Agenda

• What is Fire
• Fire Stages
• Fire system components
• Fire Standards
• Types of detectors
• Basic working principle of detectors
• Types of wiring

1 2

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

What is Fire?? Fire Triangle

Fire is a generic term that refers to flaming combustion, smoldering
combustion.

According to NFPA 72:

Flame:

A body or stream of gaseous material involved in the combustion

process and emitting radiant energy at specific wavelength bands
determined by the combustion chemistry of the fuel. In most cases,
some portion of the emitted radiant energy is visible to the human
eye.

3 4
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Fire Stages and Detectors Normally Used

Development of Fire

As a fire grows it passes through four stages

of development

1. Incipient (pre-combustion)
2. Smoldering
3. Open Flame
4. High Heat

Incipient Smoldering Flame Heat

Detector
Ion Photoelectric Heat/Flame High Heat

Non-visible Visible
5
Particles Particles 6

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

NFPA 170 Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
NFPA 170 provides standard symbols used to communicate fire safety, emergency, and associated
hazards information. Using easily understood uniform symbols on labels and signs provides
consistency, eliminates confusion, and improves communication.
Edition in use: 2009, 2012, 2015
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
NFPA 72 provides the latest safety provisions to meet society's changing fire detection, signaling,
and emergency communications demands. In addition to the core focus on fire alarm systems, the
Code includes requirements for mass notification systems used for weather emergencies; terrorist
events; biological, chemical, and nuclear emergencies; and other threats.
Edition in use: 2010, 2013, 2016
NFPA 70 National Electrical Code®
Adopted in all 50 states, the NEC is the benchmark for safe electrical design, installation, and
inspection to protect people and property from electrical hazards.
Edition in use: 2011, 2014, 2017
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code®
The Life Safety Code is the most widely used source for strategies to protect people based on
building construction, protection, and occupancy features that minimize the effects of fire and related
hazards. Unique in the field, it is the only document that covers life safety in both new and existing
structures
Edition in use: 2009, 2012, 2015
https://www.nfpa.org/
International Building Code
The International Building Code (IBC) is the foundation of the complete Family of International
Codes®. It is an essential tool to preserve public health and safety that provides safeguards from
hazards associated with the built environment. It addresses design and installation of innovative
materials that meet or exceed public health and safety goals.
Edition in use: 2015, 2018
https://www.iccsafe.org/codes-tech-support/codes/2018-i-codes/ibc/
International Fire Code
Internationally, code officials recognize the need for a modern, up-to-date fire code addressing
conditions hazardous to life and property from fire, explosion, handling or use of hazardous materials
and the use and occupancy of buildings and premises. The International Fire Code is designed to
meet these needs through model code regulations that safeguard the public health and safety in all
communities, large and small.
This comprehensive fire code establishes minimum regulations for fire prevention and fire protection
systems using prescriptive and performance-related provisions. It is founded on broad-based
principles that make possible the use of new materials and new system designs. This 2018 edition is
fully compatible with the Family of International Codes.
Edition in use: 2015, 2018
https://www.iccsafe.org/codes-tech-support/codes/2018-i-codes/ifc/

7 8
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Components of Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm Control Panel

• Provides the Central Annunciation of Alarms or Trouble Conditions
Initiating Indicating
• Generates Displays and Indicates nature of abnormal condition
Devices Devices
• It is also a means of transmitting an Alarm to a Remote Location

Power Supply-
(Main & Aux.)
9 10

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Power Supply Initiating Devices

Automatically transmit an alarm signal when a condition indicative of fire to
• Main Power supply to the control panel is normally the Line Voltage which they respond occurs

• Internal transformers are used to convert Line Voltage to low voltage • Used to sense conditions & generate
(24VDC typical) alarm Signals

• Most widely used initiating device:

• In the event of Main power interruption these systems have auxiliary
Manual Pull Station
power sources (Battery Backup) to keep them on-line
• Others are
…….Smoke Detectors
…….Heat Detectors
…….Flame Detectors
…….Sprinkler line Flow Switches

11 12
 Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Different Types of Detectors Ionization Smoke Detector

Emitter
• Spot Detectors

Smoke - Ionization and Photo Detectors Sensing Reference

Heat - Heat Detectors & Rate of Rise Heat Detectors Chamber Collector Chamber
Flame - UV / IR Detectors Has many Openings Has few Openings
(Air inside the chamber (Air inside the chamber changes
changes very easily) very slowly)
• Beam Detectors
• Operates on Ionization Principle
• Manual Call Points • It uses a radioisotope such as americium-241 to produce ionization in air
• Detects Fire in the Incipient Stage
• Smoke produced from Clean Burning
• ISD’s are used in following areas :
Control Rooms, Computer Rooms, Record Rooms
13 14

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Ionization detector with cover removed Working of Ionization Smoke Detector

• The radioactive isotope americium-241 in the smoke detector emits
ionizing radiation in the form of alpha particles into an ionization
• Inside a basic ionization smoke chamber (which is open to the air) and a sealed reference chamber.
detector.

• The black, round structure at the
right is the ionization chamber.
• The white, round structure at the
upper left is the piezoelectric buzzer
that produces the alarm sound
• The air molecules in the chamber become ionized and these ions
allow the passage of a small electric
current between charged electrodes placed in the chamber.
• If any smoke particles pass into the chamber the ions will attach to
the particles and so will be less able to carry the current.

