Fashions of the 1960's - Mods, Hippies, and

the Youth Culture

Source: Photo by Jemsweb 1968

Fashions of the 1960's reflected youth. From the child-like short skirts of the mid 60's to the
costume type outfits of the hippies, clothing took on new lines, color, and a reflection of vibrant
optimism mixed with an idealistic yearning for a new egalitarian society.
The introduction of The Pill encouraged women to seek a new kind of freedom. The Civil Rights
Act of 1964 increased interest in African culture as well as interest in other ethnic groups.
Western youth no longer saw themselves as a homogenized whole, but as a collection of tribes
with a wide variety of interests and self created roles.
The 1960's was a time of social and cultural change, due in large part, to population
demographics. According to the US Census Bureau, 36% of the US population was under 18 in
1960. A youth movement was underway.
The youthful population of the 1960's wore short skirts, geometric prints, and bright colors. From
the casual sophistication of the early 60's, to the Pop Art and Op Art influences of the Mods,
dress styles went through radical changes. Women had never shown so much skin. Men grew
their hair long. Young people rejected traditional clothing until second half of the decade, a kind
of style anarchy created a new Bohemian look introduced by the hippie movement. To the right,
a bride's mini dress flies in the face of tradition, her bouquet a simple handful of daisies.

Jackie Kennedy
Source: US archives

Early 60's Fashion Icons

Post war designer Emilio Pucciintroduced tapered Capri pants, and new lightweight clothing
that was perfect for travel. His wrinkle-free silk jersey made in bold colors and vibrant color
combinations created a new casual style with a youthful appeal.
Jackie Kennedy. The youthful first lady presented herself with a natural, yet sophisticated style
in a manner that was classically simple. Mixing Parisian couture and a breezy, athletic American
style, Jackie Kennedy favored boat-neck tops, trousers, and sleeveless dresses. Her formal attire
lost the fussy look of the past, leaning toward clean lines and bright colors.
Audrey Hepburn, the muse ofHerbert de Givenchy, became a fashion icon influential to this
day. She was tall and thin following an era when the feminine ideal was curvy and robust. In her
flat shoes and dancer's stance, she created a youthful new look without flash ornamentation that
relied on a natural grace as depicted in her filmsSabrina and Breakfast at Tiffany's.
Twiggy, a fashion model and muse for Mary Quant became a hugely famous figure in the early
to mid 60's. Thin to the point of emaciation, her androgynous appeal became the slouchy, big-
eyed portrait of a modern girl. Her short boyish hair, and exaggerated eye make up gave her a
unique look recognisable to this day. (Twiggy appears in the vido above)
Jean Shrimpton, named Model of the Year by Glamour Magazine in 1963 was known for her
long legs, pouty lips, and staight hair with bangs.

Carnaby Street Scene

Source: Photo by PD Tillman 1969

Girl in mini skirt, patterned tights, and ribbed top

Source: H C Shannon

Mary Quant and the London Fashion Scene

A new affluence combined with affordable tuition allowed more kids than ever to attend college.
The egalitarian influence of the newly educated lower class mixed with the concept of the shared
hardships during and following World War II, led to a youth movement no longer led by the
elite. Young people rejected the snobbery of couture, and the restrictive conservation of the post
war years.
In the Chelsea area of London, a haunt for artists and Bohemians, the Beatnik trends of the
1950's informed a look based on dancers' clothing, including short skirts, tights, and flat shoes.
Carnaby Street, a fashionable shopping district in London, hosted the emergence of new,
independent boutiques that focused on bold new styles.
In 1955, Mary Quant opened her clothing shop called Bazaar, offering updated traditional styles
and an informal shopping experience in a party-like atmosphere. Designing clothes that offered
greater ease of movement, Mary Quant introduced simple tunic style dresses that rejected the
structured tailoring of the fashion establishment.
She featured jewelry created by art students in radically new designs.
Her mini skirt was offered to young working women to enable them to run for the bus. And
when gartered hose did not work with the short hemlines, she sold dancers' tights, then followed
up with colored tights procured from theatrical manufacturers. Bright colors and fabric patterns
taken from children's wear mixed with bold geometric prints, puffed caps, and knee high boots to
create a modern new look - Mod style.

Bell Bottoms

Source: Photo by Miie Powell

The Kinks have a bit of fun with fashion

1960's Fashion and The Abolishment of Dress Codes
In Britain, young working class men began to adopt historical clothing based on Edwardian
designs. From Edward VII's nickname, the Teddy Boys wore long, fitted jackets with velvet
collars, brocade vests, and drainpipe trousers. Mods wore tight fitting suits, grew their hair out
like the Beatles and zipped around town on motor scooters. Rockers based their style on an
American James Dean look with leather jackets and motor cycles.
Young men and women began to reject the dress codes of a conservative past when the elite
establishment ruled fashion. People no longer dressed according to social position or time of day.
And while the British dressed up, Americans dressed down. Jeans, once the uniform of cowboys
and farmers, became the symbol of a new laid back kind of freedom. College students who no
longer saw themselves as an elite class dressed for the common cause, breaking down social
position identified by manner of dress.
Jeans became the signature clothing item of the youth movement. The once plain work garment
evolved into sailor style bell bottoms that came, no longer just in blue denim, but in a rainbow of
colors, often featuring embroidery and appliqued designs.

Janis Joplin
Source: By Patrick Pearce

The Hippie Movement and Fashion

In the Haight - Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a group of young professionals, artists,
and musicians began to adapt a newBohemian life style. Like theAesthetics of the 19th century,
the new Bohemians rejected the dehumanizing effects of mass production and consumerism, as
well as the roles dictated by society.
Embracing an alternative way of living,the early hippies dressed in theatrical costumes, and
recycled clothing, often based on historic costume and folk dress. Wearing vintage clothes, or
remaking garments out of old fabric, the hippies created a unique look based on individuality,
creativity, and fantasy.
They incorporated ethnic fashions and military surplus into curious combinations. Gypsy scarves
and skirts, Middle Eastern kaftans,traditional African garments and fabrics, Indian prints, Native
American influences mixed with the fringe jackets of American pioneers to create an
unstructured look that was both exotic and frivolous.
The whimsical independence of hippie style threatened the fashion establishment. Men grew
their hair long. Women could no longer be told what to wear. Social position no longer dictated
how a person dressed.
While hippie style introduced a new, ecological sensibility, the style eventually went
mainstream. Hippie type clothes were worn by the wealthy elite and, eventually, became a mass
produced fashion trend that went against everything the original hippies stood for.

