Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398

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Construction and Building Materials

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Failure behaviour and repair of delaminated glulam beams

João Gomes Ferreira a,⇑, Helena Cruz b, Ricardo Silva a
a
Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, CERIS, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
b
LNEC – National Laboratory for Civil Engineering, Av. do Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal

h i g h l i g h t s

Delamination process is known to occur in glulam beams.

Numerical studies show that delaminated glulam beams loose strength and stiffness.

Experimental evidence on delamination effects is provided.

Delamination repairing techniques are proposed and experimentally validated.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents the results of an experimental study carried out with the following main purposes: (i)
Received 6 February 2017 evaluate the effect of different types of delamination of straight glulam beams on their structural behav-
Received in revised form 8 July 2017 ior up to failure; (ii) evaluate the effectiveness of repairing those beams after bending failure through the
Accepted 29 July 2017
use of self-drilling screws and plywood sheets; (iii) evaluate the effectiveness of a preventive repair of
those beams (applied before loading them to failure) through the use of self-drilling screws.
The tested elements comprised (i) reference beams, without delamination; beams with delamination at
Keywords:
the ends involving the overall cross-section width, in (ii) moderate lengths and in (iii) significant lengths;
Glulam
Delamination
and (iv) beams with delamination along all length at the outer thirds of the cross-section width.
Repair The results of the bending tests of the unrepaired beams showed that (i) the end delamination causes a
decrease in the strength and stiffness of the beams, more markedly for longer delamination length and
that (ii) the longitudinal delamination, not involving the entire cross-section width, does not significantly
affect the behavior of the beams. The results of the beams repaired after failure showed that the interven-
tion technique used is adequate and that its degree of effectiveness depends on the type of delamination
and on the level of damage occurred at failure. The results of the preventively repaired beams showed
that the intervention method used confers significant improvements in resistance and stiffness to unre-
paired beams, although it does not allow achieving the performance of healthy beams.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction ature) or manufacturing errors, related to the surface preparation,

