In this chapter, we’ll go over a few basic elements of the tracks.

1 history and function of track design

Even before trains were running on actual railways, earlier guidance systems had been
designed. Let us take a quick look at the predecessors of the modern railways. In every
design, the aim was to minimize friction and tractive effort: horsepower. The main functions
of the track are always to guide the train and to carry its load.

1620

1738

1767

1787

1789

1825

In the early 1800’s, the design started having the looks of our nowadays tracks.

chapter 4 – track page 1

2 design of ballasted railway track

figure 1: track build up and rail section

figure 1 shows the buildup of a track

and the cross section of a rail. The
rail nowadays typical weighs 60 kg
per meter. The main function of the
rail is to carry the wheelset, to guide
it and to distribute the weight over
the sleepers.

The rail fastener (figure 2) holds the

rail on a rail pad in order to maintain
the gauge. The rail pad introduces a
certain elasticity and an electrical
isolation. figure 2: rail fastener on sleeper

The sleepers carry the rails. They guarantee the distance between the rails and they
distribute the weight over the ballast bed.

The ballast bed distributes the weight to the sub-base. It gives the sleeper a steady base. It
drains rainwater and it damps vibrations.

Finally, the sub-base distributes the weight to the earth and ensures rainwater drainage.
Sometimes, geotextiles are used to prevent the intermixing of the sub-base and the soft soil.

Notwithstanding modern technical developments, the overwhelmingly dominant track form

worldwide consists of flat-bottom steel rails supported on timber or pre-stressed concrete
sleepers, which are themselves laid on crushed stone ballast.

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3 train and track dynamic model

figure 3: train and track dynamic model

Railway dynamics are complex with a lot of factors intervening. Rolling stock dynamics are
mainly determined by the bogie and wheelset dynamics. Track dynamics are mainly
determined by rail and sleeper dynamics.

4 continuous welded rails

Since the mid of the previous century, welded rails are used. Before, a gap was used to
compensate for the thermal life of the rails (jointed track). This gap caused the typical
rhythmic banging sound of a train on a track (“clickety-clack”).

Nowadays, the rails are welded together to very long lengths. The weight of the track and the
friction between the track and the soil, cause a certain shear force between track and soil.
This will result in the mid-section of the track having no means to expand under temperature
differences. In the rails, there will be a compressive stress in extreme heat. On the other
hand, the rail will experience tensile stress in extreme cold (figure 4).

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figure 4: expansion, temperature and forces in a welded rail

We take a certain length of rail with a length l at a temperature T. Due to a temperature

difference ∆T , the rail will expand to a length l + δl (figure 5). If the rail could expand freely,
the expansion would be:

δl = αl∆T

figure 5: rail expansion due to temperature difference

Putting a force P on the rail can bring it back

σ
to its original length. With ε = , we get
E

σ = αE∆T , the tension built up due to

temperature differences.

For a typical rail, for ∆T = 50°C , P = 7.500

N

figure 6: ballast

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In reality, forces within the centre section can
vary due to differences in temperature (sun
vs shadow), braking forces, work on the
track, …

In extreme heat the compressive stress may

grow too strong so the tracks may buckle
(figure 7). In normal circumstances, the
ballast will prevent the track to buckle by its
sheer weight (figure 6).

figure 7: buckled track

5 track equipment

5.1 switches (joints)

A railroad switch is a mechanical installation enabling trains to be guided from one track to
another.

figure 8: point switch

5.2 diamond crossing

figure 9: standard diamond crossing

A diamond crossing (figure 9) is named after the diamond-shaped center. The two tracks
need not necessarily be of the same gauge. A diamond crossing is also used as a
component of a double junction.

chapter 4 – track page 5

figure 10: diamond crossing with slips

A diamond crossing with slips allows a train to cross over

on to any track no matter which direction it is going.

5.3 double junction

A double junction (figure 11) consists of joints and a

diamond crossing.

figure 11: double junction

5.4 cross over

figure 12: cross over

A cross over allows a train to continue on its side or to change sides.

5.5 expansion joint

If a railway track runs over a bridge which has expansion joints that move more than a few
millimeters, the track must be able to compensate this longer expansion or contraction. On
the other hand, the track must always provide a continuous surface for the wheels travelling
over it. These conflicting targets are served by special expansion joints (figure 13), where
two rails glide along each other at a very acute angle during expansion or contraction. They
are typically seen near one or both ends of large steel bridges. Such an expansion joint looks
somewhat like the tongue of a railroad switch.

figure 13: expansion joint

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6 hot axle box detection
Every bearing has a limited life time. When
its end comes near, it will get warm when
running and eventually, it might block,
potentially causing a derailment. One way to
detect a high temperature is to place
thermometers on axle boxes of the rolling
stock. This is done on high speed trains,
typically not on other rolling stock.