Swirling colors, crazy outfits and drugs

Source: Photo by Zours

Psychodelic Style
The use of drugs introduced an alternative perception. LSD created a heightened appreciation of
color, texture, and line that informed fashion of the late 1960's. Colors bled into other colors and
the geometric shapes of the early decade melted into amoeba patterns, vibrant swirls, and Indian
paisley.
An essential component of the hippie style of the second half of the 1960's, psychodelic fashion
often mixed with the tribal and folk costume clothing of the Haight - Ashbury scene. African
patterns and clothing design, popularized after the Civil rights Act, introduced tie-dyed fabrics
and loose, comfortable dashikis.
A stereotype emerged - a young person in an Afro hair style, wearing a tie-dyed shirt, peace
symbol, and bell bottomed jeans, the quintessential mass marketed hippie, a look that pops up
every Halloween.
While psychodelia quickly lost steam due to over saturation, the Bohemian fashion trend of the
hippies made frequent comebacks that still influences fashion today. The long hippie style
peasant skirts led to the maxi skirt, a short lived ankle length hemline that quickly died out, but
brokered an end to the dictation of hemlines by the fashion establishment.

Woman with an Afro hair style

Source: uploaded by Marcel flaubert

Hair, Makeup, and Jewlry of the 1960's

Hair
The early 60's saw bouffant hairdos that were less exaggerated than in the late 50's. A soft,
slightly pouffed bob, or shoulder length flip was teased out at the tip for volume. Even the Mods,
with their sleek hairdos kept a bit of lift in the geometric cut bobs like the one worn by Mary
Quant.
A smooth sleekness gave way to long, straight hair, worn with or without bangs or in a center
part. Wavy haired and curly haired young women had their hair straightened or ironed it flat at
home.
Hippie style encouraged a natural look that included long, straight hair as well as long, curly or
wavy hair. Very curly African hair was allowed to grow in a natural fashion, cut slightly in a
rounded form into an Afro. Young men grew their hair long, or allowed curls to grow naturally.
Makeup
Makeup ran the gamut from the minimalist cosmetic style worn by Audrey Hepburn, to khol
rimmed eyes of the Mods. While 50's makeup highlighted the lips, makeup of the 60's paid
special attention to the eyes with large false eye lashes, and the exaggerated eye makeup worn by
Twiggy.
Hippies generally eschewed cosmetics, but enjoyed face painting for special events, displaying
images of daisies, rainbows, and other natural themes on their cheeks or foreheads. Body
painting turned the entire body into a canvas. Unlike the tattoos of today, body art of the 60's
washed off.
Jewelry
Jewelry went from the conservative, lady-like pearl (or faux pearl) necklaces of the 50's toward a
variety of styles. Mods preferred obvious costume jewelry made of chunky plastics in bright
colors.
As the more Bohemian look of the late 1960's went mainstream, an eclectic variety of jewelry
included long beaded necklaces, stacked silver bangles, woven leather bracelets, large stone
rings, beaded head bands, hooped and intricate dangle earrings. Flowers were often worn instead
of jewelry, or worn in a wreath on top of the head. Daisies were the predominant flower choice.

Dansko Women's Pro Starburst Clog,Brown,38 EU / 7.5-8 B(M) US

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Dansko Women's Pro Earthybuck Clog,Oatmeal Embroider,42 EU / 11.5-12 B(M) US

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MIA Women's Stockholm Clog,Brown,7 M US

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Shoes of the 1960's

Young women of the early 1960's wore flat shoes, and low heeled pumps. Later, knee high boots
came into the mix, appearing in vinyl as well as leather. The tall, thin boots came in light shades
and in colors. Later, wider, lower cut boots were called Go-Go Boots and were often featured on
popular dance shows on TV.
Young men wore low cut boots with Cuban heels, and zipped or elastic sides. Rockers and
Americans who favored Western styles wore cowboy boots or motorcycle boots.
The hippies often went without shoes at all. Sandals came in Gladiator styles and flip-flops.
Huarches, a Mexican sandal with a woven leather top which had been popular for some years
was commonly worn by hippie types. Boots were popular as well as clogs and Doctor Scholls
wooden soled sandals.

Patchwork long silk blend sari wrap skirt by Jedzebel PW121

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1960's Style Today

The whimsical freedoms of 1960's styles still influence the world of fashion. The
comfort and freedom of movement that was popularized then is a concept that
never really went away. Any day, you can see girls in mini skirts and knee high
boots. Clogs have become even more popular and come in many styles. And the
Bohemian style of the hippie movement has made several comebacks which
include psychodelic floral designs and the kaftans that were featured in the 2012
Spring Fashion Week.

Modern fashion shows and collections reflect the alternative styles of the 1960's,
presenting a myriad of hemlines, trouser types, color blends, and clothing
shapes.

Women's Fashions of the 1950's

 Fashion History - Women's Clothing of the 1950's
Overview of ladies' clothing of the 1950's, typical fashions of the 50's, how
women lived during that time. From the grand skirts of the New Look to the
new love for everything casual, the 1950's celebrated the hour glass figure,
the idealized housew
70

FASHION LOOK BOOKS AND YOUTH CULTURE

FROM THE MOST EXCITING DECADE OF LAST
CENTURY


YOUTH CULTURES AND FASHION LOOK

BOOKS IN THE 1970s
Over the last month, a series of post about youth culture
and fashion been published, these are the overview and
recommended reading.
The 1970s were probably the most exiting decade of the last century, both in politics,
youth culture, music and fashion. It was the decade we got introduced to a digital new
future, the first home video games as Atari became a youngster biggest wish for x-mas,
all we wanted was a digital watch and the electronic pocket calculators made math easy
at school. During 1970s, we experienced the flower power culture, in California a group
of surfers named z-boys revolutionized skateboarding, and up in the mountains of
Yosemite another group of youngsters invented modern sports climbing. They were
called dirtbags and should become heroes and icons for people who wanted something
else out of life than a regular nine to five job.

