Skeletal System

Composed of bone, cartilage and

ligaments.
Functions: 1) Support-vertebral column
and limbs support the body, jaws support
teeth.
2) Protection-organs protected by bones.
3) Movement-limbs, breathing other
movement occur due to action of muscles
on bones.
4) Electrolyte balance-calcium and
phosphate ions make up most of the bone.
Bones are made predominantly of calcium
phosphate in the form of a compound
called HYDROXYAPATITE [Ca5(PO4)3(OH)].
This is the most abundant mineral salt in
bones. Other minerals include
magnesium, manganese, iron, small
amounts of copper and other trace
elements.
5) Acid-base balance-bones buffer against
excessive pH changes by absorbing or
releasing alkaline phosphate and
carbonate salts.
6) Blood formation-red marrow produces
all blood cells.
206 bones (does not include the kneecaps
[patellae])
Patellae are classified as sesamoid bones
(protect joints)
Divided into Axial (axis of body)-skull,
vertebrae, ribs, sternum (breastbone),
sacrum, coccyx
Appendicular-arms, legs, hands, feet,
shoulders, hips, ankles, wrists, clavicles
The tensile strength of bones is equal to
that of white oak.
Long bones (humerus, radius, ulna and
femur, tibia, fibula) are important in
movement.
Outer bone is cortical (compact)
Inner bone is spongy (medullary,
trabecular, cancellous)
Inside the bone is bone marrow-red (for
blood cell formation) and yellow (fat
storage)
Long bones have 2 epiphyses (articulating
ends). Covered with hyaline (articular)
cartilage
1 bone shaft (diaphysis)
Where the diaphysis meets the epiphysis is
the metaphysis (in an adult bone)
Flat bones, such as skull bones, have two
layers of compact bone sandwiching
spongy bone (diploe in the cranium).
Periosteum covers both surfaces and
endosteum lines marrow spaces in the
spongy bone.
Children’s bones have an epiphyseal
growth plate for lengthening of the bone-
plate is hyaline cartilage (endochondral
ossification).
Bone Cells- 1) Osteogenic cells
(osteoprogenitor cells)- Stem cells that
differentiate into bone and cartilage cells.
In the endosteum and inner layer of the
periosteum.
2) Osteoblasts- Bone-forming cells.
Nonmitotic. Synthesize matrix. Secrete
osteocalcin, a hormone that helps to
stimulate a fight or flight response. It
stimulates insulin secretion, increases
insulin sensitivity in adipocytes and limits
adipose tissue growth.
3) Osteocytes- Osteoblasts trapped in the
matrix they secreted. Found in the lacunae
(interconnected by canaliculi). Contribute
to homeostatic bone response by either
resorbing or depositing matrix. Also
regulate bone remodeling.
4) Osteoclasts- Bone-dissolving cells.
Derived from red marrow stem cells
(produce blood cells). Formed by the
fusion of several stem cells. Very large (up
to 150 µm). Anywhere from 3 or 4 nuclei
to 50. Used for repair and remodeling of
bone (along with osteoblasts).
Matrix- Organic and inorganic matter.
Organic matter is synthesized by
osteoblasts. Collagen and protein-
carbohydrate (glycoprotein) complexes
(i.e. glycosaminoglycans [GAGs],
proteoglycans and other glycoproteins).
Inorganic matter is 85% hydroxyapatite,
10% calcium carbonate and smaller
amounts of Mg, Na, K, F, SO4-, CO3-, OH-.
Bones are slightly flexible due to collagen
content.
Compact Bone- Nutrient (Volkmann)
canals, also known as perforating holes,
are atomic arrangements in cortical
(compact) bones. Nutrient canals are
inside osteons. The Haversian canals,
interconnecting the latter with each other
and the periosteum. They usually run at
obtuse angles to the Haversian canals and
contain anastomosing vessels between
Haversian capillaries. Nutrient canals are
any of the small channels in the bone that
transmit blood vessels from the
periosteum into the bone and that
communicate with the Haversian canals.
The perforating canals provide energy and
nourishing elements for osteons.
Inside the compact bone is a system called
the Haversian Canal System for passage of
blood vessels within the bone.
Spongy Bone- Slivers called spicules and
trabeculae (a thin plate or layer of tissue).
Covered by endosteum and the spaces are
filled with bone marrow. The trabeculae
develop along the bone’s lines of stress.
Most resorption of bone comes from
spongy bone.
Bone Marrow- Red (myeloid tissue) and
yellow (fat) which is derived from red
marrow in adults.
Formation of bone is called OSSIFICATION.

