See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/347980596

Introduction to the special issue on “International merchant shipping in the

21st century: Social science perspectives”

Article  in  Marine Policy · August 2021

DOI: 10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104373

CITATION READS

1 51

4 authors, including:

Birgit Pauksztat Claire Pekcan

Uppsala University Safe Marine Ltd
20 PUBLICATIONS   101 CITATIONS    23 PUBLICATIONS   83 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Mike Barnett
MLB Maritime Services
17 PUBLICATIONS   37 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Project HORIZON View project

Project MODEL View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Birgit Pauksztat on 11 June 2021.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Marine Policy 130 (2021) 104373

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Policy
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

Full length article

Introduction to the special issue on “International merchant shipping in the

21st century: Social science perspectives”
Birgit Pauksztat a, *, Minghua Zhao b, c, Claire Pekcan d, Mike Barnett e
a
Department of Business Studies, Uppsala University, 62157 Visby, Sweden
b
Solent University Southampton, United Kingdom
c
College of Navigation, Jimei University, China
d
Safe Marine Ltd, Southampton SO31 5BR, United Kingdom
e
MLB Maritime Services Ltd, Southampton SO18 3PS, United Kingdom

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Bringing together researchers from across the social sciences, this special issue provides insights on the socio­
Seafarers logical, socio-technical, psychological and health-related aspects of living and working on board today’s inter­
Health national merchant vessels. Most of the articles are based on presentations at the Visby Maritime Symposium,
Welfare
“International Merchant Shipping in the 21st century: Social Science Perspectives on Opportunities and Chal­
Safety
Technology
lenges”, held on 10–12 October 2018 in Visby, Sweden. This introduction summarizes some of the ideas and
Shipping industry insights emerging from the contributions.
Social science perspectives