THE ANTI-ESTABLISHMENT PUNK LOOK

BOOKS
In New York and London was a sub culture developing at the same time; a movement
culture should be one of the most important happening for music, DIY fashion and
creative communication in pop history. It exploded in 1975 when the Sex pistols
discovered by journalist and overnight became punk music and attitude the most talked
about issue. It was impossible to not have an opinion about punk, those over twenty-two
did not understand it and those under soon got a safety-pin through their nose, a black
leather jackets and spiky hear. One of the punk bands should become not only the most
important group musically, but fashion wise; they called themselves the Clash. Never in
history did music mean more for fashion than in the 1970s, punk changed fashion
forever and the Clash took it into the future with their DIY style, stencil art shirts and
juxtapose of rockabilly, Teds, punk and mods.
NEW-WAVE AND THE MOD REVIVAL
During the punk years, another new musical direction evolved, new-wave   with bands
such as Joy division and Magazine created a style that was inspired by graphic design,
art and minimalism. The band the Jam should be one of the influential groups for the
mod revival happening at the end of 1970s. 1970-1980 was another youth culture
developing into a massive trend as disco music, night clubbing and cocaine created the
most hedonistic sub culture into pop history. However, in 1980 was the party over as
AIDS became the most talked about and deadly disease for disco party culture.

1970s YOUTH CULTURE AND FASHION

LOOK BOOKS PUBLISHED 
1970s BIKER CULTURE AND FASHION
LOOK BOOKS

In 1953 came the film The Wild One starring Marlon Brand as the rebellious, Triumph-
riding Johnny Strabler. The Wild One became a landmark for American motorcycle
culture. The rebellious style was soon being a symbol of freedom, living outside of
civilization riding the highways across USA. The film Easy Rider made tremendous
impact on the young generation, it came with a soundtrack featuring songs by the Byrds
and Steppenwolf, and their rough music fitted these bikers uniform of black leather,
boots and denim jeans.
1970S HIPPIE’S MOVEMENT AND FASHION
LOOK BOOKS

Hippies as a movement actually started in the early 1960s and exploded with summer of
love in 1967; the colorful juxtapose of hippie fashion led by rock idols such as Jimi
Hendrix and Janis Joplin expresses individuality with feathers, fringe, beads, tie-dye,
and a rainbow of eclectic ethnic influences. The link between music and fashion has
always been strong, nevertheless; it grew even stronger with the hippies and their
playgrounds; the festivals.
1970s CALIFORNIA DIRTBAGS YOUTH
CULTURE AND FASHION LOOK BOOKS

In the 1970s at the same time as the skateboarders pushing their limits using the dried-
out pools in L.A as the playground, another group of young people from California
escaped the city heat and headed for the mountains. These youngsters should soon be
named dirtbags. They lived in their cars, tents or next to the campfire and when the
money ended they sold whatever they had to focus on one thing climbing. Their
lifestyles made them legends in the United States and beyond. Their lives were full of
camaraderie, freedom and nonconformity; they climbed hard and most spectacular
routes with the minimal use of gear and revolutionized climbing.
1970s CALIFORNIA SKATEBOARDING
REVOLUTION AND FASHION LOOK BOOKS

In the summer of 1975 came an extreme dry and long period without any rain in   Los
Angeles, California, combined with the warm climate it forced the government to make a
water restriction.  Most pool owners  forced to close their pool, and it wasn’t lengthy until
hundreds of swimming pools across L.A fell prey and was drained to conserve precious
water. A group of surfers known as Z-boys crew should revolutionize and create modern
skateboarding one day in 1977, his name was Tony Alva.
1970s PUNK YOUTH CULTURE AND FASHION
LOOK BOOKS

In 1975 came punk one of most important youth cultural movement since the 1950s, in
only 18 hectic months punk should change music, fashion and politics.  The punk
movement became incredible large in America and England and was the young
generation voice against the established, bands as Sex Pistols manage to shake up
England manage to shake up England and divided the country.
1970s FASHION LOOK BOOKS THE ONLY
BAND THAT EVER MATTERED, THE CLASH

The Clash was larger than punk, more fashionable than the Sex Pistols, and took the
best of punk; juxtapose of reggae, working class protest songs and Spanish guitars.
Their DIY style of fashion and music changed the attitude of rock and roll forever the
night as Paul Simonon smashing his Fender Precision bass against the stage at The
Palladium in New York City on 21 September 1979 during the Clash Take the Fifth US
tour; their musical style, featuring elements of funk, soul, jazz ska, pop, soul, jazz,
rockabilly, and reggae with lyrics that brilliantly described the life of streets and fear of a
young lost.
1970s MODS YOUTH CULTURE AND FASHION
LOOK BOOKS

The second wave of mod culture also named mod revival happened in the late 1970s. It
started in UK with thousands of mods attending scooter rallies in places like the Isle of
Wight and Scarborough. At the same time, new-wave band such as the Jam became
new indie music stars, and the most important cause for the mod revival were the British
film Quadrophenia released in 1979. It became massive among the younger.  People
started wearing the stylish 1960s mod fashion as they were tired of punks, black
leather, spikes and DIY tee.
1970s NEW YORK UNDERGROUND, DISCO,
YOUTH CULTURE AND FASHION LOOK
BOOKS 

In New York juxtapose of culture, nationality and language made young people pulse to
beat of the music; small clubs appeared such as Circus, Xenon and Paradise Garage in
1976.  Disco was made for dancing, and the traditional 7-inches vinyl grew to 12 inches
as DJs mixed songs to make dancers absorb with the beat. The Gay movement and
women’s liberation progressed, made people open up and proud. Village people, Grace
Jones, Gloria Gaynor, Chaka Khan and Bee Gees made disco popularity grew and
together with one of the greatest musicals from last century Saturday Night fever made
it massive. DJs and doormen became brand-new stars, and club cultures grow strong,
when Studio 54 opens their doors in 1977, it soon became the playground for
celebrities. The party was wild; however, nothing lasts forever; the terror of AIDS made
people scare, and the club closed in 1980; the decade was over.  Sign up and get
reminded of my latest post on sustainable fashion design by buddha jeans.
POST, RESEARCH, DESIGN AND FASHION LOOK BOOKS KENNETH BUDDHA
JEANS
 1970s BIKER CULTURE AND FASHION LOOK BOOKS
 THE RAMONES WEREN’T AN ART BAND; THEY WERE TRYING TO BE HEAVY-
METAL BUBBLEGUM, FASHION LOOKBOOKS FROM THE 1970S
 70′s original environmentalists style and fashion
 DISCO IS THE EPITOME OF ALL THAT’S WRONG WITH WESTERN CIVILIZATION,
1970s FASHION LOOK BOOKS
 James Dean the greatest denim jean’s icon

80’S

Fashion in the 1980s - Introduction

Fashion in the 1980s was bold and glitzy. Teenagers no longer dictated fashion trends -
the baby boom generation was getting older and richer and demanded more glamorous,
upmarket fashion.