Glued laminated timber (glulam) elements are presently used
in construction in a wide range of applications. This manufacturing
technique, made possible by the technological development of syn-
thetic adhesives, consists of gluing together thin timber lamellas,
forming larger elements. In this way, it became possible to obtain
timber elements in different shapes and sizes, easily adaptable to
different architectural and structural requirements. However,
delamination of the bonded layers may occur [1,2], in particular
due to aging under certain exposure conditions (humidity, temper-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: joao.gomes.ferreira@tecnico.ulisboa.pt (J. Gomes Ferreira),
helenacruz@lnec.pt (H. Cruz), ricardo.c.h.silva@gmail.com (R. Silva).
the amount of adhesive and the curing conditions, or as a result of
the use of improper adhesives for certain exposure conditions.
It is generally accepted that the influence of longitudinal cracks
and delamination on timber members performance vary signifi-
cantly with their shape and installed stresses, being more impor-
tant when associated with high shear and tensile stresses
perpendicular to the wood grain Cruz et al. [3]. However, according
to Franke et al. [4] no comprehensive methods are known to deter-
mine the influence of cracks on the strength and stiffness of timber
beams. These authors describe common failure modes for timber
beams and present a state of the art of typical retrofitting and rein-
forcement techniques. Cracks along the fibres are acknowledged as
the most common type of failure.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.07.200
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398
Few studies are known regarding the influence of delamination
and drying cracks on the performance of beams.
Soltis and Gerhardt [5] performed a state of the art review of
shear design of wood beams, concluding that shear strength vary
with crack depth for depths over 30% of beam width.
Anderson and Oden [6] tested two groups of 2.6 m long glulam
beams in 3-point bending (one group with no cracks and the other
with cracks due to natural weathering). Results showed no effect of
surface cracking on the ultimate strength.
Khorasan [7] developed a FEM to simulate the performance of
cracked beams, whichwas validated by comparison with the exper-
imental results by Anderson and Oden [6]. This model was then
extended to predict the performance of 9 m long beams that had
been exposed to weather for 5 years. Calibration of the model
was done for a beam with a large number of cracks distributed
along its length on one face. Simulations considering the load
was applied at 1/2, 1/4 or 1/8 of the span indicate strength reduc-
tions of 5.9%, 11.7% and 26%, respectively.
Pousette and Ekevad [8] analysed how different types of cracks
affected the shear strength of glulam beams tested in 3-point
bending. Tests included five types of beams
(2.6 m  0.115 m  0.315 m) with or without lengthwise cracks
(either natural or made by sawing) of different depths and loca-
tions. The following situations were considered: a) no cracks; b)
one crack in the middle glueline, on one face 30% of beam width;
c) cracks in the middle glued line, on both faces each of them
15% of beam width; d) two cracks on one face, each of them 30%
of beam width. Uncracked beams failed mostly in bending whereas
beams with natural drying cracks failed mostly in shear, but simi-
lar characteristic shear strength was attained for both groups. A
reduction of strength in the case of beams with sawn grooves
was explained by a reduction of the cross section.
Berg et al. [9] tested in 3-point bending glulam beams of differ-
ent sizes with manufactured (2.5 mm thick) cracks. Test results
were compared with a numerical model. In six glulam beams
(5 m_  0.115 m  0.63 m) the load was applied 1.2 m from one
end; in other six beams (9 m  0.115 m  0.63 m) the load was
applied 1.125 m from one end. According to their position, cracks
reduced load-bearing capacity to 70–90% of the uncracked beam.
Gaspar et al. [1] developed a Finite Element Modeling (FEM) to
evaluate the influence of delamination (near the surface, on the
vertical faces and ends) on the mechanic performance of straight
glulam beams. Delamination in various locations and with varying
depths were considered, for two different beam loading situations
(design conditioned by shear or bending). The model was validated
by comparing predicted stresses and deformations with the appli-
cation of the beam theory, showing satisfactory results. The main
findings of this work were: a) when delamination is non-
symmetric regarding the member’s cross section, it can cause the
member’s lateral instability, thus increasing its stresses and defor-
mations; b) delamination is not a problem when it occurs in mem-
bers or member areas with low shear stresses, particularly when it
is symmetric and does not reach the whole width of the beam; c)
the stresses corresponding to the bending or deformation limit-
states get near the elastic limit only for very important delamina-
tion. Moreover, delamination depth higher than 60% of the cross
section width may be regarded as a turn point beyond which the
structural integrity may be at risk.
Gaspar et al. [1] showed that delamination at the beam ends
involving the entire width of the cross-section affects the struc-
tural strength and stiffness and this effect is more severe for longer
delamination zones. Furthermore, delamination is particularly crit-
ical when it involves the entire width of the beam cross-section,
being in this case more severe for higher delamination lengths;
delamination has a much less significant effect if it does not
involve the entire width of the section and is symmetrical.
385
Significant work has been published regarding reinforcement/
strengthening or repairing techniques for timber structures.
Many studies recently developed involve the use of bonded
composite materials, both for bending and shear stresses [10].
One of the techniques tested in several studies consists of Near
Surface Mounted (NSM) laminates [11] or circular rods [12] of
GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic) or CFRP (Carbon Fiber Rein-
forced Plastic) embedded in superficial slots. In some cases, these
materials are superficially applied in the tensioned zones of the
element and remain visible [13] or are subsequently protected by
an additional timber layer [14,15].
Franke et al. [4] describe reinforcement techniques including
wood to wood replacements, use of mechanical fasteners and the
addition of other materials, with a focus on preventive strengthen-
ing. Regarding the reinforcement for shear stresses in beams by
using self-tapping screws, these authors summarize that redistri-
bution of load from the timber to the shear reinforcement is com-
paratively low and that under realistic construction conditions an
increase in shear capacity of 20% (in the uncracked state) is feasible
[4]. On the other hand, numerical studies covering reinforcement
designed to take the stresses in the fractured state indicate that
the maximum increase in bending stresses between the intact
state and the fractured state may be about 30% Dietsch, Kreuzinger
and Winter [16].
Dietsch and Brandner [17] describe the state of the art in appli-
cation and design approaches in Europe regarding the use of self-
tapping screws and threaded rods as reinforcing elements. The
main focus of the paper is on glued laminated timber members
and joints reinforcement against shear and stresses perpendicular
to grain. Many of the approaches are also applicable to glued-in
rods.
The work developed by the authors initially addressed the eval-
uation of the effects of delamination of straight glulam beams on
their flexural strength. Subsequently, considering the possibility
of some anomalies being detected only after the occurrence of
structural failure, the study envisaged the possibility of repairing
elements after failure using a simple method, compatible with an
‘‘in situ” intervention. Finally, the effectiveness of a preventive
intervention was analyzed, also using simple techniques, in a sce-
nario where the pathologies are detected early, before the applied
loads cause significant damage.
The three main objectives of the experimental study presented
in this article were as follows: (i) to evaluate the effect of different
types of delamination on the failure behavior of straight glulam
beams; (ii) to evaluate the effectiveness of post-failure repair of
these beams through the use of self-drilling screws and plywood
sheets; (iii) to evaluate the effectiveness of preventive repair of
the beams through the use of self-drilling screws.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Test program
The experimental campaign involved bending tests until failure on 21 beams –
3 reference beams without delamination (series A), 6 beams with end delamination
through the entire cross section width in a moderate length (series B), 6 beams with
end delamination through the entire cross section width in a significant length
(C series), and 6 beams with full length delamination in the outer thirds of the cross
section width (series D). The initial plan was: i) to test 3 beams of each series with-
out prior intervention and re-test them after repair; and ii) test the remaining
beams (3 beams of each of the series B, C, D) after preventive repair (see Table 1).
However, since the first three beams of the D series did not present any decrease
of resistance when compared with the beams without delamination (of series A),
the remaining beams D were also tested without preventive repair (as it was
not necessary), although only three of these were subsequently repaired and re-
tested.
Thus, a total of 33 tests were performed – 15 tests on unrepaired beams, 12
tests on beams repaired after failure and 6 tests on beams preventively
repaired.
386 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398