The last few decades have not only seen the globalization of labor
markets in world shipping [1,2], but also a breath taking number of
technological breakthroughs in a range of fields, including artificial
intelligence, information technology, 3D printing and robotics, to name
but a few. In international merchant shipping, plans are underway for,
among others, sea traffic management, blockchain technology,
shore-controlled shipping operations, and remotely-controlled, auto­
mated or even fully autonomous vessels [3,4]. These developments have
the potential to affect the work of seafarers in profound and unexpected
ways. However, while much attention has been devoted to these tech­
nological developments, as well as to their consequences for aspects
such as ship design, port infrastructure, and maritime economics, the
implications for those employed in the shipping industry, whether on
shore or at sea, are not yet well understood.
1. The Visby Maritime Symposium
This special issue brings together articles by researchers from across
the social sciences in order to provide insights on sociological, socio-
technical, psychological and health-related aspects of living and work­
ing on-board merchant vessels. Most of the articles in this special issue
are based on presentations at the Visby Maritime Symposium,
“International Merchant Shipping in the 21st century: Social Science
Perspectives on Opportunities and Challenges”, held on 10–12 October
2018 in Visby, Sweden. The Symposium was organized by Birgit
Pauksztat (Uppsala University, Sweden), Claire Pekcan (Safe Marine,
United Kingdom) and Mike Barnett (MLB Maritime Services, United
Kingdom), with support from Stiftelsen Sveriges Sjömanshus, the Na­
tional Maritime College of Ireland, and Uppsala University/Campus
Gotland.
The purpose of the Symposium was to bring together researchers
from different areas in the social sciences to present their current
research, and to discuss developments in the shipping industry and their
impact on those employed there. The presentations at the Symposium
reflected the range and diversity of social science research in this area,
both with regard to research methods (e.g., ethnography, survey
research, register-based research, mathematical modelling) and topics.
Presentations addressed everyday life and work on board, including
topics such as leadership, cooperation, trust, identity and security.
Safety on board and different aspects of health and welfare were
recurring themes across many of the presentations.
The keynote addresses by Peter Swift (Director of Ardmore Shipping
Corporation & Vice Chairman of the Sailors’ Society, United Kingdom),
Tommy Olofsen (Chief Commercial Officer, OSM Maritime Group,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: birgit.pauksztat@fek.uu.se (B. Pauksztat).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104373
Received 28 November 2020; Received in revised form 15 December 2020; Accepted 17 December 2020
Available online 25 December 2020
0308-597X/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B. Pauksztat et al.
Norway) and Vaughan Pomeroy (former Technical Director, Lloyd’s
Register, United Kingdom) provided insightful perspectives on both
current and future developments in the shipping industry. These ranged
from increasing public and legislative attention to questions of envi­
ronmental protection and sustainability, to the impact of digitalization
and the development of different types of remotely-controlled, auto­
mated and autonomous vessels. The keynote addresses also highlighted
implications for seafarers and shore-based personnel in the sector, such
as challenges regarding maritime education and training, the need for
cooperation in small teams, technology-mediated cooperation among
people in different locations, and implications for welfare.
2. This special issue: the social and institutional embeddedness
of seafarers’ wellbeing and safety on board
The papers in this special issue of Marine Policy originated mainly,
but not entirely, from the Visby Maritime Symposium. One of the papers
presented had already been submitted for publication [5], and one team
of researchers instead contributed an article based on a more recent
research project [6].
Central themes in the articles in this special issue are seafarers’
health and wellbeing [7–9], rest hours [6,10], social interactions on
board [11] and safety [12]. Taken together, the articles emphasize the
need to pay attention not only to individuals’ personal characteristics in
order to understand their attitudes and behaviors, but also to their social
embeddedness in interpersonal relationships [7,11] and the institutional
context [6,8–10,12].
Pauksztat [11] and Jensen [7] explore the embeddedness of seafarers
in ongoing interpersonal interactions on board and at home, respec­
tively. Pauksztat [11] shows that communication about work-related
problems on board partly followed the formal organizational structure
(i.e., individuals brought up problems or made suggestions to direct