Fashion in the 1980s rejected the non-materialist `hippie' values that had inspired
fashion in the 1970s. Earning big money and spending it conspicuously, was the focus
of the decade for many Australians. Some people chose to wear fashion that promoted
materialist values and flaunted their newly-acquired wealth and social status.

For people not overflowing with cash, credit cards became a popular way of acquiring
goods. As a result, expensive designer labels became increasingly sought-after and
brand name sporting goods were popular.

Other fashion styles, like punk, emerged as a reaction against both the hippie values of
the past decades and the materialist values of the current decade.

Fashion and popular culture in the 1980s

Various music stars influenced fashion trends throughout the 1980s. Popular American
singer Madonna introduced risqué trends like visible bra straps and wearing underwear
as outerwear. After Michael Jackson wore a studded black leather jacket in his hugely
successful video clip Thriller (1982), many young people were seen sporting a
similarstyle.

Film and television had a similar impact. The movie Flashdance (1983) popularised leg
warmers and ripped, off-the-shoulder t-shirts. The wide-shouldered suits from the
American soap opera Dynasty soon filtered into mainstream fashion, while the over-the-
top series Dallas promoted obviousdisplays of wealth like heavy, glitzy jewellery and
sparkling, sequined clothing.

The 1980s power suit

Stiff, sharply-cut suits with wide shoulders were popular with businessmen and women
in the 1980s. Power suits were designed to make the wearer look successful and
authoritative.

Women had been awarded equal pay to men in 1972. By the 1980s, many women felt a
greater sense of authority and control in the workplace and were keen to work their way
into senior positions. For some, wearing a masculine, wide-shouldered suit was a way
of expressing their new-found sense of power and asserting their equality with men.
Suits were usually teamed with conservative blouses in plain colours.

See Image 1

Accessories in the 1980s

Throughout the 1980s, the emphasis on flashy, expensive dressing extended to fashion
accessories. Women expressed an image of wealth and success through shiny
costume jewellery like large faux-gold earrings, pearl necklaces and clothing covered
with sequins and diamantes. Buttons, belts, bags and shoes were also often metallic
and showy.

Princess Diana - a 1980s fashion icon

In 1981, Prince Charles of Wales married Diana Spencer, a young English nanny.
Throughout the 1980s, Diana was transformed from a shy princess into a fashion icon -
closely followed by the press and frequently appearing on the covers of women's
magazines. All over the world, women copied Diana's ever-changing clothing and hair
styles. In the 1980s, Diana often wore lace collars, blazers, pearl necklaces and hats.

See Image 2

The fitness craze in the 1980s

Exercise played an important part in the lives of many Australians throughout the 1980s.
In a bid to increase their fitness and improve their looks, people began jogging, going to
the gym, playing tennis and doing yoga, dance and aerobics classes.
A huge range of specially-designed sportswear soon emerged, in bright colours like
royal blue, fuchsia and emerald green. These clothes were made from stretchy,
synthetic fabrics, like lycra, that were easy to care for. Headbands and legwarmers
completed the look.

The comfort and convenience of gym wear provided great inspiration to mainstream
fashion and sporting clothes were soon transformed into everyday fashion. Australian
singer Olivia Newton-John also helped popularise the style with her hit song Let's Get
Physical.

Hairstyles in the 1980s

Hair in the 1980s was generally bouffant and heavily styled. This was in contrast to the
long, straight, natural styles worn in the 1970s. Curly hair was all the rage - those who
were not naturally endowed with curls could go to the hairdresser and get a permanent
wave, or perm. Some people spent a great amount of time taming their hair into the
latest style, with the help of styling products like mousse and hairspray.

Punk in the 1980s

Punk fashion was a non-conformist, rebellious style that emerged in the late 1970s and
gained momentum throughout the 1980s. Punk was a reaction against the idealistic
peace-loving hippie era, as well as a rejection of the consumerist, money-obsessed
culture of the 1980s.

Inspired by rebellious English bands like the Sex Pistols, punk fashion was loud, angry,
aggressive and designed to shock. Typical punk fashion included tight black jeans, a
ripped, tattered T-shirt held together with safety pins and heavy Doc Martens boots.
Punk hair was traditionally cut short for both men and women - a reaction against the
long, sleek hairstyles of the hippie era. Punk hair was often dyed a vibrant colour, or
styled into a spiky Mohawk.

Punk fashion also featured a range of silver metal jewellery like studded belts, spiked
collars and studs worn in the ear or nose.

Fashion in the 1990s

Fashion in the early 1990s is sometimes too hilarious for words. But I
graduated high school in 1996. It makes me smile to see 90s styles
that I thought would never come back in a million years return to
the streets today.

Who remembers pegging Skidz pants bought from Merry Go Round?

We had to wear Air Jordans, too. Our t-shirts were big and our shorts
were extra long. The tapered pants were a big deal. If they weren’t
tapered, then you had to taper them yourself with a fold and a
couple flips.

Boys and girls both wore baseball caps in many different ways.
Mullets were stylish for a couple years and every sweater had a
turtleneck under it.

But then grunge happened. Suddenly every thrift store in town

couldn’t keep a flannel shirt in stock to save their backs. Teens were
digging through dad’s box of old clothes to get their hands on some
authentic hole-ridden jeans to wear over top of their long john
stockings. Barbers nearly went out of business because no one under
17 got their hair cut any more (OK, we may be exaggerating just
a little.)
Also in the early nineties fashions worn by hop hop artists were
becoming increasingly mainstream. And because of the growing
popularity of hip hop music among the suburban community, urban
styles were seen everywhere, not just in the big city. By the late
1990s hip hop style was arguably the most popular among young
people.

Starting in the mid-90s, industrial and military styles crept into

mainstream fashion. People were finding any way to make a fashion
accessory out of a piece of machinery. Camouflage pants were
ironically worn by anti-war protesters.

By the late 90s, rave culture swept through and people were looking
for clothes that were more glamorous again. The grungy styles of the
early nineties were old hat. Looking rich was cool again. Name brand
designers were back in a big way.

Interestingly enough, late 90s clothing styles are not too drastically
different than they are today. In the 1990s, musicians had a much
greater influence on what young people wore than designers. All a
kid in Kansas had to do was turn on MTV for the latest east and west
coast styles of the moment.

If you want to read more about a certain year, click on the plus sign
next to the year below.

