Nuclear

Chemistry
 uclear chemistry is the study of nuclear reactions, with an emphasis on their uses and their
effects on biological systems. Nuclear chemistry affects our lives in many ways, particularly
in energy and medical applications. Radioactivity is also used to help determine the
mechanisms of chemical reactions, to trace the movement of atoms in biological systems and the environment,
and to date historical artifacts. Different isotopes of the same element can undergo very different nuclear reactions,
and one of our goals in this chapter is to gain a deeper appreciation for the differences among different radioactive
isotopes and the ways in which they undergo decay and other nuclear transformations.

Atomos, the Greek root of the word atom, means “indivisible.” It was originally believed that the atom was the
ultimate indivisible particle of which all matter was composed. Lord Rutherford showed in 1911 that the atom is not
homogeneous, but rather has a dense, positively charged center surrounded by electrons. Subsequently, scientists have
learned that the nucleus of the atom can be subdivided into particles called neutrons and protons. In fact, in the past two
decades it has become apparent that even the protons and neutrons are composed of smaller particles called quarks.
For most purposes, the nucleus can be regarded as a collection of nucleons (neutrons and protons), and the
internal structures of these particles can be ignored. As we discussed in Chapter 2, the number of protons in a particular
nucleus is called the atomic number (Z), and the sum of the neutrons and protons is the mass number (A). Atoms that
have identical atomic numbers but different mass number values are called isotopes. However, we usually do not use
the singular form isotope to refer to a particular member of a group of isotopes. Rather, we use the term nuclide. A
nuclide is a unique atom, represented by the symbol
𝐴
𝑋
𝑍
where X represents the symbol for a particular element. For example, the following nuclides constitute the
12 13 14
isotopes of carbon: carbon-12 ( 𝐶), carbon-13 ( 𝐶), and carbon-14 ( 𝐶).
6 6 6

Nuclear Equations
Types of Particles in Nuclear Reactions
Name Symbol (s) Representation Description
Alpha particle 4 4 (High-energy) helium nuclei consisting
𝐻𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 of two protons and two nucleus.
2 2

Beta Particle 0 0 (High-energy) electrons

𝑒 𝑜𝑟 β
−1 −1
Positron 0 0 Particles with the same mass as an
𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝛽 electron but with one (1) unit of
+1 +1
positive charge
Proton 1 1 Nuclei of hydrogen atom
𝐻 𝑜𝑟 ⍴
1 1
Neutron 1 Particles with a mass approximately
𝑛 equal to that of proton but no charge
0
Gama ray γ Very high electromagnetic radiation

Note that positrons are exactly like electrons, except they have the opposite charge. They are the most common
example of antimatter, particles with the same mass but the opposite state of another property (for example,
charge) than ordinary matter. When antimatter encounters ordinary matter, both are annihilated and their mass is
converted into energy in the form of gamma rays (γ)—and other much smaller sub nuclear particles, which are
beyond the scope of this chapter—according to the mass-energy equivalence equation E = mc 2, seen in the
preceding section. For example, when a positron and an electron collide, both are annihilated and two gamma ray
photons are created:
0 0
𝑒+ 𝑒 = γ+ γ
−1 +1
 Gamma rays compose short wavelength, high-energy electromagnetic radiation and are (much) more
energetic than better-known X-rays that can behave as particles in the wave-particle duality sense. Gamma rays
are produced when a nucleus undergoes a transition from a higher to a lower energy state, similar to how a photon
is produced by an electronic transition from a higher to a lower energy level. Due to the much larger energy
differences between nuclear energy shells, gamma rays emanating from a nucleus have energies that are typically
millions of times larger than electromagnetic radiation emanating from electronic transitions.

Radioactive Decay
The spontaneous change of an unstable nuclide into another is radioactive decay. The unstable nuclide is
called the parent nuclide; the nuclide that results from the decay is known as the daughter nuclide. The daughter
nuclide may be stable, or it may decay itself. The radiation produced during radioactive decay is such that the
daughter nuclide lies closer to the band of stability than the parent nuclide, so the location of a nuclide relative to
the band of stability can serve as a guide to the kind of decay it will undergo:

Figure 1.0. A nucleus of

uranium-238 (the parent
nuclide) undergoes α decay to
form thorium-234 (the daughter
nuclide). The alpha particle
removes two protons (green) and
two neutrons (gray) from the
uranium-238 nucleus.