• An electronic circuit detects the current drop, and sounds the alarm.
15 16
 A flame ionization detector (FID)
flame ionization detector (FID) is a scientific instrument that
measures analytes in a gas stream. It is frequently used as a detector
in gas chromatography. The measurement of ion per unit time make this a
mass sensitive instrument. Standalone FIDs can also be used in
applications such as landfill gas monitoring, fugitive emissions monitoring
and internal combustion engine emissions measurement in stationary or
portable instruments.
17
Operating principle – Contd..
To detect these ions, two electrodes are used to provide a potential
difference. The positive electrode acts as the nozzle head where the flame is
produced. The other, negative electrode is positioned above the flame. When
first designed, the negative electrode was either tear-drop shaped or angular
piece of platinum. Today, the design has been modified into a tubular
electrode, commonly referred to as a collector plate. The ions thus are
attracted to the collector plate and upon hitting the plate, induce a current.
This current is measured with a high- impedance picoammeter and fed into
an integrator. The manner in which the final data is displayed is based on the
computer and software. In general, a graph is displayed that has time on the
x-axis and total ion on the y-axis.
The current measured corresponds roughly to the proportion of reduced
carbon atoms in the flame. Specifically how the ions are produced is not
necessarily understood, but the response of the detector is determined by the
number of carbon atoms (ions) hitting the detector per unit time. This makes
the detector sensitive to the mass rather than the concentration, which is
useful because the response of the detector is not greatly affected by
changes in the carrier gas flow rate.
19
Operating principle
The operation of the FID is based on the detection of ions formed during
combustion of organic compounds in a hydrogen flame. The generation of
these ions is proportional to the concentration of organic species in the
sample gas stream.
FID measurements are usually reported as "as methane", meaning as the
quantity of methane which would produce the same response. Hydrocarbons
generally have molar response factors that are equal to the number of carbon
atoms in their molecule, while oxygenates and other species that
contain heteroatoms tend to have a lower response factor. Carbon
monoxide and carbon dioxide are not detectable by FID.
FID measurements are often labelled "total hydrocarbons"[8] or "total
hydrocarbon content" (THC), although a more accurate name would be "total
volatile hydrocarbon content" (TVHC),[9] as hydrocarbons which have
condensed out are not detected, even though they are important for e.g.
safety when handling compressed oxygen.
18
Fire Alarm System
Photoelectric Smoke Detector
Lamp Trouble sensor
Smoke sensor
• Operates on Light Scattering Principle
• Detects Dense smoldering smoke produced from
materials like PVC, Carpets, Cables, etc.
• PSD’s are used in following areas : Cable Ducts,
Garages, AC Ducts etc 20
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Light scattering smoke detector Smoke detector with cover removed

Optical Smoke Detector

1: Optical chamber
2: Cover
• Photoelectric light scattering smoke detectors typically consist of 3: Case molding
4: Photodiode (detector)
one light source, typically a light emitting diode (LED) and one
5: Infrared LED
light sensitive device, typically a photodiode.

• When smoke particles enter the light path, light collides with
these particles and is reflected at the photo-sensitive device,
causing the detector to respond. 21 22

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Beam Smoke Detector Beam Smoke Detection

Projected Beam Photoelectric Detection
• Optical Beam Smoke Detectors are used to provide “wide area” smoke Light Obscuration Method
detection.
• Has a Transmitter & Receiver
• Used in protected areas having large ceiling heights, where Spot Normal Condition
detectors cannot be used.
• Ranges : 30 - 330 ft between Transmitter and Receiver. Transmitter Receiver
60ft between Projected Beams. Emits Light Converts Light
to electricity.
• Beam Detectors are used in following areas :Warehouses, garages,
Shopping Malls, Museums etc. Fire Condition

23 24
 Optical beam smoke detector
An optical beam smoke detector is a device that uses a projected
beam of light to detect smoke across large areas, typically as an
indicator of fire. They are used to detect fires in buildings where
standard point smoke detectors would either be uneconomical or
restricted for use by the height of the building. Optical beam smoke
detectors are often installed in warehouses as a cost-effective means
of protecting large open spaces.
25
Fire Alarm System
Photoelectric detection
Light Scattering & Light Obscuration Method
27
Principle of operation
Optical beam smoke detectors work on the principle of light
obscuration, where the presence of smoke blocks some of the light
from the beam, typically through either absorbance or light scattering.
Once a certain percentage of the transmitted light has been blocked
by the smoke, a fire is signalled. Optical beam smoke detectors are
typically used to detect fires in large commercial and industrial
buildings, as components in a larger fire alarm system.
26
Fire Alarm System
Heat Detector
• Typically Thermistor Operated
• Operates on the principle of increase in ambient temperature
• Rate of Rise ( ROR ) of temperature is a built in feature
• Used in areas where heat generation, is the main cause of fire hazard
• Fixed Temperature Heat Detectors:
 Activate when surrounding temperature reaches a preset
temperature
typically :135°F (57°C)
• Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors (ROR):
 Signal an alarm when the rate of temperature increase exceeds a
predetermined value.
 Typically 12°F o 15°F (8.3°C) rise per minute.
• HD’s are used in following areas: Plant/BMS Rooms, Kitchens,
Pantry's, Battery Rooms etc. 28
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

