phenolic composition (μg/g dry matter) and total phenolic compounds (μg/g dry matter) of untreated and treated
hazelnuts before and after storage.
Before storageb After Storageb

Treatments Control-1 LP-plasma AP-plasma GMI Control-2 LP-plasma AP-plasma GMI

Soluble phenolic Content (SPC) 3.4 ± 0.3b 2.2 ± 0.1a 2.4 ± 0.2aa 2.5 ± 0.1a 2.1 ± 0.1B 2.6 ± 0.0D 2.4 ± 0.1Ca 1.7 ± 0.1A
Change in SPC(%)b – 35.6 30.3 26.4 – −23.5 −12.1 20.8
Phenolic compounds
Gallic acid 6.1 ± 0.3a 5.6 ± 1.2a 5.2 ± 0.7a 5.8 ± 0.8a 13.0 ± 1.1A 10.7 ± 0.9A 11.7 ± 1.0A 12.3 ± 1.2A
Protocatechuic acid 13.1 ± 0.4a 10.1 ± 0.5a 10.9 ± 0.5a 9.1 ± 0.5aa 20.6 ± 0.7A 20.7 ± 1.7A 23.2 ± 1.8A 20.0 ± 0.7Aa
(+)-Catechin 182 ± 22a,b 200 ± 5c 183 ± 6a,ba 152 ± 19a 168.4 ± 13A 158 ± 10A 183 ± 11Aa 175 ± 3A
Pyro-catechol 228 ± 4a 193 ± 10a 180 ± 6.2a 182 ± 33a 238 ± 1C 209 ± 0A 217 ± 1B 213 ± 2B
Chlorogenic acid 6.1 ± 0.2a 7.1 ± 2.7a 4.7 ± 0.7a 4.8 ± 2.1a 10.4 ± 2.1A 19.2 ± 7.6B 15.9 ± 8.0B 9.5 ± 2.2A
Caffeic acid 16.4 ± 2.0a,b 16.3 ± 0.6a,b 12.4 ± 3.1a 20.5 ± 0.6c 25.0 ± 1.3A 19.6 ± 6.3A 20.8 ± 6.7A 34.0 ± 1.4B
Syringic acid 33.4 ± 3.7b 24.6 ± 0.3a 28.6 ± 7.7ba 32.3 ± 11.0b 20.9 ± 3.4B 18.9 ± 1.3B 28.8 ± 1.4Ca 12.6 ± 3.6A
Vanilic acid 9.9 ± 2.2ca 5.2 ± 0.7a 6.3 ± 0.3b 4.6 ± 0.2a 11.8 ± 2.0Aa 11.9 ± 0.8A 13.6 ± 0.8A 14.6 ± 2.1A
p-Coumaric acid 13.4 ± 2.6aa 14.7 ± 1.8a 14.1 ± 0.1a 13.0 ± 1.9a 14.5 ± 5.4Aa 10.7 ± 0.5A 11.5 ± 0.5A 9.1 ± 5.7A
Ferulic acid 6.8 ± 1.5a 7.9 ± 0.8 a 5.7 ± 0.4a 4.6 ± 3.0a 2.8 ± 0.2A 6.6 ± 3.9B 9.2 ± 2.6B 3.4 ± 0.2A
Total phenolic compounds (TPCs) 514 ± 23aa 485 ± 12aa 451 ± 12a 429 ± 35a 526 ± 16Aa 485 ± 16Aa 535 ± 16A 504 ± 8A
Change in TPCsc – 5.6 12.3 16.5 – 7.8 −1.7 4.1

SPC: N = 6 for Control-1; N = 3 for treated hazelnuts and Control-2, mean ± SD.
Phenolic compounds: N = 7 for Control-1; N = 2 for treated hazelnuts and Control-2, mean ± SD.
Values in the same row for the same storage type with different lowercase and capital superscript letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
a
Values in the same row for the same treatment before and after storage are not significantly different (p > 0.05).
b
Recovery corrected results.
c
Control-1 and 2 were used to calculate % changes in SPC and phenolic compounds before and after storage, respectively.

Supplementary Material) could indicate formation of intramolecular 5. Conclusions