Table 1
Test program.

Beam type Test – Repair – Test Preventive repair – Test

A A1, A2, A3 –
B B1, B3, B6 B2, B4, B5
C C1, C2, C3 C4, C5, C6
D D1, D2, D3 (D4, D5, D6)*
Ld,1 = 0,32m (B)
*
These beams were meant to study the effects of preventive repair, but this was
not considered necessary taking into account their strength as compared to the Ld,1 = 0,72m (C)
reference beams (A).

a
The 15 unrepaired beams comprise a group of 3 reference beams without
delamination (series A), a group of 3 beams with moderate end delamination (series
B), a group of 3 beams with long end delamination (series C), and the group of 3 + 3
beams with full length delamination in the outer thirds of the section width (series
D). After being tested until bending failure, these beams were repaired with self-
drilling screws and plywood sheets and tested again. Other sets of 3 delaminated
beams of each series (B and C) were preventively repaired with self-drilling screws
before being tested and subsequently driven to failure in similar bending tests. Ser-
ies D beams weren’t actually repaired as their behavior in the first tests didn’t show
any strength loss when compared with reference beams. Table 1 summarizes the
test program.

2.2. Manufacture of glulam beams

b
A total of 21 beams with 3090 m  0175 m  0095 m (Fig. 1) were produced in
an industrial environment, presenting several types of delamination: i) Series A, ref- Fig. 2. Geometry of delamination: a) in beams of series ‘‘B” and ‘‘C”; b) in beams of
erence beams – 3 beams without delamination (A1–A3); (ii) Series B – 6 beams with series ‘‘D (delamination always represented by thick lines).
‘‘moderate” delamination involving all bonded layers through the entire cross-
section width at the beams ends, at a length of 0.320 m (B1–B6, Fig. 2); (iii) Series
C – 6 beams with ‘‘long” delamination involving all bonded layers through the
entire cross-section width at the beams ends, at a length of 0.720 m (C1–C6,
Fig. 2); iv) Series D – 6 beams with delamination in all bonded layers along their
entire length, affecting only the outer thirds of the cross-section width (D1–D6,
Fig. 3). The beams were produced with pine wood (Pinus pinaster, Ait.), with an
average water content of 14%, consisting of 5 lamellas with 3.5 cm thickness each.
The beams were manufactured in a company specialized in the manufacture
and assembly of glulam structures, following the European standards [18] proce-
dures regarding the wood selection, surface preparation, bonding, pressing and cur-
ing. A two-component ‘‘Komartex M” Melamine-Urea-Formaldehyde adhesive
commercialized by Colquímica was used both for bonding timber lamellas to each
other and the finger-joints within lamellas.
In order to simulate delamination, adhesive tape was placed between adjacent Fig. 3. Adhesive tape applied to timber surface to prevent adhesion (trial
lamellas, after sanding and immediately prior to adhesive application, thus prevent- application).
ing adhesion between lamellas in these zones. This procedure was previously
tested, and it was verified that the tape applied effectively prevents adhesion
between timber lamellas (see Fig. 3 and Beam B3 in Fig. 10).
The beams were manufactured 40 cm longer than nominal length allowing cut-
ting of 20 cm at each end, thus not using the ends of the beams (where it is more
difficult to ensure a uniform clamping pressure).
The quality of bonding between timber lamellas was evaluated through shear
tests [19], following the procedure established in standard EN 14080: 2013 [18]
and analyzing the results in comparison with the requirements defined in the same
standard. These tests were carried out in the National Laboratory for Civil Engineer-
ing (LNEC), using test equipment intended for control of industrial manufacture, on
test samples obtained from the tips removed from the beams of series A and D. The
results obtained in this campaign of shear tests showed that the ultimate shear
stress of the bonding surfaces (mean fv = 11.0 MPa/standard deviation 1.7 MPa) is
about 79% of the timber shear strength (fv = 14 MPa/s.d. 0.9 MPa). These tests also