UV/IR Detectors Manual Call Points

• Break Glass or Pull down Window types
• Manually Operated for both safe as well as Hazardous areas
• UV Detectors detect the UV radiations from non-hydrocarbon fuels
• Not Individually addressable for Hazardous areas
(flames)
• Used in Places where automatic detection cannot be used.
• IR Detectors detect IR radiations from the CO2 generated from
• Provided in all exits and Staircases for Manual Interface
hydrocarbon fuels.
• MCP’s are used in following areas : Building Exits / Fire Exits, Lift Lobbies/
• Very fast response to such fires.
Stairwells, Open Areas, Transformer Yards, Process Areas etc.
• Used in hazardous areas & places where flaming Fires are expected.
• Effective in open areas also.
• Flame Detectors are used in following areas : Reactors, Powder mixing
areas etc.

29 30

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Manual Call Points Sprinkler Valve Limit Switches

FIRE
ALARM Single Dual
Sprinkler System Valve Tamper
Action, Action
Switch
PULL Single Single
IN CASE
OF Stage Stage
FIRE PULL FOR
FIRE
MANUAL
FIRE
ALARM PULL • Monitors the water supply valves
• Switches are normally monitored by input modules or zones of a fire
PULL
IN CASE
STATIONS alarm system
• If the valve is closed, the switch dry contacts close, activating the input
OF
FIRE
module or zone
• A supervisory signal is sent to the control panel, notifying personnel
that one of the sprinkler gate valves is being tampered.
A Single action pull station - Pulling the device handle produces an • The control panel is not notified until the water is flowing for a
alarm. A Double action pull station simply requires two actions to predetermined time (typically 30 to 40 seconds [maximum of 90 seconds]
activate the device, such as a break glass front and instructions to
31 32
“Break glass, then pull handle.”
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Sprinkler Valve Limit Switches Modules

Different types of Modules are:
Application: • M300CJ Control Module

Water sprinkler and spray systems are widely used in the process • M300RJ Relay Module
industries for protection of storage vessels, process plant, loading • M300MJ / M301MJ / M300DJ Monitor Module
installations and warehouses.
• M500XJ Isolator Module

33 34

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Modules
 Control Modules
Control module for powering (24VDC) NAC & can selectively activate
Notification Appliance Circuits (NAC).
• M300CJ Control Module: Addressable Control Module
• XP6-C Control six NAC or spk/tele circuit
• M500FPJ Fire fighter’s Telephone Module
Modules
 Relay Module :- M300RJ
This addressable module provides the control panel with a dry-contact
output for activating a variety of auxiliary devices as fans,
dampers, control equipment.
 Monitor Module :- M300MJ / M301MJ / M300DJ
The is an addressable module that monitors either a Style B (Class B) or
Style D (Class A) IDC of dry-contact input devices.

35 36
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Modules Indicating Devices

Generate a signal that indicate / notifies that a condition indicative of fire has
 Isolator Module :- M500XJ occurred

• Primary purpose is to notify occupants

• M500XJ Fault Isolator Module protect the system against wire-to- that an emergency condition has arisen
wire short circuits on the SLC loops.
• Widely used indicating devices are
• Supports a maximum of 25 devices in-between isolators
Audible –
Horns, Bells, Sounders,
Sirens, Chimes, Speakers

Visual –
Strobes

37 38

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Indicating Devices Sound Levels

• Public Area Audible should be between 75 dba at 10 feet and 120 dba at
minimum hearing distance

• Public Area Audibles shall be at least 15dba above Ambient Sound Level
or maximum sound level that lasts over 60 seconds measured 5 Feet AFF.
Chime/Strobe
Strobe

Speaker/Strobe 39 40
Horn/Strobe
 Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Power Supplies Power Supplies

FCPS-24S6 / FCPS-24S8
ACPS-610
– The FCPS series are conventional
power supplies. You need to provide – The ACPS series are addressable
one or two inputs to the units to power supplies. They are connected
enable their output activations directly to the SLC loop of the
intelligent fire panels (320, 640
– 6 / 8-Amp Power Supply series, 3030 series) and are
controlled by zone mapping with
– NAC Synchronization with System the panel.
Sensor, Wheelock and Gentex devices
– 4 Output Circuits
– 2 Inputs / 4 Outputs
4 Class B or 4 Class A Output Circuits – Synchronization with System
(With ZNAC-4 option Board) Sensor, Wheelock and Gentex
41
devices 42

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Device Wiring Device Wiring

Supervision

+ End of
Line
EOL
Resistor
(EOL)
-
“EOL” stands for the “End of Line” device used to complete the Class B
circuit. This device is normally a resistor and sometimes a relay, depending
on the
application.
Monitoring a circuit, switch, or device in such a manner
that will initiate a trouble signal when a fault occurs within
The EOL completes the supervisory circuit permitting a small, constant
the monitored circuit, switch, or device.
current flow in the circuit to monitor integrity.
43 44
Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