supervisors or team members), but it was also shaped by friendship re­
lations. Friendship was more likely among those with the same first
language, and among those whose language skills and/or work tasks on
board facilitated informal communication with each other. While pre­
vious studies have typically examined informal social relations in rela­
tion to wellbeing and mental health [13], this study suggests that
interpersonal social relations affect not only individual seafarers’ per­
sonal wellbeing, but they also have consequences for the crew’s
communication and, hence, collaboration and safety. Supporting
informal interactions and team building thus provides a way of
enhancing the safety culture on board [14].
Seafarers are not only embedded in networks of interpersonal re­
lations with fellow crew members. Over the last two decades, an
increasing number of studies have addressed relations between seafarers
and their friends and families at home, and highlighted the importance
of these relations for seafarers (e.g., [15,16]). Based on an ethnographic
study, Jensen [7] extends this line of research by examining the ways in
which digital connectivity enables and constrains communication with
family and friends at home, and how this shapes seafarers’ sense of
identity and security on board. In this way, maintaining their connec­
tions with family and friends at home is crucial for the wellbeing of
seafarers as well as for their families [17,18].
The studies by Zhao et al. [8] and Herttua et al. [9] draw attention to
the importance of shore-based institutions and services for seafarers’
health and wellbeing. As one of the few studies of port-based welfare
services for seafarers, the article by Zhao et al. [8] traces the historical
development of the institutional welfare services provided for seafarers
in Chinese ports, and analyses the structure, policy and practice of
welfare support for seafarers in today’s ports in China. The study shows
that for seafarers, port visits fulfilled important purposes for medical
care, for recreation, and for making personal purchases. Moreover,
many respondents reported that they used port visits to maintain contact
with their families using shore-based telephone or Internet services,
which often were less costly than onboard facilities. Thus shore visits
2
Marine Policy 130 (2021) 104373
contributed both to the physical and mental wellbeing of seafarers.
In the study by Herttua et al. [9], the focus is on evacuations of
seafarers for medical treatment ashore. In their register-based study of
Danish-flagged vessels, they found that evacuations were due to injuries
and other external causes, as well as diseases of the circulatory system,
diseases of the digestive system and other causes. Seafarers who were
older, non-Danish EU nationals and who worked as non-officers were at
a higher risk of evacuation. While the risk for certain diseases is asso­
ciated with age, risk factors associated with work tasks and life style, as
well as differences in the quality and standards of medical examinations
may play a role as well. Moreover, it is possible that some seafarers,
fearing negative consequences for their future employment, might not
seek treatment until their illness or injury has developed into a serious
condition requiring evacuation. This suggests that industry practices
may have direct and indirect consequences for seafarers’ health and
wellbeing.
The impact of industry regulations and practices on seafarers’ work
and lives on board is the focus of the studies by Van Leeuwen et al. [10],
Baumler et al. [6] and Størkersen [12]. In their study, Van Leeuwen et al.
[10] examine the effects of different watch keeping schedules on watch
keepers’ sleep duration and sleepiness. Lack of sleep, chronic fatigue,
and acute fatigue or sleepiness have been linked to seafarers’ health as
well as to accidents and injuries [19]. The amount and quality of sleep
that seafarers get during a tour of duty depends on a number of factors
[5,20–24], including watch keeping schedules. Using mathematical
modelling, Van Leeuwen et al. [10] compare the effects of different
watch keeping schedules, taking into account individual differences in
chronotype. They conclude that 3-watch systems have clear advantages
over 2-watch systems, although individual differences in chronotype
and practical constraints make it difficult to identify a perfect system
that fits all.
As part of the effort to monitor and ensure that seafarers get a min­
imum amount of rest hours, crews are required to keep records of actual
work and rest hours. However, records may not always be accurate [25],
and work hours surpassing legal limits may remain unreported [26]. In
their interview study, Baumler et al. [6] explore the reasons for sea­
farers’ adjustment of work and rest hour records. They identified several
reasons that might lead seafarers to put the “ship first” and adjust re­
cords to hide violations from third parties. First, if discovered, violations
might not only affect the reputation of the company and the ship, but