In 1990, recession-weary shoppers chose to spend money on clothes

that would stay in style as long as possible. That meant that the wild
shapes and colors of recent years needed to be toned down.

The jacket remained the key to daytime dress. A trend setter in the
jacket trend was Chanel, who introduced loose versions of the
famous Chanel jacket slit vertically at the hem. Some were bright
colors like hot pink, tangerine and white. Other leaders were Giorgio
Armani, and Calvin Klein.

1990 Fashion: Vogue Magazine Cover

The biggest difference in 1990 fashion was an explosion of color,

with alarming arrays of bright yellow, orange, red, purple and green.
Neon bright colors could be obvious as the primary color of a pair of
pants — or they could be subtle as the color of a pair of shoestrings.

Brocade, embroidered satins and laces were important, but the most
popular style of eveningwear was the slender black dress, worn quite
short with black stockings and high-heeled shoes.

In the winter of 1990 the short, swingy coat was worn in full force.
Women loved how racy the coat looked over short skirts. Casual
styles, such as anoraks and parkas were prominently seen in cold-
weather climates.
A revival of the interest in made-to-order clothing occurred in 1990
when women realized that it wasn’t more expensive than ready-to-
wear clothing. This surprised many fashion analysts and drew other
designers to New York City, following the success of Arnold Scaasi.

Fashion in 1991

By 1991, the well-known and well-established designers were in their

50′s and 60′s. Geoffrey Beene, regarded by many as the most
prestigious designer in New York City, has been the head of his own
fashion company for 28 years. James Galanos, whose headquarters is
in Los Angeles, has been a fashion leader for 40 years.

Oscar de la Renta Plaid (1991)

Designers everywhere focused on the jacket as the key to

contemporary dressing. Denim jackets and leather biker’s styles
appealed to younger people. For the sophisticated woman, there
were long, gently curved jackets from major de signers, such as
Giorgio Armani and Karl Lagerfeld of Chanel, as well as less
expensive versions without
designer labels.

I wore a long, green, army style Eddie Bauer jacket.

A standard way for women to dress for the office was to wear one of
these longer jackets over a skirt that stopped short of the knees. But
all kinds of combinations were possible, such as jackets with
trousers, leggings, or tights. Jackets with shorts also gained
acceptance in some areas for more formal daytime wear, as women
wore shorts to offices during the hot summer weather.

For women whose lives did not require formal dressing, including
most students, T-shirts, sweat shirts, sweat pants, and jeans were
the rule. Calvin Klein, Donna Karan, and other major designers
introduced special jeans collections to appeal to these women and
to
those who dressed informally during the weekend.

The special weekend-wear category was not limited to basic blue

jeans. Designers offered white and black jeans, stone washed, and
beige styles. Cutoffs and jackets to match appeared in stores, as did
overalls and skirts, both short and long.

Skirt length moved into fashion consciousness again. Since 1988,

short skirts were considered the standard, though many women wore
their hems at midcalf. Designers everywhere in the fashion world
introduced some longer styles into their collections. The consensus
among fashion leaders was that long and short hemlines could
coexist. Many designers claimed that they already did.

Plaids made a strong fall fashion entry, spurred by Oscar de la

Renta’s suits, coats, and even furs worked in plaid patterns. They
were shown at his Paris debut in March. De la Renta was the first
American designer to join the French ready-to-wear shows.

Fashion leadership still remained in the hands of ready-to-wear

designers in 1991. But the couture, or made-to-order branch of the
fashion industry, based in Paris, showed renewed vigor. Designers
such as Lagerfeld at Chanel, with his denim and motorcycle jackets,
and Claude Montana, who introduced space age looks at the House
of Lanvin, revitalized couture fashion during the year. But all the
couture houses also had ready-to-wear collections that were less
expensive than made-to-order clothes.

In 1993, there was a brief flurry of interest in bell-bottom pants and

platform shoes. But most fashions presented by the world’s leading
designers fizzled and failed to affect the ready-to-wear market.

For example, top designers had successfully reintroduced the long

skirt in 1991, but in 1993 a significant segment of the fashion-
conscious public rejected the long skirt. Stored reported that calf
and ankle-length skirt sold well, but women simply weren’t wearing
them. Women frequently chose short skirts or pants instead.

1993 Fashion: Sept. Vogue Magazine Cover

It was in 1993 that the fashion world began to lose touch with what
women actually wanted to wear. The extravagance and polish of
fashion shows approached the best Broadway production. Some
designers introduced styles as diverse as ancient Greece and
Victorian England, but these clothes were unsuited to the electronic
age.

Designers turned to top models such as Kate Moss, Claudia Schiffer

and Christy Turlington, but observers noted that the top models look
great in anything, but “normal” women wearing the same style
found it difficult to achieve the same effect.

A surprising success in Fall 1993 was the long, black, fitted winter
coat.

Teenagers everywhere were seen growing long hair and wearing

tattered flannel shirts a la Pearl Jam and Nirvana. Even the
preppiest kids were sporting the new “grunge” look. Parents
everywhere shook their heads in disbelief, thinking they had
successfully shook the sloppy 1970s style.

The ball cap was a popular accessory in 1993. The bill was typically
bent modestly and the bill rested above the hairline.

Big, fat cotton t-shirts had completely replaced the skinny, tight
blended t-shirts. In 1993, 80s t-shirts were not ironic, just out of
style.
Green canvas, military style jackets were commonly seen, and Nike
Air Jordans were the tennis shoe of choice.

Fashion in 1994

In early 1994, the “grunge” style had completely taken over the
American fashion world. A style derived from clothes worn by
Seattle rock musicians, grunge was an assortment of jackets, vests,
sweaters, skirts, scarves, and footwear that resembled hiking boots.

1994 Fashion: Kurt Cobain and the grunge style

Marc Jacobs developed a grunge collection. Gianni Versace did too,

but women found themselves hard pressed to pay designer prices for
what they thought resembled second-hand clothes. While grunge
remained popular with the younger crowd in 1994, women over 30
were unimpressed.

By the end of 1994, women were wearing high heels and dresses
made of satin, metallic or other high shine fabrics. Feathers and
fringe, beads and sequins adorned clothes that hugged the body.
1972 glam was back!
Comfort persisted in the clothes women wore in their downtime.
Tights made of spandex, t-shirts and loose sweaters dominated the
weekend.

Women still found the suit to be the most useful way to dress for the
increasingly faster-paced modern world. Giorgio Armani figured out
ways to tailor clothes that both men and women loved.