Device Wiring Device Wiring

CLASS B (Style 4 ) IDC CLASS A (Style 6 ) IDC
AC POWER
ALARM DISABLE
SUPEVISORY GND FAULT
TROUBLE CPU FAIL

End of
MONITOR TEST

ALARM AC POWER
RESET ALARM
SILENCE DISABLE
SUPEVISORY GND FAULT
LOCAL TROUBLE CPU FAIL
SILENCE DRILL MONITOR TEST

+ Line RESET

LOCAL
SILENCE
ALARM
SILENCE

DRILL
+
ALARM SUPVR TRBLE MONTR
_ Resistor +
1

4
2

5
3

6
STATUS

ENABLE
PROGRAM

DISABLE
(EOL) ALARM SUPVR TRBLE MONTR

_
7 8 9 ACTIVATE RESTORE
1 2 3 STATUS PROGRAM

0 REPORTS TEST
4 5 6 ENABLE DISABLE

7 8

0
9 ACTIVATE

REPORTS
RESTORE

TEST
_
• In normal operation, current flows out through the EOL on one leg
and returns to the control panel on the other leg. The
circuit is being supervised for any opens or ground faults. • No EOL Resistor

• If one of the initiating devices goes into alarm, the contacts close • Circuit is returned to the panel after last device
shorting the circuit.
• Will continue to operate properly with a single open or ground
• The increased current flow will be seen as a alarm condition at the
control panel. • Under Normal conditions 'supervisory' current is flows through IDC
45 46
circuit.

Fire Alarm System Fire Alarm System

AC POWER
Device Wiring Device Wiring
ALARM DISABLE
SUPEVISORY GND FAULT

RESET
TROUBLE
MONITOR

ALARM
SILENCE
CPU FAIL
TEST

CLASS A (Style Z) NAC

+
LOCAL
SILENCE DRILL

AC POWER
ALARM DISABLE
SUPEVISORY GND FAULT

+
TROUBLE CPU FAIL

_
MONITOR TEST

ALARM

_ SUPVR TRBLE

+
MONTR
RESET
ALARM
SILENCE

+
LOCAL
SILENCE DRILL
1 2 3 STATUS PROGRAM

4 5 6 ENABLE DISABLE
_
7 8

0
9 ACTIVATE RESTORE

_
_
REPORTS TEST
ALARM SUPVR TRBLE MONTR

1 2 3 STATUS
+
PROGRAM

CLASS B (Style Y) NAC 4

7
5

8
6

9
ENABLE

ACTIVATE
DISABLE

RESTORE

• NAC circuit could be audible with horns, bells, chimes or

0 REPORTS TEST

visual with strobes or rotating beacons
• To accomplish supervision without activating the devices,
diodes are placed on the devices
• In the condition shown, current would flow from negative to
positive through the EOL without activating the device
• In an Alarm condition, the polarity is reversed at the control
panel which allows current to flow through the devices
• A single open in the circuit would make those devices down
stream of the break inoperative 47
• Operates in the same manner as Class B
• A single break in the wiring, will not affect the normal operation of this
system
• Most NAC’s operate on DC Voltage, normally 24VDC. An exception to
this is audio systems, which operate on AC.
• In this case, Reverse Polarity circuits are not necessary. Their
supervision remains DC, which does not effect the speaker circuits. 48
Fire Alarm System

Wire Requirement

Twisted Pair Shielded

Distance in ft - 10,000 - wire type - 12AWG
- 8,000 - wire type - 14 AWG
- 4,875 - wire type - 16 AWG
- 3,225 - wire type - 18 AWG

Thank you!!
Unshielded, Untwisted wire, inside conduit or not in conduit
Distance in ft- 10,000-wire type-18 AWG

49 50

Module-4
Rev Revision Description Revision Revision Revision
No By Reviewed by Date
00 Training Material Bhakti S 02/08/2018

Comfort Parameters Measurement in BMS System

51
 What is Dehumidification?
Humidification and dehumidification
Dehumidify or dehumidification – literally means “pulling out or removing” the
moisture/humidity from the air. The dictionary defines dehumidification as the
 Humidification and dehumidification are vital processes in air process of removing atmospheric moisture.
conditioning and refrigeration to control the moisture content of
the air supplied to the space. Dehumidification is a highly energy intensive process, especially in humid climates and
for building typologies that require strict space humidity setpoints. Sub-cooling of air
to condense out moisture using chilled water or refrigerant is the most common
 The purpose of air conditioning is to make people comfortable, and method for dehumidifying. Alternative strategies such as desiccant wheel, dual wheel
manufacturing and processing more efficient and reliable. and wrap around coils could more energy efficiently be used for certain climate zones
and project types
 Together with temperature, air cleanliness, and air movement,
relative humidity is what makes air conditioning complete and
maintains comfort to people. People respond quicker to changes in
temperature, odours, high dust concentration, and drafts. When
the relative humidity is between 35% and 60%, people will feel
comfortable with the correct temperature. When the air is dry,
moisture evaporates more rapidly from the skin, which can make
people feel chilly.