glycosidic bonds or possible hydrolysis of plant cell wall poly-
saccharides (Khoddami, Wilkes, & Roberts, 2013). Heat treatment
above 100 °C and pH drop (formation of gluconic acid and fatty acids)
could cause formation of glycosidic bonds (Rufian-Henarez & Pastoriza,
2016). Apparently, storage temperature of 60 °C and the storage time
were adequate to stimulate formation of such bonds. Sanchez-Bel et al.
(2008) reported an increase in glucose but a decrease in sucrose content
of GMI treated (10 kGy) almonds after 40 days of storage at 20 ± 1 °C.
Schmitzer, Slatnar, Veberic, Stampar, and Solar (2011) found that
removal of testa resulted in a decrease in both SPC and antioxidative
potential of the hazelnut. However, unremoved testa was directly ex-
posed to active plasma species and gamma rays; thus, degradation of
phenolic compounds could occur. This also supports the theory of the
reaction of phenolic compounds including tocopherols with plasma-
generated of ROS substituents, such as hydroxyl radicals, peroxyl ra-
dicals, atomic oxygen, and singlet oxygen (Brandenburg et al., 2007).
Koç Güler et al. (2017) reported significant reduction in TT of hazelnuts
after treatment with increasing irradiation doses (0.5–1.5 KGy) and
storage period. Other than plasma reactive species and GMI, natural
antioxidants including tocopherols can be partially lost by increased
temperature, oxygen presence (Belviso et al., 2017) and UV exposure.
This is evident when control-1 was compared with each of the treated
hazelnuts.
Interaction between phenolic compounds and cold-plasma treat-
ments has not been thoroughly investigated; however, the presence of
ROS and charged particles can direct reaction pathways, eventually
leading to the appearance of secondary metabolites (Santos et al.,
2017). Grzegorzewski, Ehlbeck, Schluter, Kroh, and Rhon (2011) stu-
died the interactions of plasma reactive species with secondary plant
metabolites in lamb's lettuce after exposure to a cold argon AP-plasma
treatment (35 W for 40 s) and suggested that degradation in phenolics
was not caused by thermal or photochemical processing but by inter-
actions of ROS and argon. This may lead to erosion of epidermal tissue
layers of lettuce, in which flavonoids and other compounds accumu-
lated in the central vacuoles of guard cells and epidermal cells are re-
leased.
LP-plasma treatment followed by AP-plasma for treated samples and
AP-plasma treatment for stored samples showed potential in stabilizing
most of the physicochemical properties of hazelnuts. Among cold
treatments, AP plasma could be easily incorporated to hazelnut pro-
cessing chain due to working at atmospheric pressure, short treatment
time and low capital cost. However, partial removal of phenolic rich
testas on natural hazelnut and loss of tocopherol rich hazelnut oil could
occur. The possible changes in fatty acid and flavor compositions and
lipid oxidation parameters after cold treatments and storage should also
be investigated.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no confiict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by the Turkish Scientific and
Technological Research Council (TUBİTAK) (project number: TOVAG
111O570) and COST action of MP1101.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.108549.
References
Alasalvar, C., Shahidi, F., Liyanapathirana, C. M., & Ohshima, T. (2003). Turkish tombul
hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) 1.Compositional characteristics. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 51, 3790–3796.
Amini, M., & Ghorannevis, M. (2016). Effects of cold plasma treatment on antioxidants
activity, phenolic contents and shelf life of fresh and dried Walnut (Juglans regia L.)
cultivars during storage. LWT- Food Science and Technology, 73, 178–184.
AOAC (2005). Official methods of analysis (2005) (18th ed.). Arlington: Association of
Official Analytical Chemists.
Belviso, S., Dal Bello, B., Giacosa, S., Bertolino, M., Ghirardello, D., Giordano, M., et al.
(2017). Chemical, mechanical and sensory monitoring of hot air- and infrared-
roasted hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) during nine months of storage. Food Chemistry,
217, 398–408.