As Yves Saint Lauren found out, using real fur was an invitation for
passionate protests from animal rights activists. During his first visit
to the U.S. in 12 years, he was greeted by angry picketers who took
issue with the fox trim on his jackets that were on display at a New
York City Saks Fifth Avenue store.

Fashion in 1995

Men and women did not blindly follow fashion designers in 1995.
Sure, they still dressed up for weddings and special events, but for
the most part everyone wore casual clothes. T-shirts were seen
everywhere.

Women ignored the supposed hemline of the times and interchanged

short and long skirts when they felt like it. Women were less
interested in provocative clothing, trading in sheer fabrics and tall
heels for comfort and freedom. Some women looking to enhance
their curves, however, were quite fond of the push-up bra.
1995 Fashion Magazine Cover (May)

The American fashion buying public had all but lost interest in high
fashion. Designers spent millions on lavish shows, parading
supermodels around in fashions that no common woman would be
able to afford, let alone wear. To the average woman, fashion shows
became something of an amusing novelty and not really something
to be taken seriously.

Expensive labels gave way to practical ones like The Gap. Many cost-
cutting women were getting their clothing from Wal-Mart, K-Mart
and Caldor. They would often “cross shop”, meaning they would get
one or two pieces in an upscale shop, then supplement it with a
cheaper pair of jeans or a sweater.

Almost every designer that made a profit focused on lower-priced

styles. Geoffrey Beene made lower-priced styles for men and women
that were sold in 135 shopping malls.

The “dress for success” style that dominated previous decades

practically disappeared in 1995. Increasingly, companies were
offering “casual Fridays” in which employees were allowed to wear
jeans to work.

And although sportswear had been around for 50 years, designers

like Calvin Klein, Donna Karan and Ralph Lauren were still finding
ways to put a new twist on an old plot.

Fashion in 1997

Popular fashions in 1997 included casual dress at the office and a

return to the styles of the 1970s.

Men, women, children — almost everyone took to wearing baseball

caps in 1997. Bending the bill was necessary, but it was also common
to see people wearing them backwards, or even sideways (in an
ironic sort of way).

1997 Fashion: Vogue Jan. Magazine Cover

Monochromatic shirt and tie combinations kept men’s clothing

subtle. But close-fitting knit tops, flared pant legs and tall platform
shoes reminded us of an era two decades prior.

The fashion industry was shocked by the senseless murder of

Giovanni Versace on July 15.

Interest in fashion, which had peaked in the 1980s, had been waning
for several years. To restore that interest, designers created styles
to fit an increasingly relaxed era.

For women in the workplace, the pants suit replaced, once and for
all, the traditional jacket/skirt combo.

Sportswear like casual jackets, t-shirts, sweatshirts and tennis shoes

(ie: sneakers, trainers) were acceptable for many occasions.

Even for formal settings, elaborate dresses were inappropriate.

Women chose the “little black dress”, with or without subtle
embroidery. Luxury was expressed quietly, with precious fibers like
silk and cashmere.
Surprisingly, fur was making a comeback, despite constant anti-fur
protesting. But it wasn’t the full length coat of yore, the fur was
used more for trim, handbags and casual uses.

A History of Textiles in Egypt 

I. Introduction 
            This paper is about the all-time history of the textile industry in Egypt.
Famous for being one of the most developed ancient civilization, and for being under
the influence of various foreign civilizations throughout its history, Egypt developed a
distinguished textile industry with old tradition and various characteristics. This paper
is to concentrate on political, economic, and social accounts of textile industry in
Egypt, as well as artistic, technological features shown in Egyptian textiles. The
periodization follows: the ancient times refers to 4000 BC to the first century BC; the
Coptic period to the first century to the tenth century, although the chapter which
deals with the Coptic textiles covers until the seventh century; the Islamic times to the
seventh century to eighteenth century; the modern times to the nineteenth century to
this day. 

II. Ancient Textiles 

II.1 Dominance of Flax and Linen 

            Estimated to be cultivated well before 2500 BC, flax was the major textile
produced by the the ancient Egyptians. The annual variety of flax (Linium
usitatissimum), which grows well on sandy soils, was first cultivated, but it was
replaced by the perennial variety (Linium austriacum) around 4000 BC. Egypt
produced most of the flax products of all kinds; the goddess Isis, was worshiped as the
inventor of flax. (1) Considering that Isis, the wife of Osiris (the same rank with
Greek deity Hades) and mother of Horus which was thought to be incarnated by the
pharaoh, is one of the most worshiped deity until the Roman times, the ancient
Egyptians probably regarded linen as an indispensible, important goods in their life.
Moreover, since flax provided Egyptians with not only fibers but also the stem for
basketry and the seeds for extracting oil (2), the utility of flax would have made itself
crucial for everyday life of ancient people. 
            The relics serve as the furthermore evidence of the importance of linen in the
ancient Egypt. The linens in the gable-topped chest which dates back to 1550 to 1295
BC shows that there was variety of linens with different qualities, weaves and usages. 

Figure 1. Gable-topped Chest and linen during Dynasty 18 (3)

            For dressing and outer garment, Egyptians wore a high-quality linen with
superfine weave. For a mattress, long sheet of dark linen with coarser weave was
used. Second, the chest contains large amount of linen only for a dead woman.
Considering that the chest is too austere for the royal's or noble's tomb, the owner of
the tomb would have been from a family with minimum wealth to afford making
tombs (it can be family of artisans, rich farmers or technicians). For this dead body,
the family put more than seventeen yards of linen for her afterlife (4); it shows that
linen was not luxurious commodity but for everyday consumption for all people. 
            The Spanish Wikipedia (article "Indumentaria en el Antiguo Egipto") claims
that the ancient Egyptians used cotton before they began to use linen (5). However,
Robinson says that "the Egyptians appreciated its brilliant, silky, smooth
appearance." (6) Since cotton is indigenous to India and cotton trees could not bear
harsh climate of Mesopotamia, the introduction of cotton cultivation would have not
occurred during the ancient times; thus, cultivation of linen would have been more
feasible, easier choice for the contemporary Egyptians. 
            Wool was regarded impure and animal fur was tabooed (7). Moreover, wool of
that time was not suitable for spinning (8). All these factors gave rise to flax and the
major fiber in the ancient Egypt. 