Dehumidification strategies Desiccant Dehumidification

Desiccant dehumidification
Dual wheel system
Wrap-around coil

Fig. 1 Desiccant dehumidification: Schematic

 Dual Wheel System

Figure 3 Dual wheel: Schematic

Fig.2 Desiccant dehumidification: Psychrometric chart

Wrap Around Coil

Figure.4 Dual wheel: Psychrometric chart Figure 5 Wrap-around coil: Schematic

 SENSORS

Figure 6 Wrap-around coil: Psychrometric chart

11 Sales Resources Presentation 11

HVAC SENSORS – Technical Information Performance Characteristics

What a SENSOR is...? REPEATABILITY:

When the sensor is subjected to certain fixed known input, and if sensor readings are noted
 The electric sensor or transducer measures a physical value and transforms the information consecutively by approaching the measurement from same direction under same operating
into usable electric values conditions, then closeness of all the readings for same input represents repeatability of the
sensor.
Sensors – Transducers – Transmitters.
REPRODUCABILITY:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value of quantity or condition can be repeatedly
measured while approaching the measurement from both sides under the same operating
conditions. It is expressed in terms of units for a given period of time.

SENSITIVITY:
It denotes the smallest change in the value of a measured variable to which the sensor
responds.

DEAD ZONE/DEAD BAND:

It denotes the largest range of the values of the quantity to be measured to which the sensor
does not respond.

12 12 13 13
Performance Characteristics Classification of sensors

 ACCURACY
The accuracy of the sensor is the maximum difference that will exist between the actual value (which must be
Basically the sensors are available in 2 different models :
measured by a primary or good secondary standard) and the indicated value at the output of the sensor.
Again, the accuracy can be expressed either as a percentage of full scale or in absolute terms.

 PRECISION
The concept of precision refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. In other words, if exactly PASSIVE ACTIVE
the same value were measured a number of times, an ideal sensor would output exactly the same value every
time.
+ 15 V supply
1 1
T temperature 0...10 V
3
2 E Com
NTC "K2"
or "K10"
4

Sensors which themselves generate the Sensors which require external power
power required for their operation are supply for their functioning are called
called passive sensors. active sensors.

14 14 15 15

Temperature Temperature

Temperature of the substance represents its thermal state i.e. hotness or coldness. Bimetallic Thermostat

The units of measurement are deg C, deg F or deg K. Bonding two metals with dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients can produce useful devices for
detecting and measuring temperature changes. A typical pair is brass and steel with typical expansion
coefficients of 19 and 13 parts per million per degree Celsius respectively.
TYPES OF TEMPERATURE SENSORS

•Bimetallic Thermostat
Sensor
•Thermocouple
Sensor
• RTD
• Thermistor
• Solid State
The examples shown are straight strips, but bimetallic strips are made in coils to increase their
sensitivity for use in thermostats. One of the many uses for bimetallic strips is in electrical breakers
where excessive current through the strip heats it and bends it to trip the switch to interrupt the
current

16 16 17 17
Temperature Temperature

Thermocouple Thermistor

These devices are made by joining two dissimilar metal wires at one end to form a Thermistors are made from certain metal oxides whose resistance decreases with increasing
temperature sensing point or "hot junction". This junction is connected in a circuit with a temperature. Because the resistance characteristic falls off with increasing temperature they are called
reference temperature point or cold junction. negative temperature coefficient (NTC) sensors.

When the hot junction is heated and the temperature of the cold junction is held constant, a current
flow develops in the circuit. The self-generated voltage, produced by the thermocouple, forms a linear
Sensor
function with temperature.
**Thermocouples have several problems which
complicate their application with building
automation systems.
One of them is very low level signal produced by
thermocouples in HVAC temperature ranges.
As the other type of Thermistor with positive temperature coefficient (PTC), (meaning its resistance
increases exponentially with increasing temperature).
Sensor
**Advantages include a good operating
temperature range (-100°F to + 500°F), rapid time
response because of their small size, and good
sensitivity.
**Disadvantages include non-linearity, lack of
international standards and stability issues if
the thermistor material is not encapsulated to
prevent additional oxidation of the material.

18 18 19 19

Temperature Temperature

RTD
Resistance
RTD's measure temperature using the resistance property of metals. The resistance's of
certain metals vary linearly with temperature. They are positive temperature coefficient (PTC) sensors
NTC Thermistor
whose resistance increases with temperature. They are most common type of temperature sensors
 Resistance decrease at temperature increase. used in HVAC application.
Standard NTC
The main metals in use are platinum and nickel. Platinum is the most widely used metal for RTD's
Sensor °C Sensor
because it is quite linear, has a high melting point and is chemically stable. Nickel provide a lower cost
alternative to platinum.

Resistance Reference resistances of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 ohms at specified temperatures (not
necessarily 0°C)
PTC Thermistor
Standard PTC RTDs are manufactured in two ways: using wire or film.
 Resistance increase at temperature increase

°C

20 20 21 21
Temperature Temperature

RTD Solid State Sensors

2-wire circuit
Semiconductor material, typically silicon (Si) is doped (diffused) with impurities to achieve the temperature sensing
The connection between the thermometer and the effect.
evaluation electronics is made with a 2 conductor
cable.
Other Solid State Devices, which apply basic semiconductor technology and are gaining in popularity, are the
Integrated Circuit (IC) devices. A very linear output voltage, current, or frequency variation is produced by this type
3-wire circuit
of device.
In order to minimize the effects of the line
Sensor
resistances and their fluctuation with temperature it
These types of temperature sensors have high stability and accuracy, good interchangeability and sensitivity, fast time
is usual practice to employ a three-wire circuit. It
response, linearity and an adequate operating temperature range.
consists of running an additional wire to one contact
of the RTD.