Fig. 4. Bending tests setup.

showed that the wood failure percentage in the shear failure section (mean
86.7%), as a function of the shear strength, also complied with the standard, denot-
Fig. 1. General geometry of the tested beams. ing an adequate quality of bonding, even in the most critical zone (the beams ends).
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398
2.3. Bending tests setup
The beams were subjected to four-point bending tests (Figs. 4 and 5) performed
at LNEC as specified in EN 408: 2010 + A1: 2012 [20], using six LVTD type transduc-
ers to obtain the following vertical displacements: 1 at each load application point,
1 in each support and 2 in the mid span, on either side of the beam cross-section, to
take into account possible torsional effects. The test machine used was the Shi-
madzu Corporation brand AG-IS model and the LVDT and data logger were of the
RDP brand.
2.4. Repair techniques
The present study proposes a repair technique that can be applied in situ with
relatively simple means and technology. In particular, the use of adhesives, which
require a stricter quality control and which application is more difficult on site,
has been avoided. This application would be particularly complex when repairing
damaged elements due to the consequent lack of flatness of the surfaces.
Thus, the materials used in the repair of the beams were: self-drilling steel
screws HBS10160 and HBS10240 supplied by the company ‘‘Rothoblaas”; For dam-
aged beams repair, these were complemented with Okoumé plywood with
1.14 m  0.095 m  0.027 m, commercialized by ‘‘Jular” (Fig. 6). The screws had
the following characteristics: Fu,k = 1000 MPa (ultimate tensile strength),
d1 = 10.0 mm (outer diameter at the threaded zone), d2 = 6.4 mm (inner diameter
at the threaded zone), ds = 7.0 mm (diameter at the unthreaded zone); their length
was 240 mm or 160 mm, depending on their use with or without plywood. This ply-
wood has nominal density of 600 kg/m3, modulus of elasticity in bending
E0 = 8 GPa, and bending strength fm,0 = 65 MPa.
The post-failure repair method consisted of using the steel screws to transmit
shear forces and plywood sheets at the top and bottom of the beams centered on
the fractured zones caused by axial stresses (Fig. 7) to transmit tensile and com-
pression forces resulting from bending, since in many beams there was failure of
both the bottom and top lamellas. Beams D1 and D3, which only exhibited shear
failure with only horizontal cracks/debonding, were repaired using the screws only,
without plywood sheets.
Based on these considerations, the application of screws in the outer thirds of
the beams, where shear forces develop during the tests was initially considered.
However, the anchoring length of the plywood sheets in some cases caused the
overlapping of the two types of reinforcement. For this reason, similar (but longer)
screws with similar spacing were used in the overlapping zones, which simultane-
ously provided shear strength and fixed the plywood sheets to the timber beam
(Fig. 6).
The screws were fastened vertically instead of installing pairs of cross-tilted
screws (which would produce a more efficient connection) and were applied with
pre-drilling, since this is the most viable procedure to adopt on site in relatively
high density wood, as was the case.
The design of the beams repair (thickness of the plywood sheets and spacing
between screws) was made based on the provisions of Eurocode 5 [19,21] and
envisaging to achieve a resistance approximately corresponding to the average
value of the reference beams strength (45 kN, in terms of the force applied in the
test, corresponding to a shear load of 22.5 kN). Screws were designed to be able
to transmit shear load between the two halves of the beam height. A clearance
value of 57 mm between screws was obtained which was arranged in two mis-
matched rows, as shown in Fig. 6. To ensure the transmission of the longitudinal
force caused by the bending moment on the plywood sheets, it took 11 screws in
each side of the connection. Thus, as mentioned, the same screw spacing was
adopted for the shear strength (57 mm), defining the length of the plywood plates
(1.35 m). Plywood was meant to transmit the axial loads (tension and compression)
resulting from the bending moment.
The preventive repair method, on the other hand, was used in the beams of ser-
ies B and C, with end delamination. The reference beams of series A were not pre-
ventively repaired, nor the D-series beams, where longitudinal delamination did
Transducer
Fig. 5. Geometry of bending tests setup.
387
not cause a decrease in strength when compared to the reference beams. Thus, this
preventive repair method consisted of using steel screws in the extreme thirds of
the beams length to ensure the transmission of shear forces that is compromised
with delamination. Since the loading conditions are similar, the same screws and
the same spacing of the curative repair method were used. The screws were also
placed in mismatched rows, between 0.10 m and 1.07 m from the ends of the
beams, in two rows of 9 screws at each end.
In these cases the plywood sheets were not used as there were no damaged tim-
ber lamellas but only debonding in the adhesive layers.
3. Bending tests on unrepaired beams
3.1. Presentation of results
Figs. 8–11 show the load (F) vs. mid span displacement of
beams of the series A, B, C and D, respectively. The displacement
value shown in the diagrams corresponds to the displacement of
the test machine head. This reading does not correspond exactly
to the beams deformation, but allows results to be obtained until
failure in all the tests, unlike the LVDTs, which had to be removed
before failure to avoid their damage. These diagrams thus allow a
direct comparison between different elements tested.
Table 2 presents the main results obtained in these tests, for
each of the beams tested and, for each series, the respective mean
values. The deformation at failure (d) corresponds to the displace-
ment obtained by the test machine head, which, as mentioned,
enabling the recording of values until failure in all tests performed.
For computation of the Young modulus, the displacement values
were obtained through the LVDT readings in the linear behavior
part of the load-displacement diagram, while the corresponding
load values were obtained from the test machine load cell.
The quantities presented in the Table 2 are as follows:
Frot – Failure load;
d – Vertical displacement at mid span obtained through the test
machine at failure;
Em,g – Global modulus of elasticity in bending (Flexural Young’s
modulus in the linear behavior part of the load-displacement
diagram), obtained according to EN 408: 2003 [18]
3    3 
l ðF 2  F 1 Þ3a a
Em;g ¼ 3