II.2 Characteristics of Textile Manufacturing 

            Textile production comprises of spinning and weaving, and such process has
been well disclosed and identified through various effort of archaeologists, as can be
seen from the detailedness of today's compiled research results. (see the article
"Weaving Textiles of the ancient Egypt", the article "Dyeing of the Egyptian Textiles"
in the site ) For this reason, this chapter is rather focused on verifying the historical
origin of manufacturing technology including textile production and dying, and
supplementing details not found in the site .> 

II.2.1 Textile Production 

            Weaving was a common phenomenon ever since the world went through the
neolithic era, so most of contemporary human communities must have had at least
basic skill of textile production. However, considering that the place where the oldest
textile of the world is found is Egypt (9), Egypt must have been a pioneering
civilization of textile production in a very advanced level. As a result, according to
this claim, it can be said that Egyptian way of weaving is rather indigenous and local,
and it was at the post of influencing adjacent civilizations including Mesopotamia. 
            However, another source (Wikipedia) claims the oldest textile evidence to be a
piece of linen found in Anatolia, estimated to be made around 7000 BC. It also
describes that flax was imported from the Levant at least around 5500 BC. (In the
Near East, the first cultivation of flax dates back to 8000 BC) (10) To follow this
claim, Egyptian was not a pioneering civilization of weaving technology. As a result,
the ancient Egypt becomes the place where weaving skills were further developed
based on technology and material imported from areas outside, rather than a
pioneering civilization. 
            Nevertheless, no matter what the real origin of Egyptian weaving material and
technology actually is, it is undeniable that Egyptians developed weaving technology
to a degree which could not be emulated by other contemporary civilizations until the
end of ancient era. Much technology improved before the birth of Christ was still
available during the Coptic era. (See chapter III.2.) Also, Egypt met the most of textile
demands of the Roman empire. (See chapter II.2.) 

II.2.2 Dyeing of Textiles 

            The oldest evidence of dyeing is a brownish linen textile found near Tarktan,
which dates back to the Dynasty 1 (11). However, dying is more confidently
confirmed from the time of Dynasty 3 and 4, based on a red textile fragment found in
Meidum (12). The mural from the tomb of a high-ranking official, in which the
Semite women probably of 1900 BC, shows various types of designs and colors of
dyed patterns. (13) 
            There were several methods of dyeing textiles in the ancient times. The
site suggests two ancient methods: a method called "smearing," in which the color is
spread onto the cloth, possibly with the aid of clay, mud, or honey; the other one
called "double dyeing", in which fibers, threads, or cloth were first dyed one color and
then dyed again with a different color to obtain a third color. (14) Another reference
suggests another method called "hand painting", which is regarded to be one of the
oldest, and by which mummy clothes were decorated. Moreover, making red, ocher
(hydrated oxide of iron) mainly was used (15) For blue was indigo. Rich purple was
from cochineal; yellow was from saffron. (16) Surely, dyes in this time were natural,
extracted from brightly colored plants and flowers; the Egyptian hieroglyphs which
describes such process is the clear evidence. (17) 
            The historical origin of dyeing in the ancient Egypt is thought to be the
Arabian merchants who delivered dyeing technology (18) Moreover India was the
pioneer of dyeing which dates back to the third millenium BC.(19) Thus, it is possible
to say that dyeing was introduced to Persia (Mesopotamia in which Arabians lived)
through the trade with India, and Arabian merchants then again introduced the
technology to Phoenicia, and Egypt could finally obtain the technology through trade
with Phoenicia around 3000 BC; the Dynasty 1 in which the oldest evidence of dyeing
was made is around 3100 BC, and the Dynasty 3 in which the confident evidence was
made is around 2600 BC. Also, the Egyptian artifacts found in the Phoenician city of
Byblos date back to the Dynasty 4, which is around 2500 BC (20), which means there
must have been commercial intercourse between the ancient Egypt and Phoenicia at
least before then; not only that, Indigo, an Indian native, was found in Egyptian
clothing dating back to 2500 BC (21). These evidences reinforces the presumption
that the origin of Egyptian dying is around 3000 BC. 
            One thing significant is that Egyptians was the least affirmative in utilizing
dyeing techniques of the four major ancient civilizations; the ancient Egypt was the
last to be aware of dyeing (probably even later than Phoenicians), and linen was more
difficult to be dyed than any other textiles such as wool. 
II.3 Governmental Control on Production 
            The governmental control on production had been imposed throughout entire
Egyptian history. (23) The oldest available evidence are certain documents dating
back to the Ptolemaic times. (24) The Ptolemaic government ordered each
governorate to give a percentage of the fabric and clothes it produced. If the allocated
amount was not met, the government imposed a licencing tax on the
weavers. (25) The Prolemaic state utilized home, public and temple workshops for
textile production; town officials collected yarns from peasants and delivered it to the
weavers who produced the amount ordered by government. Temple workshops
produced byssus (probably linen) and polymita (embroidered ones), which were
renowned for high quality. (26) 
            However, the Ptolemaic dynasty did not monopolized the industry; but the
Roman empire imposed more rigid control over the production. Romans needed great
amount of linen, partly for consistent supply for the Roman army. (27) For private
consumption of luxurious fabrics, some workshops began to specialized in wool
tapestry weaving etc. (But the wool tapestry weaving reached its climax during the
Coptic times.) For everyday consumption, Roman Egypt met most demand of tunic all
over the empire. (28) 
            During both the Ptolemaic and the Roman times, Alexandria was the major
site of production and trade of textiles. Jute, linen, and woolen clothes were produced
and the ports made their export easier. (29)Moreover, since most tapestry workshops
were stationed at Alexandria after the Roman times (30), development of wool
tapestry mainly took place in Alexandria, becoming the cradle for the emergence of
later Coptic textiles. 