4-wire circuit
The optimum form of connection for resistance
**When RTD is at some distance from the controller or
thermometers is the 4-wire circuit. This technique is usually
transmitter. then 1000 ohm RTD will provide more
only used in scientific apparatus requiring accuracies
accurate reading than 100 ohm RTD.
measured in hundredths of a
degree.

22 22 23 23

Humidity Types
There are three common types of humidity sensor:
Humidity refers to the amount of moisture (water vapor) in the surrounding air.

Capacitive: With a porous dielectric substance at the centre, surrounded by two

Moisture alters the electrical properties of the polymer film.
The incremental change in the dielectric constant of a
capacitive humidity sensor is nearly directly proportional
to the relative humidity of the surrounding environment.
Sensor
Advantages of the capacitive sensor
[V]
Polymer film electrodes, the sensor uses water vapour to monitor humidity – when the vapour
Permeable reaches the electrodes it creates a voltage change.
conductive layer
Resistive: Less sensitive than capacitive, they operate on a similar basis, using
electrical change to measure relative humidity. However, they use ions in salts to
measure this change to resistance on the electrodes.

 Small temperature dependency

 Fast response Thermal: Two matched thermal sensors conduct electricity based on humidity of the
 Tolerable accuracy air surrounding them. One is coated in dry nitrogen, the other measures ambient air
– with the difference between them measuring the humidity reading.
Output

The capacitance will decrease as humidity rises.

The voltage output of the sensor will, then, increase linearly.
% [R.H.]

24 24
Pressure Pressure

Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in Atmospheric Pressure: It is the height of the barometric column at sea level (i.e. 76cm of mercury)
terms of force per unit area. due to the weight of the air molecules above a certain height relative to sea level.

A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. A pressure sensor usually acts as a Pressure is sometimes measured not as an absolute pressure, but relative to atmospheric
transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. pressure; such measurements are called gauge pressure.

Absolute Pressure is zero pressure referenced against a perfect vacuum so it is equal to

Sensor Sensor
Gauge + Atmospheric pressure.

Vacuum pressure: It is also called as negative gauge pressure. It is less than atmospheric pressure
at given location and is referenced to either atmospheric pressure or relative to absolute vacuum.

Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points. Unlike Gauge or Absolute
pressure transmitters, Differential Pressure Transmitters do not attempt to fix the reference.
Importantly an increase in differential can be the result of increasing one of the pressures or
decreasing the other.

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Pressure Pressure

Pressure is sensed by mechanical elements such as plates, shells, and tubes that are In Mechanical Pressure Gauges, the motion created by the sensing element is read directly by a dial or pointer.
designed and constructed to deflect when pressure is applied. This is the basic mechanism These devices are typically seen in low-performance applications, including blood pressure measurement and
converting pressure to physical movement. Next, this movement must be transduced to automotive pressure gauges. The mechanical mass of the gauges also limits the frequency response and makes
obtain an electrical or other output. these sensors suitable only for slowly changing measurements.

The main types of sensing elements are Bourdon tubes, diaphragms and bellows. Electromechanical pressure sensors convert the applied pressure to an electrical signal. Following are the most
commonly used types:
All except diaphragms provide a fairly large displacement that is useful in mechanical gauges and for
Sensor
electrical sensors that require a significant movement.
Sensor
Capacitive pressure sensors typically use a thin diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor. Applied pressure causes
the diaphragm to deflect and the capacitance to change. This change may or may not be linear and is typically
very small. The change in capacitance is then converted to voltage or current signal.

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Pressure Flow

Piezoelectric elements are bi-directional transducers capable of converting stress into an electric potential and  Volumetric Flow meter
vice versa. They consist of metallized quartz or ceramic materials. These sensors  The most common types of differential pressure flow meters are:
are mostly used for varying pressures.
• Orifice Plates
Strain gauge sensors originally used a metal diaphragm with strain gauges bonded to it. Pressure on the • Flow Nozzles
elements of a strain gauge causes the elements to expand or contract Strain gauges are used as part of a • Venturi Tubes
Wheatstone Bridge to measure pressure.
• Rotameter
• Pitot Tube
 Turbine
 Vortex
 Electromagnetic
 Ultrasonic Doppler

 Mass Flow meter

 Thermal Flow Meter
 Coriolis Flow Meter
 Open Channel Flowmeter

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Sensor Sensor

Flow Flow

Orifice Plate Rotameter

Venturi Tube
The rotameter consists of a vertically oriented glass (or plastic) tube with a larger end at the top, and a metering
float which is free to move within the tube. Fluid flow causes the float to rise in the tube as the upward
pressure differential and buoyancy of the fluid overcome the effect of gravity.

Flow Nozzle Pitot Tube

The float rises until the annular area between the float and tube increases sufficiently to allow a state of
dynamic equilibrium between the upward differential pressure and buoyancy factors, and downward gravity
factors.