bh ðw2  w1 Þ 4l L
where: F2 – F1 is an increment of load on the straight-line portion of
the load deformation curve; w2 – w1 is the increment of deforma-
tion corresponding to F2 – F1; a – distance between loading point
and nearest support; b, h and l – width and depth of cross section,
span in bending, respectively;
rcol – Tension stress in the bottom fiber of mid-span cross-
section at failure, obtained according to EN 408: 2010 + A1: 2012
[18];
388 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398

Fig. 6. Self-drilling screws HBS10240 and HBS10160 (left over) and application of plywood sheets in beams reinforcement (right above) and beam A2 repaired.

Fig. 7. Position of the plywood in beams repair.

scol – Shear stress at half height of the cross-section between
the load and the support at failure, obtained as:

The results obtained within the same series are relatively uni-
3 F2rot
scol ¼
2 bh
A beam of each series after testing is shown in Fig. 12 test to
illustrate the respective failure modes. Fig. 13 shows a diagram
of the failure modes of all beams that were tested and later
repaired (green lines represent the beam failure lines).
3.2. Analysis of results
The main aspects to point out in the analysis of the results
obtained are as follows.
form, except for beam B1, whose strength is much lower than that
of beams B3 and B6, and for beams of series D, where the strength
difference can be explained by the relative position of finger joints
on successive lamellas in the area affected by the rupture.
The failure modes of the reference beams (series A) involve the
tension failure of timber lamellas followed by a secondary
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398 389

Fig. 8. Load-displacement diagrams of unrepaired beams of series A.

Fig. 9. Load-displacement diagrams of unrepaired beams of series B.

longitudinal shear rupture initiated in the tension failure zones.
This behavior shows the adequate manufacture of the beams, as
performance of bond lines wasn’t critical as rupture wasn’t initi-
ated in such zones.
In the beams with moderate end delamination (series B) rup-
ture involved primarily the longitudinal shear of timber lamellas,
initiated at the delaminated zones, with secondary tension and
compression failure. The average strength of the beams in this ser-
ies is about half (47%) the value obtained in series A. This fact
shows that the end delamination involving the entire cross-
section width, even in the case where it occurs in a relatively mod-
erate length, may affect the structural safety of this type of ele-
ment. The Young’s modulus is slightly affected when compared
to the average stiffness of the reference beams (88% of the refer-
ence value).
In the beams with long end delamination (series C) failure
involved essentially the longitudinal shear initiated at the delami-
nated zones and, secondarily, in some cases, the tensile failure of
timber lamellas. In this case, both the strength and stiffness of
the beams are severely affected, presenting respectively 21% and
30% of the values obtained in series A. These values show that
the end delamination affects more severely the structural behavior
of the beams if it presents a longer length.
The beams of series D presented failure modes associated
essentially with the longitudinal shear of the timber lamellas, with
the beam D2 showing secondary tension failure. The strength and
390 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398

Fig. 10. Load-displacement diagrams of unrepaired beams of series C.