6
B. Onal-Ulusoy, et al.
Bourke, P., Ziuzina, D., Boehm, D., Cullen, P. J., & Keener, K. (2017). The potential of cold
plasma for safe and sustainable food production. Trends in Biotechnology, 6, 615–626.
Brandenburg, R., Ehlbeck, J., Stieber, M., von Woedtke, T., Zeymer, J., Schluter, O., et al.
(2007). Antimicrobial treatment of heat sensitive materials by means of atmospheric
pressure RF-driven plasma jet. Contributions to Plasma Physics, 47, 72–79.
Chandrasekara, A., & Shahidi, F. (2011). Bioactivities and antiradical properties of millet
grains and hulls. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 59, 9563–9571.
Cristofori, V., Ferramondo, S., Bertazza, G., & Bignami, C. (2008). Nut and kernel traits
and chemical composition of hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) cultivars. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, 88, 1091–1098.
Dasan, B. G., Mutlu, M., & Boyaci, I. H. (2016). Decontamination of Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus spores on hazelnuts via atmospheric pressure fluidized bed
plasma reactor. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 216, 50–59.
Dasan, B. G., Onal-Ulusoy, B., Pawlat, J., Diatczyk, J., Sen, Y., & Mutlu, M. (2017). A new
and simple approach for decontamination of food contact surfaces with gliding arc
discharge atmospheric non-thermal plasma. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 10,
650–661.
Firestone, D. (1998). Official methods and recommended practices of the American oil che-
mists' society (4th ed.). Champaign: AOCS Press.
Ghirardello, D., Contessa, C., Valentini, N., Zeppa, G., Rolle, L., Gerbi, V., et al. (2013).
Effect of storage conditions on chemical and physical characteristics of hazelnut
(Corylus avellana L.). Postharvest Biology and Technology, 81, 37–43.
Graves, D. B. (2012). The emerging role of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in redox
biology and some implications for plasma applications to medicine and biology.
Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 45, 263–265.
Grzegorzewski, F., Ehlbeck, J., Schluter, O., Kroh, L. W., & Rhon, S. (2011). Treating
lamb's lettuce with a cold plasma–Influence of atmospheric pressure Ar plasma im-
manent species on the phenolic profile of Valerianella locusta. LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 44, 2285–2289.
Khoddami, A., Wilkes, M. A., & Roberts, T. H. (2013). Techniques for analysis of plant
phenolic compounds. Molecules, 18, 2328–2375.
Köksal, A.İ., Artık, N., Şimşek, A., & Güneş, N. (2006). Nutrient composition of hazelnut
(Corylus avellana L.) varieties cultivated in Turkey. Food Chemistry, 99, 509–515.
Koç Güler, S., Bostan, S. Z., Çon, A. H., & Şen, F. (2017). Effects of gamma irradiation on
chemical and sensory characteristics of natural hazelnut kernels. Postharvest Biology
and Technology, 123, 12–21.
Krysiak, W. (2011). Effects of convective and microwave roasting on the physicochemical
properties of cocoa beans and cocoabutter extracted from this material. Grasas y
Aceites, 62, 467–478.
Li, H., Fan, Y. W., Li, J., Tang, L., Hu, J. N., & Deng, Z. Y. (2013). Evaluating and pre-
dicting the oxidative stability of vegetable oils with different fatty acid compositions.
Journal of Food Science, 78, 633–641.
LWT - Food Science and Technology 116 (2019) 108549
Matthaus, B., & Ozcan, M. M. (2012). The comparison of properties of the oil and kernels
of various hazelnuts from Germany and Turkey. European Journal of Lipid Science and
Technology, 114, 801–806.
Onal-Ulusoy, B., Tur, E., & Mutlu, M. (2013). Plasma modified membrane for daily re-
covery of oil from repeated frying operation with frequent oil replenishment. Journal
of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 90, 1653–1659.
Pankaj, S. K., Shi, H., & Keener, K. M. (2018). A review of novel physical and chemical
decontamination technologies for aflatoxin in food. Trends in Food Science &
Technology, 71, 73–83.
Pelvan, E., Alasalvar, C., & Uzman, S. (2012). Effects of roasting on the antioxidant status
and phenolic profiles of commercial Turkish hazelnut varieties (Corylus avellana L.).
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 60, 1218–1223.
Pelvan, E., Olgun, E.Ö., Karadağ, A., & Alasalvar, C. (2018). Phenolic profiles and anti-
oxidant activity of Turkish Tombul hazelnut samples (natural, roasted, and roasted
hazelnut skin. Food Chemistry, 244, 102–108.
Rufian-Henarez, J. A., & Pastoriza, S. (2016). Browning: Non-enzymatic browning. In B.
Caballero, P. M. Finglas, & F. Toldra (Eds.). Encyclopedia of food and health (pp. 515–
521). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic press.
Sanchez-Bel, P., Egea, I., Romojaro, F., & Martínez-Madrid, C. M. (2008). Sensorial and
chemical quality of electron beam irradiated almonds (Prunus amygdalus). LWT- Food
Science and Technology, 41, 442–449.
Santos, D. M., Queiros, R. P., Moreira, S. A., Zhu, Z., Barba, F. J., & Saraiva, J. A. (2017).
Nutraceutical and functional food components: Effects of innovative. In C. G.
Galanakis (Ed.). Interaction of compounds (pp. 335–350). Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Academic Press.
Schmitzer, V., Slatnar, A., Veberic, R., Stampar, F., & Solar, A. (2011). Roasting affects
phenolic composition and antioxidative activity of hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.).
Journal of Food Science, 76, 14–19.
Sen, Y., Onal-Ulusoy, B., & Mutlu, M. (2019a). Aspergillus decontamination in hazelnuts:
Evaluation of atmospheric and low-pressure plasma technology. Innovative Food
Science & Emerging Technologies, 54, 235–242.
Sen, Y., Onal-Ulusoy, B., & Mutlu, M. (2019b). Detoxification of hazelnuts by different
cold plasmas and gamma irradiation treatments. Innovative Food Science & Emerging
Technologies, 54, 252–259.
Siddhuraj, P., Makkar, H. P. S., & Becker, K. (2002). The effect of ionizing radiation on
antinutritional factors and the nutritional value of plants materials with reference to
human and animal food. Food Chemistry, 78, 187–205.
Wang, W., Junga, J., Mc-Gorrin, R. J., Traber, M. G., Leonard, S. W., Cherian, G., et al.
(2018). Investigation of drying conditions on bioactive compounds, lipid oxidation
and enzyme activity of Oregon hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.). LWT-Food Science and
Technology, 90, 526–534.