The height of the float is an indication of the flow rate. The tube can be calibrated and graduated in appropriate
flow units.

Magnetic floats can be used for alarm and signal transmission functions

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Sensor Sensor
 Flow Flow

Rotary Flowmeter Vortex Flowmeter

Rotary flowmeters are built in both paddle wheel and turbine types and are available in both full bore (pipe
diameter) and insertion (reduced diameter) types. This type of meter consists of a precision tube which contains the
paddle wheel, propeller or turbine which is forced to revolve as the fluid passes through or over its blades. The mass
and velocity of the fluid causes the speed of the rotary member to vary in direct proportion to the fluid velocity
through the tube
Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a shedder bar) in the
path of the fluid.
As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the flow called vortices are created. The vortices trail behind the
cylinder, alternatively from each side of the bluff body. This vortex trail is called the Von Kármán vortex
street after von Kármán's 1912 mathematical description of the phenomenon. The frequency at which these
vortices alternate sides is essentially proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. Inside, atop, or downstream of
the shedder bar is a sensor for measuring the frequency of the vortex shedding. This sensor is often a
piezoelectric crystal, which produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created.
Since the frequency of such a voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid velocity, a volumetric flow rate is
calculated using the cross sectional area of the flow meter. The frequency is measured and the flow rate is
calculated by the flowmeter electronics using the equation f = SV / L where f is the frequency of the
vortices, L the characteristic length of the bluff body, V is the velocity of the flow over the bluff body, and S is
The Strouhal number, which is essentially a constant for a given body shape within its operating limits.

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Sensor Sensor

Flow Flow

Magnetic Flowmeter Ultrasonic Flowmeter

The magnetic flowmeter is generally used only on conductive fluids. The principle of operation relies on Ultrasonic flow sensing devices utilize ultrasonic emitting and receiving transducers to measure the
the movement of the fluid, a conductor, through a magnetic field which generates a voltage in the fluid. volumetric flow rate.
This voltage is picked up and amplified by external electronics to produce a measurable signal. The voltage
produced is proportional to the velocity of the fluid.

The emitting and receiving transducers are located on opposite sides of the pipe and may be in
contact with the fluid (wetted) or attached to the pipe (clamp on).

The major advantage of the magnetic flowmeter is that no obstruction is projected into the piping.
Disadvantages include the requirement that the meter body be constructed of nonferrous materials.
Transit time meters measure a frequency or detected time difference between the emitter and receiver.
The time delay is directly proportional to the flow rate. Transit time meters may be used on all types of clean
fluids including nonconductive fluids and gases.
Ultrasonic flowmeters are generally very expensive but the installation costs are very low. These
meters provide unobstructed flow & linear output.

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Sensor Sensor
 Air Flow Measuring Station Air Flow Measuring Station

Pitot Tube type Airflow measuring stations, are typically made up of copper tubing dotted with lots of
1. Differential Pressure/Pitot Tube Type holes. The copper tubing is spread across a galvanized sheet steel frame with a honeycomb-shaped air-
2. Thermal Dispersion Type straightening device. The air enters through the straightening device and passes over the copper tubing
with the holes, creating pressure inside the copper tubing that varies with airflow.
3. Duct Mount/Fan Inlet mount

4005 – a constant, applicable to true velocity pressure of air at temperatures and humidity levels
normally found in HVAC work. (this number may vary depending on AFMS make.

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Air Flow Measuring Station Air Flow Measuring Station

Thermal dispersion determines airflow by relating the heat transfer rate of a heated element to the airflow rate.
As the velocity across the sensor increases, the heat transfer rate increases. Each sensor is calibrated in a wind
tunnel to NIST-traceable airflow standards.
The mathematical relationship between heat transfer rate and airflow velocity makes it possible to accurately
measure flow by elevating a thermal temperature sensor as a reference.
The heated sensor is elevated to a stipulated temperature differential above the reference point. The
velocity is calculated using the reference point (ambient), the known heat transfer characteristics of
the heated sensor, and the power expenditure necessary to maintain the delta between the heated
sensor and the ambient reference sensor.
Fan Inlet Air Flow Station consists of a Piezometer ring mounted at the throat and a static pressure tap mounted
on the face of the inlet cone.
The System is based on the principle of a flow nozzle. The inlet cone of the fan is used as the flow nozzle, and the
flow can be calculated by measuring the static pressure drop through the inlet cone.
The pressure drop is measured from the tap located on the face of the inlet cone to the piezometer ring in the
throat. The inlet tap is connected to the high-pressure side of the transducer and the piezometer ring is connected
to the low-pressure side.

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BTU Meter Infrared Gas Detectors

Infrared gas detectors work based on the principle of infrared absorption.

An infrared source illuminates a volume of gas that has entered inside the measurement chamber. The
gas absorbs some of the infrared wavelengths as the light passes through it, while others pass through it
completely un-attenuated.

The amount of absorption is related to the concentration of the gas and is measured by a set of optical
detectors and suitable electronic systems. The change in the intensity of the absorbed light is measured
Sensor Sensor
relative to the intensity of light at a non-absorbed wavelength. The microprocessor computes and
reports the gas concentration from the absorption.