could also subject the ship and her crew to further scrutiny. Second,
violations might lead to increased pressure and sanctions by the com­
pany, with negative consequences for crew members’ future careers and
employment opportunities.
Building on insights from research on safety management, Størkersen
[12] considers their implications for the safety management of remotely
controlled vessels in the future. Although time scales and technological
solutions may differ between different sectors of the shipping industry
[27], new technologies may not necessarily reduce the risk involved in
shipping, but shift it to different stages (e.g., technology development)
or to different parts of the system (e.g., shore-based control centers)
[28–30]. New technologies entail their own risks, as does the interaction
between different technological systems [30,31]. Consequently, safety
management will remain essential to ensure the safe operation of ves­
sels. In her study, Størkersen [12] identifies key challenges for safety
management related to procedures, harmonization of procedures be­
tween professions, and documentation, and develops recommendations
for addressing these challenges.
3. Thoughts for future research
Størkersen [12], as well as other papers in this special issue, suggest
that in addition to individuals’ interactions with technology, it will be
important to take into account social dynamics, which may give rise to
unforeseen, emergent properties of the human-technology system (cf.
[32]). This could include ways in which people use technology, adapt
B. Pauksztat et al.
their behavior to the technology or (vice versa) adapt the technology to
achieve their goals, and handle situations where technology does not
function as intended (cf. Jensen [7] for an example in relation to digital
connectivity, and Baumler et al. [6] for an example regarding record
keeping systems). This will also have implications for education,
training and careers, although these questions were beyond the scope of
the Symposium and this special issue.
Another important area for future research will be the impact of
technological developments on health and welfare among those
employed in the shipping industry at sea and on shore, as well as their
families and communities. Previous research on welfare has mapped the
incidence of certain illnesses, as well as accident and deaths among
seafarers, in comparison with the general population. However, as the
current pandemic has made clear, seafarers do not only play a key role in
upholding international trade, but they are also dependent on national
and international transport and regulations, for instance with regard to
crew changes or for access to shore-based services and supplies. Hence
there is a need to consider and improve the interplay of different actors
and institutions in promoting seafarers’ health and wellbeing.
Acknowledgments
The guest editors would like to thank Stiftelsen Sveriges Sjömanshus,
the National Maritime College of Ireland, and Uppsala University/
Campus Gotland for their support of the Visby Maritime Symposium, as
well as the participants of the Symposium for their contributions and
inspiring discussions. Special thanks to the reviewers of this special
issue, and to the editor-in-chief and the journal manager for their advice
and help with practical matters.
References
[1] T. Alderton, N. Winchester, Globalisation and de-regulation in the maritime
industry, Mar. Policy 26 (1) (2002) 35–43, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X
(01)00034-3.
[2] J.M. Silos, F. Piniella, J. Monedero, J. Walliser, Trends in the global market for
crews: a case study, Mar. Policy 36 (2012) 845–858, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpol.2011.12.004.
[3] Ø.J. Rødseth, H. Nordahl, Definition of autonomy levels for merchant ships.
Norwegian Forum for Autonomous Ships (NFAS) Report, 2017. 〈Doi: 10.13140
/RG.2.2.21069.08163〉.
[4] World Maritime University, Transport 2040: Automation, technology, employment
- the future of work. Report no. 58, 2019. https://doi.org/10.21677/itf.20190104.
[5] D.M. Andrei, M.A. Griffin, M. Grech, A. Neil, How demands and resources impact
chronic fatigue in the maritime industry: The mediating effect of acute fatigue,
sleep quality and recovery, Saf. Sci. 121 (2020) 362–372, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ssci.2019.09.019.
[6] R. Baumler, B.S. Bhatia, M. Kitada, Ship first: seafarers’ adjustment of records on
work and rest hours, Mar. Policy (2020), 104186, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpol.2020.104186.
[7] R.B. Jensen, Fragmented digital connectivity and security at sea, Mar. Policy
(2020), 104289, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104289.
[8] M. Zhao, P. Zhang, G. He, Port-based welfare services for seafarers in Chinese ports:
their roles, changes and challenges, Mar. Policy (2020), 104190, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104190.
[9] K. Herttua, J. Vork, J.B. Nielsen, Associations of age, occupation and nationality of