Another possibility is a fixed hot axle-box

detection system. It is an infra-red detector
next to the rails looking ‘up’ in order to “see”
the hot axle box.

figure 14: fixed hot axle-box detection system

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7 track circuit1

figure 15: track circuit

The basic principle behind the track circuit lies in the connection of the two rails by the
wheels and axle of locomotives and rolling stock to short out an electrical circuit. This circuit
is monitored by electrical equipment to detect the absence of the trains. Since this is a safety
appliance, fail-safe operation is crucial; therefore the circuit is designed to indicate the
presence of a train when failures occur.

Track circuits allow railway signalling systems to operate semi-automatically, by displaying

signals for trains to slow down or stop in the presence of occupied track ahead of them. They
help prevent dispatchers and operators from causing accidents, both by informing them of
track occupancy and by preventing signals from displaying unsafe indications.

In DC traction, an AC track circuit is used. The DC returning traction current has to flow
through different sections of the track. In order to distinguish the AC track circuit current from
the DC returning traction current, an impedance bond is used (figure 15).

A very important factor in the design is the good conductance of the track circuit current
through the wheelset. Should wheelsets not conduct current, a track circuit might not indicate
the presence of rolling stock on the track section.

A rail break can also indicate the absence of rolling stock, especially if the DC return current
should have 50 Hz-component. This is why the 50 Hz component in the DC return current
has to be limited to a minimum.

More and more, axle counters are used to determine the presence of rolling stock on a
section. The number of incoming axles are counted and compared to the number of outgoing
axles. When these are equal, the train has left a section. In order to determine the driving
direction, one counter on each rail is installed, with a small distance in between. The track
circuit has the advantage to be an immediate detection. The axle counter system, on the
other hand, is more reliable than the classic track circuit and it can be installed on longer
sections.

1 invented by William Robinson (1872)

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8 overhead line

figure 16: overhead line

Catenary wires are kept at a

mechanical tension because the
pantograph causes mechanical
oscillations in the wire and the
mechanical wave must travel faster
than the train to avoid producing
standing waves that would cause wire
breakage. Tensioning the line makes
mechanical waves travel faster.

The wires are generally tensioned by

weights. Where weights are used, they
slide up and down on a rod or tube
attached to the mast, to prevent them
from swaying.
figure 17: tensioning device
With automatic tension there is a limit
on the continuous length of overhead
line due to the change in the position of the weights with temperature as the overhead line
expands and contracts. This movement is proportional to the tension length, the distance
between anchors. An additional issue with AT equipment is that, if balance weights are
attached to both ends, the whole tension length will be free to move along track. To avoid
this a midpoint anchor, close to the centre of the tension length, restricts movement of the
catenary wire by anchoring it.

To wear down the carbon shoe evenly, the overhead wires zigzag back and forth instead of
going in a straight line which would only wear down one part of the carbon shoe and
potentially break the pantograph (figure 18).

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figure 18: overhead wires zigzag

9 structure gauge
A structure gauge indicates the structural limits
of a track (figure 19). Every part of the track
system has to be outside this structure gauge:
- platforms;
- overhead lines and its structures;
- signalling equipment;
- …

In curves, the space between the running tracks

needs to be bigger in order to be able to deal
with any rolling stock movement (figure 20).

figure 20: broadening in curves

figure 19: an example of a structure gauge

A shorter coach will allow it to be broader within the same gauge (figure 21).

figure 21: a short and a long coach in a curve

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figure 22: maximum rolling stock construction gauge and effective construction gauge

The effective rolling stock construction gauge has to be calculated with the structure gauge
as a given. The first step is to calculate the rolling stock maximum construction gauge with
the data of the network: the structure gauge, the curves, ... In a second phase, the effective
construction gauge for a certain coach is chosen within the boundaries of the maximum
construction gauge. As a result of this choice, a slight tapering is generally applied at the
corners of the rolling stock. It is the point where dimensional conflicts with other rolling stock
in curves are to be avoided.Tapering makes a broader coach possible.

chapter 4 – track page 11

10 references
Gerhard Grundnig, Christian Pucher (2012). Wheel detection and axle counting system
solutions for public transport systems. Signal + Draht (104) 7+8/2012.

Union of Railways (2008). Visibility of rolling stock axle-boxes to fixed hot axle-box detection
systems. UIC code 501, 1st edition

Union of Railways (2006). Railway transport stock. Rolling stock construction gauge. UIC
code 505-1, 10th edition

Union of Railways (2010). History, justification and commentaries on the elaboration and
development of UIC leaflets of the series 505 and 506 on gauges. UIC code 505-5, 3rd
edition

chapter 4 – track page 12