Typical gases: CO2, CO, N2O, H2, O2, Refrigerants.

Q = GPM X 499 X DELTA T, WHERE:

Q – ENERGY IN BTU/HR
GPM - FLOW RATE IN RETURN LINE IN GPM
DELTA T- DIFFERENCE IN TEMPERATURES OF SUPPLY & RETURN LINE IN DEGREE F.

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Other Sensors used in HVAC Psychrometric Chart

• Level Transmitters

• Float Switch/ Level Switch

• Water Leak Detectors/Moisture Sensor

• Occupancy Sensors

• Current Sensors/ Switch

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 Heat Basics Types of Heat

The laws of thermodynamics state that: Sensible Heat

1. Heat is a form of energy, and
2. Heat energy will move from a place of high intensity towards a place of
lower intensity.
Heat is measured in terms of Calories (cal) or British Thermal Units (Btu)
1 BTU is defined as the amount of energy required to raise or lower 1 pound
of water1 degree Fahrenheit
(For Calorie, 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius )
It is the heat that changes the temperature of a substance without changing
the substance’s state
Sensible heat describes how hot something feels; and you measure it with a
thermometer.
Sensible heat is measured in degrees C, F, or K.

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Types of Heat Types of Heat

Every substance contains the heat that was necessary to raise its temperature from
Latent Heat
absolute zero to present temperature. This total heat is its heat content
It is the heat required to change the state of a substance without changing its
temperature.
Latent heat measures the quantity of heat energy in a substance.
With regards to air conditioning and refrigeration, we need to understand LATENT SENSIBLE LATENT
that latent heat is the heat that a substance absorbs or releases as it warms, HEAT HEAT HEAT
cools, and changes state (evaporates and condenses).
Latent heat is measured in British Thermal Units, or BTU. 0 degC 100 degC 100 degC
0 degC
WATER WATER STEAM
ICE
80 100 540
Calories Calories Calories

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 Psychrometric Chart

A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic

parameters of moist air at a constant atmospheric pressure.
The term derives from the Greek psuchron meaning "cold“
and metron meaning "means of measurement"
Invented by Willis H. Carrier in 1904
The psychrometric chart is a convenient and useful tool for (1) determining
moist air psychrometric properties, and (2) visualizing the changes of
properties in a sequence of psychrometric processes; e.g.,
(a) as the outside and return air mixes,(b) proceeds through heating and
cooling coils, (c) the supply fan, (d) supply duct, and on to (e) the conditioned
space.

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Psychrometric Chart Psychrometric Chart

Dry Bulb Temperature Wet Bulb Temperature

The Dry Bulb temperature, usually referred to as "air temperature", is the air property that is
most commonly used. When people refer to the temperature of the air they are normally
referring to the dry bulb temperature.
The Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry Bulb"
because the air temperature is indicated by a thermometer not affected by the moisture of the
air.
The dry-bulb temperature is an indicator of heat content and is shown along the bottom axis of
the psychrometric chart Constant dry bulb temperatures appear as vertical lines in the
psychrometric chart.
Wet Bulb temperature can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb wrapped in wet
cotton. The evaporation of water from the thermometer bulb and the cooling effect is indicated
by a "wet bulb temperature" lower than the "dry bulb temperature" in the air.
The rate of evaporation from the wet bandage on the bulb, and the temperature difference
between the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of the air. The evaporation from
the wet cotton is reduced when air contains more water vapor.
The Wet Bulb temperature is always between the Dry Bulb temperature and the Dew Point.
Lines of constant wet bulb temperatures run diagonally from the upper left to the lower right in
the Psychrometric chart.

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 Psychrometric Chart Psychrometric Chart

Dew Point Temperature Humidity Ratio

The Dew Point is the temperature where water vapor starts to condense out of the air (the
temperature at which air becomes completely saturated). Above this temperature the moisture
stays in the air.
If the dew-point temperature is close to the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is high. If
the dew point is well below the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is low
The Dew Point temperature is always lower than the Dry Bulb temperature and will be identical
with 100% relative humidity (the air is at the saturation line). As air temperature changes the
Dew Point tends to remain constant unless water is added or removed from the air.
The Dew Point is given by the saturation line in the psychrometric chart.
It is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air.
Humidity ratio is measured in units of grams (pounds) of water per grams (pound) of dry air.
The moisture content is the vertical axis of the chart.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the weight of water vapor in a pound of air compared to the maximum
amount of water vapor that a pound of air could hold. It is expressed in % (percentage)
Lines of constant relative humidity are shown as exponential lines on the psychrometric chart.
The line at 100% is referred to as the saturation line.
Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by the water vapor in a space at its corresponding dew point temperature.
It is measured in inches of mercury (in. Hg)

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Psychrometric Chart

Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the total amount of heat energy of the moist air and therefore includes the amount of
heat of the dry air and the water vapor in the air.
Enthalpy = Sensible Heat + Latent Heat
It is measured in BTU/lb.
The constant enthalpy line passing through the given value of the WB temperature indicates the
enthalpy of the air.
Specific Volume
This is the inverse of density. Specific volume is therefore the volume per unit mass of the air
sample.
It is measured by cubic feet per pound of dry air
It is shown as diagonal lines on the chart.

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Thank you

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