Skull bones do not have growth plates.

Rather, they form from ossification of a
connective tissue membrane
(intramembranous ossification).
1) Mesenchyme condenses into a soft
sheet of tissue with blood vessels (the
membrane). Mesenchymal cells
become osteoblasts that secrete
osteoid tissue.
2) Calcium phosphate and other
minerals attach to the collagen fibers
to harden the matrix. Osteoblasts
become trapped in their own matrix
and become osteocytes.
 3) More mesenchyme condenses and
forms a fibrous periosteum.
Trabeculae in spongy bone form.
4) Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum
deposit layers of bone, fill in the
trabecular spaces and create compact
bone on each side and thicken the
bone as well.

Endochondral Ossification- Within hyaline

cartilage. It begins in the 6th week of fetal
development and stops between 18 and 21
years. Most bones develop in this process.
1) Mesenchyme develops into hyaline
cartilage covered with a fibrous
perichondrium where bone will
eventually develop. It thickens.
2) In a primary ossification center in the
middle of the cartilage, chondrocytes
begin to die and the walls between
them calcify. The perichondrium
stops producing chondrocytes and
 produces osteoblasts that deposit a
thin layer of bone. The
perichondrium is now a periosteum.
3) Osteoclasts enter with the blood and
digest calcified tissue in the shaft
forming a primary marrow cavity.
Osteoblasts arrive and deposit layers
of bone lining the cavity which
thickens the shaft. Cartilage towards
each end of the bone dies and
osteoclasts dissolve calcified cartilage
remnants causing enlargement of the
marrow cavity. The region of
transition from cartilage top bone at
each end is the metaphysis.
Chondrocyte death occurs in the
 epiphysis creating a secondary
ossification center.
4) The secondary ossification center
hollows out and forms a secondary
marrow cavity in the epiphysis. This
expands in all directions.
5) In infancy and childhood, the
epiphyses fill with spongy bone.
Hyaline cartilage is on the bony ends
and the epiphyseal plate (the growth
zone for bones until adulthood).
6) Between 18 and 21 (approximately),
all remaining cartilage in the plate is
consumed and the growth plate
closes.
Bone Growth and Remodeling- In adult
life, bone undergoes remodeling, in
which resorption of old or damaged bone
takes place using osteoclasts on the same
surface where osteoblasts lay new bone
to replace that which is resorbed. Injury,
exercise, and other activities lead to
remodeling. The process replaces
approximately 10% of the skeleton each
year. Wolff’s Law of Bone states that the
architecture of a bone is determined by
the mechanical stresses placed on it, so it
adapts to withstand that stress.
Mineral Deposition and Resorption-
Mineral resorption is the process of
dissolving bone. This releases minerals
into the blood for use elsewhere.
Osteoclasts secrete HCl at a pH of 4
which dissolves the bone and it also
secretes a protease to dissolve the
collagen of the matrix.
Calcitriol- a form of vitamin D that acts as
a hormone to raise blood calcium
concentration. 1) It increases calcium
absorption by the small intestine. 2) It
increases calcium resorption from the
skeleton by stimulating a chemical
messenger called RANKL which
stimulates stem cells to differentiate into
osteoclasts. 3) It weakly promotes
reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys.
Calcitonin- produced by c (clear) cells of
the thyroid gland. It is secreted when
blood calcium levels are too high. It
inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates
osteoblasts. Important in children and
weak in adults.
Parathyroid Hormone-secreted by
parathyroid glands when blood calcium is
low.

Raises blood calcium by four procedures:

1) Binds to receptors on osteoblasts so
they secrete RANKL which increases
the osteoclast population.
2) Promotes calcium reabsorption by the
kidneys while it increases phosphate
excretion by the kidneys.
3) Promotes the final step of calcitriol
synthesis in the kidneys which
enhances the calcium-raising effect of
calcitriol.
4) Inhibits collagen synthesis by
osteoblasts which inhibits bone
deposition.
Phosphate Homeostasis- Calcitriol raises
phosphate levels increasing its
absorption in the small intestine.