Although the radioactive decay of a nucleus is too small to see with the naked eye, we can indirectly view radioactive decay in
an environment called a cloud chamber. Click here ( http://openstaxcollege.org/l/16cloudchamb ) to learn about cloud chambers
and to view an interesting Cloud Chamber Demonstration from the Jefferson Lab.

Types of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive nuclei can undergo decomposition in various ways. These decay processes fall into two
categories: those that involve a change in the mass number of the decaying nucleus and those that do not. We will
consider the former type of process first.
4
An alpha particle, or a particle, is a helium nucleus ( 𝐻𝑒). Alpha-particle production is a very common
2
238
mode of decay for heavy radioactive nuclides. For example, 𝑈, the predominant (99.3%) isotope of natural
92
uranium, decays by a-particle production:
238 4 234
𝑈→ 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑇ℎ
92 2 90
230
Another a-particle producer is 𝑇ℎ:
90
234 4 226
𝑇ℎ → 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑅𝑎
90 2 88
Another decay process in which the mass number of the decaying nucleus changes is spontaneous fission,
the splitting of a heavy nuclide into two lighter nuclides with similar mass numbers. Although this process occurs
254
at an extremely slow rate for most nuclides, it is important in some cases, such as for 254 98Cf 𝐶𝑓, where
98
spontaneous fission is the predominant mode of decay.
The most common decay process in which the mass number of the decaying nucleus remains constant is
β-particle production. For example, the thorium-234 nuclide produces a b particle and is converted to
protactinium-234:
234 234 0
𝑇ℎ → 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑒
90 91 −1
Iodine-131 is also a β-particle producer:
131 0 131
𝐼→ 𝑒+ 𝑋𝑒
53 −1 54
The β particle is assigned the mass number 0, since its mass is tiny compared with that of a proton or neutron.
Because the value of Z is -1 for the b particle, the atomic number for the new nuclide is greater by 1 than for the
original nuclide. Thus the net effect of b-particle production is to change a neutron to a proton. We therefore
expect nuclides that lie above the zone of stability (those nuclides whose neutron/proton ratios are too high) to be
β -particle producers.
It should be pointed out that although the β particle is an electron, the emitting nucleus does not contain
electrons. As we shall see later in this chapter, a given quantity of energy (which is best regarded as a form of
matter) can become a particle (another form of matter) under certain circumstances. The unstable nuclide creates
an electron as it releases energy in the decay process. The electron thus results from the decay process rather than
being present before the decay occurs. Think of this as somewhat like talking: Words are not stored inside us but
are formed as we speak. Later in this chapter we will discuss in more detail this very interesting phenomenon
where matter in the form of particles and matter in the form of energy can interchange.
A gamma ray, or 𝜸-ray, refers to a high-energy photon. Frequently, 𝜸 -ray production accompanies
238
nuclear decays and particle reactions, such as in the a-particle decay of 𝑈
92
238 4 234 0
𝑈→ 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑇ℎ + 2 γ
92 2 90 0
where two 𝛾-rays of different energies are produced in addition to the α-particle. The emission of 𝛾-rays is one
way a nucleus with excess energy (in an excited nuclear state) can relax to its ground state.
Positron production occurs for nuclides that are below the zone of stability (those nuclides whose
neutron/proton ratios are too small). The positron is a particle with the same mass as the electron but opposite
charge. An example of a nuclide that decays by positron production is sodium-22:
22 0 22
𝑁𝑎 → 𝑒+ 𝑁𝑒
11 1 10
Note that the net effect is to change a proton to a neutron, causing the product nuclide to have a higher
neutron/proton ratio than the original nuclide.
Besides being oppositely charged, the positron shows an even more fundamental difference from the
electron: It is the antiparticle of the electron. When a positron collides with an electron, the particulate matter is
changed to electromagnetic radiation in the form of high-energy photons:
0 0 0
𝑒+ 𝑒→ 2 γ
−1 1 0
This process, which is characteristic of matter–antimatter collisions, is called annihilation and is another
example of the interchange of the forms of matter.
Electron capture is a process in which one of the inner-orbital electrons is captured by the nucleus, as
illustrated by the process
201 0 201 0
𝐻𝑔 + 𝑒→ 𝐴𝑢 + γ
80 −1 79 0