Fig. 11. Load-displacement diagrams of unrepaired beams of series D.

stiffness are comparable to those of the reference beams, corre-
sponding to 93% and 106% of the series A values, respectively. At
the beginning of the work, only 3 non-repaired beams of the D
series were to be tested, 3 beams after curative repair and the
remaining 3 after preventive repair. However, since the results of
the 3 beams initially tested did not show a decrease in strength
that required preventive repair, it was decided to test the 6 prior
to any intervention, 3 of which (D1–D3) were also tested after
repair.
The results experimentally obtained are in line with those
obtained by Gaspar et al. [1] based on the numerical modeling of
glulam beams with delamination.
Generally, it can be concluded that delamination at the beam
ends involving the entire width of the cross-section affects the
structural strength and stiffness and this effect is more severe for
longer delamination zones. This behavior seems to be associated
with the fact that these beams are actually composed of distinct
sections: (i) a central section that behaves like a monolithic beam
(non-delaminated zone) and (ii) lateral sections that behave as sets
of 5 simply superimposed beams (the 5 timber lamellas) without a
bonded connection between them (delamination). This layout
causes a significant stiffness decrease when compared to a mono-
lithic beam and presents singularities with stress concentration in
the transition zones.
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398 391

Table 2
Individual results of bending tests on unrepaired beams.

Beam Frot (kN) d (mm) Em,g (GPa) rcol (MPa) scol (MPa)
A1 47.48 48.96 12.48 47.01 2.14
A2 40.81 42.14 11.70 40.40 1.84
A3 51.32 48.31 13.72 50.80 2.32
A (average) 46.54 46.47 12.63 46.07 2.10
B1 16.14 18.59 10.72 15.98 0.73
B3 25.27 26.88 12.23 25.02 1.14
B6 24.70 29.13 10.48 24.45 1.11
B (average) 22.03 24.87 11.14 21.82 0.99
C1 8.84 30.35 3.83 8.75 0.40
C2 10.51 35.38 4.12 10.41 0.47
C3 10.18 37.95 3.53 10.08 0.46
C (average) 9.84 34.56 3.83 9.75 0.44
D1 40.59 33.94 14.80 40.19 1.83
D2 60.41 63.68 13.49 59.81 2.73
D3 37.51 28.84 15.36 37.15 1.69
D4 42.26 37.70 14.18 41.83 1.91
D5 28.12 32.24 11.15 27.83 1.27
D6 50.59 58.20 11.25 50.08 2.28
D (average) 43.24 42.43 13.37 42.82 1.95

Fig. 12. Examples of beam failure modes for each series.

In the case of beams with longitudinal delamination involving
the entire length but without affecting the whole width of the
cross-section, strength and stiffness were practically unaffected
when compared with reference non-delaminated beams. In this
case, the central zone of the cross-section, where there is adhesion
between the lamellas, seems to be sufficient to ensure the continu-
ity and compatibility of deformations along the section height,
making the beams behave as if they were actually monolithic,
i.e., without delamination.
results of the initial tests, identified with the index ‘‘i”, are also pre-
sented in these diagrams.
Table 3 presents the main results obtained in these tests, for
each of the beams tested after post-failure repair and, for each ser-
ies, the respective average values. The parameters shown are the
same as in Table 2.
A beam of each series is shown in Fig. 18 after testing to illus-
trate the respective failure modes.

4.2. Analysis of results

4. Bending tests on beams repaired after failure
4.1. Presentation of results
Figs. 14–17 show the load (F) vs. displacement diagrams regard-
ing beams of series A, B, C and D, respectively. For comparison, the
The analysis of the test results and their comparison with the
results obtained on their first failure tests allows highlighting the
following aspects.
The repaired non-delaminated beams (series A) have lower
strength and lower stiffness than in the initial test but, neverthe-
392 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398
A1
knot
A2
knot
A3
slope of grain
C1
C2
C3
finger joint
Fig. 13. Failure modes of beams schematically represented (defects and features near the failure zone are identified).
less, show a good recovery of mechanical properties achieving 79%
and 81% of the initial values, respectively.
The series B beams (moderate end delamination) show a signif-
icant recovery of strength (173%) when compared to the initial
tests, presenting a value similar to that of the series A beams after
repair. Their stiffness, however, drops to values of 68% of those
obtained initially.
In series C (long end delamination) the recovery of strength in
comparison with the initial values of the same series is very signif-
icant (the average strength value is 249% of the initial value),
although in this series the initial values were quite low. Compared
with the repaired series A beams, the strength of series C beams is
only 66%. Their stiffness had a slight increase, up to 121% of the ini-
tial value, but only 45% of the stiffness of the repaired series A
beams.
As in the first bending tests, the flexural behavior of series
D beams after post failure repair is similar to that of the series
A beams under the same circumstances. The strength recovered
to a value of 86% of its initial value, being slightly higher than
that of series A (37.15 kN versus 36.83 kN) and the overall
stiffness recovered to 71% of the initial value, being close to
the value of the series A after repair (9.54 GPa versus
10.37 GPa).
B1
B3
B6
finger joint
D1
D2
knot
D3
D4
finger joint
D5
knot
finger joint
D6
The post failure deformation capacity has generally increased in
all of series tested, as denoted by the diagrams of Figs. 14–17.
In the different series it was also noted that the recovery of the
mechanical performance of the beams was greater when the dam-
age suffered in the initial failure was lower.
In the case of reference beams (series A) and of series D beams
(which exhibited similar behavior in the initial tests) strength and
stiffness values recovered significantly but did not reach their ini-
tial values. This fact has to be taken into account in real cases, and
can be compensated by designing reinforcement for higher loads.
Beams D1 and D3, despite not being repaired with plywood but
only with screws, showed better behavior than beam D2, due to
the fact that they suffered less damage in the initial tests.
In the case of series C and D beams with end delamination, the
repair allowed to increase the strength of the beams and, in the
case of series C, also the stiffness, to values higher than the initial
ones (although not reaching the values of the beams of the series A
and D). This behavior shows that the screws and the plywood not
only compensate for the damage caused by the failure in the first
tests but also offset the effects of the initial delamination, at least
partially. This phenomenon is related to the fact that the screws
cross the delaminated areas, transmitting shear stresses that were
not initially transmitted, conferring some monolithic behavior to
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398 393