seafarers with risk of evacuations at sea: a register-based study on Danish-flagged
merchant ships, Mar. Policy (2020), 103989, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpol.2020.103989.
View publication stats
Marine Policy 130 (2021) 104373
[10] W.M.A. Van Leeuwen, C. Pekcan, M. Barnett, G. Kecklund, Mathematical
modelling of sleep and sleepiness under various watch keeping schedules in the
maritime industry, Mar. Policy (2020), 104277, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpol.2020.104277.
[11] B. Pauksztat, Informal relations and communication about work-related problems
in two multilingual crews, Mar. Policy (2019), 103767, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
marpol.2019.103767.
[12] K. Størkersen, Safety management in remotely-controlled vessel operations, Mar.
Policy (2020), 104349, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104349.
[13] A. Mellbye, T. Carter, Seafarers’ depression and suicide, Int. Marit. Health 68 (2)
(2017) 108–114, https://doi.org/10.5603/IMH.2017.0020.
[14] S. Antonsen, The relationship between culture and safety on offshore supply
vessels, Saf. Sci. 47 (8) (2009) 1118–1128, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ssci.2008.12.006.
[15] M. Thomas, H. Sampson, M. Zhao, Finding a balance: companies, seafarers, and
family life, Marit. Policy Manag. 30 (1) (2003) 59–76, https://doi.org/10.1080/
0308883032000051630.
[16] A. Papachristou, D. Stantchev, I. Theotokas, The role of communication to the
retention of seafarers in the profession, WMU J. Marit. Aff. 14 (2015) 159–176,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-015-0085-1.
[17] A. Slišković, A. Juranko, Dual life of seafarers’ families: descriptive study of
perspectives of seafarers’ partners, Community Work Fam. 22 (5) (2019) 629–646,
https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2019.1579172.
[18] L. Tang, Shaping feelings in cyberspace: the case of Chinese seafarer-partners,
Emot. Space Soc. 2 (2009) 104–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
emospa.2009.08.004.
[19] M. Bloor, M. Thomas, T. Lane, Health risks in the global shipping industry: an
overview, Health Risk Soc. 2 (3) (2000) 329–340, https://doi.org/10.1080/
713670163.
[20] M. Oldenburg, B. Hogan, H.-J. Jensen, Systematic review of maritime field studies
about stress and strain in seafaring, Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 86 (1) (2013)
1–15, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00420-012-0801-5.
[21] C. Österman, C. Hult, Administrative burdens and over-exertion in Swedish short
sea shipping, Marit. Policy Manag. 43 (5) (2016) 569–579, https://doi.org/
10.1080/03088839.2016.1154994.
[22] B. Pauksztat, ‘Only work and sleep’: seafarers’ perceptions of job demands of short
sea cargo shipping lines and their effects on work and life on board, Marit. Policy
Manag. 44 (7) (2017) 899–915, https://doi.org/10.1080/
03088839.2017.1371347.
[23] Project HorizonProject Horizon: A Wake-up Call. Research Report, 2012. 〈www.pr
oject-horizon.eu〉.
[24] E.J.K. Wadsworth, P.H. Allen, R.L. McNamara, A.P. Smith, Fatigue and health in a
seafaring population, Occup. Med. 58 (3) (2008) 198–204, https://doi.org/
10.1093/occmed/kqn008.
[25] S. Bhattacharya, L. Tang, Fatigued for safety? Supply chain occupational health
and safety initiatives in shipping, Econ. Ind. Democr. 34 (2012) 383–399, https://
doi.org/10.1177/0143831×12439760.
[26] P. Allen, E. Wadsworth, A. Smith, Seafarers’ fatigue: a review of the recent
literature, Int. Marit. Health 59 (1–4) (2008) 81–92.
[27] C. Hult, G. Praetorius, C. Sandberg, On the future of maritime transport: discussing
terminology and timeframes, TransNav Int. J. Mar. Navig. Saf. Sea Transp. 13 (2)
(2019) 269–273, https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.13.02.01.
[28] S. Ahvenjärvi, The human element and autonomous ships, TransNav Int. J. Mar.
Navig. Saf. Sea Transp. 10 (3) (2016) 517–521, https://doi.org/10.12716/
1001.10.03.18.
[29] T. Hogg, S. Ghosh, Autonomous merchant vessels: examination of factors that
impact the effective implementation of unmanned ships, Aust. J. Marit. Ocean Aff.
8 (3) (2016) 206–222, https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2016.1229244.
[30] A. Komianos, The autonomous shipping era: operational, regulatory, and quality
challenges, TransNav Int. J. Mar. Navig. Saf. Sea Transp. 12 (2) (2018) 335–348,
https://doi.org/10.12716/1001.12.02.15.
[31] K. Wróbel, J. Montewka, P. Kujala, Towards the assessment of potential impact of
unmanned vessels on maritime transportation safety, Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 165
(2017) 155–169, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2017.03.029.
[32] Y. Man, R. Weber, J. Cimbritz, M. Lundh, S.N. MacKinnon, Human factor issues
during remote ship monitoring tasks: an ecological lesson for system design in a
distributed context, Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 68 (2018) 231–244, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.ergon.2018.08.005.