Inner-orbital electron

This reaction would have been of great interest to the alchemists, but unfortunately it does not occur at a
rate that would make it a practical means for changing mercury to gold. Gamma rays are always produced along
with electron capture to release excess energy. The various types of radioactive decay are summarized in Table
below.
Change
Charge Charge in Proton/
Process Example
in A in Z Neutron
Ratio
β-particle
227 227 0
(electron) 0 + Decrease 𝐴𝑐 → 𝑇ℎ + 𝑒
production 89 90 −1
Positron 13 13 0
0 -1 Increase 𝑁→ 𝑁+ 𝑒
production 7 6 1
 Electron 73 0 73
0 -1 Increase 𝐴𝑠 + 𝑒→ 𝐺𝑒
capture 33 −1 32
α-particle 210 206 4
4 2 Increase 𝑃𝑜 → 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐻𝑒
production 84 82 2
γ-ray
0 0 − (𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠 → 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑠 + 0γ)
production 0
Spontaneous 254
− − − 𝐶𝑓 → 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 + 𝑛𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠
fission 98

Balancing Nuclear Reactions

A balanced chemical reaction equation reflects the fact that during a chemical reaction, bonds break and
form, and atoms are rearranged, but the total numbers of atoms of each element are conserved and do not change.
A balanced nuclear reaction equation indicates that there is a rearrangement during a nuclear reaction, but of
subatomic particles rather than atoms. Nuclear reactions also follow conservation laws, and they are balanced in
two ways:
1. The sum of the mass numbers of the reactants equals the sum of the mass numbers of the products.
2. The sum of the charges of the reactants equals the sum of the charges of the products.
If the atomic number and the mass number of all but one of the particles in a nuclear reaction are known, we can
17
identify the particle by balancing the reaction. For instance, we could determine that 𝑂 is a product of the
8
7 2 1
nuclear reaction of 𝑁 and 𝐻𝑒 if we knew that a proton, 𝐻 , was one of the two products.
14 4 1

Example: Balancing Equations for Nuclear Reactions

25
The reaction of an α particle with magnesium-25 ( 𝑀𝑔)produces a proton and a nuclide of another element.
12
Identify the new nuclide produced.
Solution:
The nuclear reaction can be written as:
25 4 1 𝐴
𝑀𝑔 + 𝐻𝑒 → 𝐻+ 𝑋
12 2 1 𝑍
where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number of the new nuclide, X. Because the sum of the mass
numbers of the reactants must equal the sum of the mass numbers of the products:
25 + 4 = A + 1, or A = 28
Similarly, the charges must balance, so:
12 + 2 = Z + 1, and Z = 13
28
Check the periodic table: The element with nuclear charge = +13 is aluminum. Thus, the product is 𝐴𝑙.
13

Following are the equations of several nuclear reactions that have important roles in the history of nuclear
chemistry:
 The first naturally occurring unstable element that was isolated, polonium, was discovered by the Polish
scientist Marie Curie and her husband Pierre in 1898. It decays, emitting α particles:
212 208 4
𝑃𝑜 → 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐻𝑒
84 82 2
 The first nuclide to be prepared by artificial means was an isotope of oxygen, 17O. It was made by Ernest
Rutherford in 1919 by bombarding nitrogen atoms with α particles:
14 4 17 1
𝑁+ α → 𝑂+ 𝐻
7 2 8 1
  James Chadwick discovered the neutron in 1932, as a previously unknown neutral particle produced along
with 12C by the nuclear reaction between 9Be and 4He:
9 4 12 1
𝐵𝑒 + 𝐻𝑒 → 𝐶+ 𝑛
4 2 6 0
 The first element to be prepared that does not occur naturally on the earth, technetium, was created by
2
bombardment of molybdenum by deuterons (heavy hydrogen 𝐻), by Emilio Segre and Carlo Perrier in
1
1937:
2 97 1 97
𝐻+ 𝑀𝑜 → 2 𝑛+ 𝑇𝑐
1 42 0 43
 The first controlled nuclear chain reaction was carried out in a reactor at the University of Chicago in
1942. One of the many reactions involved was:
235 1 87 146 1
𝑈+ 𝑛 → 𝐵𝑟 + 𝐿𝑎 + 3 𝑛
92 0 35 57 0

References:
 Flowers, P., Theofold, K., Langley, R., & Robinson W. (2015). Chemistry (2017). Openstax College-
Rice University textbook.
 Zumdahl, S. S., Zumdahl, S. A., & De Coste, D. J. (2018). Chemistry (10th Ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage
Learning