Fig. 14. Load-displacement diagrams of beams of series A, after post-failure repair.

Fig. 15. Load-displacement diagrams of beams of series B, after post-failure repair.

the set of timber lamellas constituting the beam. In addition, ply-
wood sheets provide an increase in beam height in the reinforced
zones, increasing flexural strength and stiffness.
5. Bending tests of preventively repaired beams
5.1. Presentation of results
Figs. 19 and 20 present the load (F) vs. mid span displacement
for beams of series B and C, respectively. For comparison, these dia-
grams also present the results of the initial tests for other beams of
the same series, identified with the index ‘‘i” in the legend.
Table 4 presents the main results obtained in these tests, for
each of the beams tested after repair and, for each series, the
respective average values. The parameters presented are the same
as those in Tables 2 and 3.
A beam of each series after failure is shown in Fig. 21 to illus-
trate the respective failure modes. Fig. 22 shows schematic draw-
ings of the failure modes of all the beams that were tested after
preventively repaired.
394 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398

Fig. 16. Load-displacement diagrams of beams of series C, after post-failure repair.

Fig. 17. Load-displacement diagrams of beams of series D, after post-failure repair.

5.2. Analysis of results
The analysis of the obtained results and their comparison with
those of the beams of the same series in the initial tests allows
emphasizing the following aspects.
Preventively repaired beams of series B (moderate end delami-
nation) present an average strength value of 158% compared to
non-repaired beams of the same series and of 75% of the series A
beams at the initial tests. These values show that, in terms of
strength, the repair method increases the capacity of the beams
but does not allow reaching the values of the beams without
delamination pathology. The average value of the Young modulus
in these beams corresponds to 93% of that of unrepaired beams
of the same series and to 82% of that of the beams of the series A
at the initial tests, denoting an acceptable performance with
respect to stiffness.
In series C (with long end delamination), the strength value is
300% of that of unrepaired beams of the same series and 63% of
the series A initial tests. These values show that the repair method
allows increasing very significantly the strength of the beams but
without, however, reaching values similar to those of the beams
without delamination pathology. The stiffness behavior presents
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398 395

Table 3
Individual results of bending tests on beams tested after post-failure repair.

Beams Frot (kN) d (mm) Em,g (GPa) rcol (MPa) scol (MPa)
A1 35.37 55.74 7.99 20.45 1.22
A2 35.91 53.00 9.23 20.76 1.24
A3 39.22 38.47 13.88 39.00 1.78
A (average) 36.83 49.07 10.37 26.73 1.41
B1 39.83 82.18 8.56 39.43 1.80
B3 38.19 81.53 6.48 37.81 1.72
B6 36.35 64.12 8.22 35.98 1.64
B (average) 38.12 75.94 7.75 37.74 1.72
C1 24.82 72.25 5.49 24.57 1.12
C2 21.47 65.49 4.58 21.26 0.97
C3 27.15 99.80 3.89 26.88 1.22
C (average) 24.48 79.18 4.65 24.23 1.10
D1 36.26 44.87 10.62 35.89 1.64
D2 29.01 69.81 6.12 28.71 1.31
D3 46.19 53.29 11.88 45.73 2.08
D (average) 37.15 55.99 9.54 36.78 1.68

Fig. 18. Examples of failures modes of beams with tested after post-failure repair.

a similar trend: the Young modulus is 151% of the beams of the
same series without repair and only 46% of the values obtained
in series A at the initial tests.
The post failure deformation capacity generally increased in
both series tested, as denoted by the diagrams of Figs. 19 and 20.
In summary, the applied repair technique generally met the
objective of avoiding early shear failure caused by delamination.
In the non-repaired beams, failure modes were primarily triggered
by the longitudinal shear/debonding between timber lamellas,
with propagation of the delaminated zones (Fig. 11). In the
repaired beams failure modes were triggered by bending, with ten-
sion and compression stresses leading to the initial failure of the
timber lamellas (Fig. 22).
6. Conclusions
In general terms, the work carried out has shown that end
delamination involving the whole width of the cross-section
affects strength and stiffness of the beams, in a more severe way
for longer delamination lengths. The beams delaminated in this
way are, in fact, composed of a central section that behaves like
a monolithic beam and by extreme sections that behave as sets
of 5 simply superimposed beams (the timber lamellas) without
connection between them, reducing both stiffness and strength
of the assembly.
In the case of beams with longitudinal delamination that does
not involve the entire cross-section width, strength and stiffness
were practically unaffected. In this case, the adherent central por-
tion of the cross-section ensures the stress transmission and the
deformations compatibility along the section height (Bernoulli
hypothesis), and the beams behave practically like monolithic ele-
ments without delamination.
With regard to repaired beams, it is concluded that the pro-
posed post-failure intervention methodology is effective, generally
allowing a significant recovery of stiffness and strength. In the case
of beams without delamination or with longitudinal delamination,
the strength and stiffness values recover only partially, not reach-
ing the initial values, which can be compensated by over-
396 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398

Fig. 19. Load-displacement diagram of series B beams, preventively repaired.

Fig. 20. Load-displacement diagram of series C beams, preventively repaired.

Table 4
Individual results of the bending tests on preventively repaired beams.

Beams Frot (kN) d (mm) Em,g (GPa) rcol (MPa) scol (MPa)
B2 35.09 51.58 10.97 34.73 1.58
B4 37.00 54.49 10.12 36.63 1.67
B5 32.28 44.54 10.12 31.96 1.46
B (average) 34.79 50.20 10.40 34.44 1.57
C4 28.05 94.26 5.69 27.77 1.27
C5 29.92 118.53 5.56 29.61 1.35
C6 30.49 124.76 6.08 30.18 1.38
C (average) 29.49 112.52 5.78 29.19 1.33
 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398 397

Fig. 21. Examples of failure modes of preventively repaired beams.

Fig. 22. Schematic drawings of the failure modes of preventively repaired beams (red arrows identify finger-joints, purple arrows identify knots near the failure zone).

dimensioning the repair solution. In the case of the end-
delamination beams, it was found that the repair even allowed
an increase in strength (and, in the case of the long delamination,
also in stiffness) to values higher than the initial ones, although not
reaching the values of the initial tests in beams without
delamination.
This behavior shows that the screws and the plywood sheets
allow compensating the damages caused by failure and to compen-
sate, at least partially, the effects of the initial delamination. The
use of screws through the delaminated areas allows transmitting
shear stresses that were not initially transmitted and ensures a cer-
tain degree of deformation compatibility, providing a certain
degree of monolithism to the set of timber sheets constituting
the beam. It has generally been found that, as might be expected,
the level of recovery of the mechanical performance of the beams
achieved with their repair depends on the levels of damage suf-
fered in the initial failure. The recovery level is affected mainly
by the occurrence of tension failure of timber lamellas, showing
that the implemented repair method is more effective in recover-
ing the ability to transmit shear stresses than axial stresses. In
these cases, the use of additional sheets with higher strength than
the plywood used in this study is recommended.
In the case of preventively repaired beams with end delamina-
tion, the adopted technique has also proved to be effective in
increasing strength and stiffness when compared to the values of
unrepaired beams of the same series. The effect of the repair is
more pronounced the more severe the pathology, i.e., it is more
notable in beams with long delamination, which performance
was worse at the beginning, than in beams with moderate delam-
ination. As in the post-failure repair technique, also the preventive
intervention technique adopted in delaminated beams did not
allow reaching the values of strength and stiffness initially exhib-
ited by ‘‘healthy” beams. Although the situations studied corre-
spond to very serious or extreme cases of delamination, it is
considered that the application of this technique must be accom-
panied by verification of the sufficiency of the performance
obtained in view of the structural stresses to which the beams will
be subjected.
398 J. Gomes Ferreira et al. / Construction and Building Materials 154 (2017) 384–398
Acknowledgements
The financial support of the Foundation for Science and Tech-
nology (FCT) through the research project PTDC/ECM/100168 –
REABEPA is acknowledged.
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