II.4 Usage by Various Social Classes 

            In the Ancient times, silk production was not introduced, and the only source
of silk was the Roman empire's trade with the Han dynasty in China. Sericulture has
only been available since the sixth century AD, because China had hidden the secret
of silk production until then. (31) Thus, silk was not available for the royal and noble
people before the Roman occupation, and linen was common for all walks of people
in the ancient Egypt, as can be seen from the murals which depict the pharaoh, the
royal, the nobility, the common and even deities wearing whitewashed (or sometimes
dyed) linen. 
            However, the garments represented social status, although it is questionable
that certain garments were reserved for special social class. (In case of animal fur, the
priests wore it while the others tabooed it and avoided using them for dressing (32);
the crown, a cobra-like garment uraeus and scepter are found only in the depiction of
the pharaoh) 

Figure 2. The Mural "Relief of Thutmose I", around 1500 BC (32a)

            In this mural from around 1500 BC, the pharaoh wears various kinds of
garments such as gold, colored bids, delicate embroideries, jewelry etc, on his linen
skirt called shenti. The queen wears a long linen robe with an elaborately decorated
wig on her head. Also, their clothes are dyed. The fake beard represents the pharaoh's
authority. 
            Such clothing was not much different for the nobility. Shenti (for men) and a
long linen robe (for women) were common for everyone ; the nobility decorated
themselves with garments similar to that of the royal. In some cases, they put false
teeth and headdresses. (33) 

Figure 3. Vignette on Khonsu's inner coffin lid, 1279-1213 BC (34) 

            The vignette shows the most plain dressing of an Egyptian male. The man of
the vignette only wears a shenti, and staples it with a simple tie rather than a belt. 
            All in all, linen was common for everyone as a major clothing material, so was
the form of dress (shenti and robe). The priests wore animal fur, although most
avoided using that. The difference of consumption only appears from how they
decorated themselves and how many kinds of additional clothing were used. 

III. The Coptic Textiles 

III.1 The Foreign Influence 

            Coptic art in general was influenced heavily by Egyptian and Greco-Roman
heritages, while there are also a degree of Persian, Byzantine and Syrian influence.
For example, even after Christianity became dominant, Egyptian symbolism was used
along with the biblical motifs. (35) Also, ever since the Romans brought silk to Egypt
through trade with the Han dynasty, silk was adopted gradually to Egyptian textiles.
The Coptic textiles is probably the pioneering figure in which silk is used. Not only
that, after the Roman empire recognized Christianity in 313 and then promulgated it
as the state religion in 395, Christianity protruded into Egyptian society and resulted
in the Coptic church. For this reason, Christian motifs became major elements of the
Coptic culture until the arrival of Islam. 
            The factor that should be take into account is that, at first, the Coptic church
separated from the Eastern Church of which head was the Byzantine emperor because
the Coptic church stood for the doctrines different from what was decided in the
ecumenical council of Chalcedon in 451 (36). Moreover, the Sassanid Persia
temporarily possessed Egypt for 10 years (618-628). For this reason, the earlier Coptic
art was rather influenced by Persian culture imported through Syria than Byzantine
culture. However, after Constantinople was settled as the capital of the entire empire,
Byzantine culture had great impact on Coptic weavers, enriching repetoire of design
and motifs. (37) As a result, the Copts imported patterns such as roundels in which
animals such as griffins were inscribed. (38) 
            The following roundel below shows representative qualities of the Coptic
textile. 

Figure 4. The Roundel around 6-7 Century AD, Panapolis (Akhmim, Egypt) (39) 

            The roundel is mainly an undyed linen, while it is embroidered with

polychrome silk; linen remained the major element, while silk emerged as the new
element of Egyptian textile. (This also becomes the existing evidence for the chapter
III.2.) Since the roundel is from the late Coptic era, it was conspicuously influenced
by the Byzantine culture; it shows a Roman [Byzantine) emperor in fight, and the
style overall resembles that of Byzantine. (40) 

III.2 Application of New Weaving Techniques and Material 

            The Coptic way of weaving (tapestry-weave and loom-weave) was inherited
the traditional Egyptian method; even a special technique called "Egyptian knot" was
not forgotten and continued to be utilized. (41)However, while traditional Egyptians
only used "tabby weave" which is the simplest, the Copts started to frequently use
"Soumak weave" which made distinctive outlines of textile, and invented the "Flying
Shuttle (or Bobbin) technique" in which a second shuttle is inserted to an extra linen
weft, (42) so that it would be possible to work in an extra pattern yarn for facial
features or dot patterns (43). In spinning, the Copts used the "S-twist" thread, in order
to correct tendency of rotation which occurs in the washed natural flax fibers. (44) 
            Although flax remained to be the major material (45), other various fibers
were gradually introduced to Egyptian weaving. Since the Greeks and Romans
systematically produces finer qualities of wool unlike Egyptians did (46), it was not
until the Hellenistic and Roman period when wool became comparatively
common (47), changing the old bias about impurity of wool. Around the fourth
century, wool became the indispensable element for tapestry, while the use of silk
weaving had been still rarely found; however, silk became popular after the sixth
century. It coincides with the period when two monks who lived in China for a long
time secretly brought silkworms to start the first sericulture in Europe. In the eighth
century, linen and silk were woven together (interweaving) into clerical robes, and the
skill of weaving became sophisticated that textiles looked like embroidery. (48) The
interweaving of silk and flax became one of the most featured characteristic of the
Coptic textiles. 

III.3 Change of Design 

            According to the article "Coptic Textiles" of , archaeologists grasp the change
of artistic features [and design] of the Coptic textiles through the division of timeline:
the Greco-Roman period (1-300 AD), the Inter-phase (300-500 AD), the Coptic phase
(500-900 AD). (49) The criterion of this periodization somewhat coincides with
Wilson's explanation; he indicates that there is the progression of style that proceeds
from the Greek, through the Roman (Byzantine), and Persian, and then to the
Islamic. (50) In this paper, the periodization is to be a) Greco-Roman period until 400,
b) Christian period until 700. (The Islamic period is to be discuss in the chapter IV)
The Persian influence on design will be discuss in III.3.2. The causes of change of
design is discussed in the chapter III.1.; therefore, this chapter is to focus on the
development in design, especially about techniques and depicted objects. 

III.3.1 The Graeco-Roman Period 

            In this period, designs were Hellenistic and pagan; there were a lot of
reproduction of classical motifs such as Greek deities, Nilotic scenes, vines, humans,
animals etc. (51) Not only that, geometric designs were popular. Also, the most
skilled artisans made out third-dimensional, realistic depictions through
molding. (52) In contrast, especially after the Roman empire conquered Egypt, artistic
tendency of textiles artisans were "submerged" by the influx of iconographic formulas
of the empire, finally abandoning most of the artistic heritage of Pharaonic age.
However, Egyptian mythological figures survived it, as can be seen from Isis'
becoming the representative of the Nile, which was the most popular object of Roman
Egypt (53). This was possible because the Roman empire was polytheistic and
tolerant with most religions existing in its domain. (i.e. Faith in Isis was pervasive
throughout the empire). 
Figure 5. Textile Fragment, 4th Century (54) 

            This textile fragment, which dates back to Late Greco-Roman period, shows
the superior degree of contemporary Coptic design. The object is a (probably noble)
woman with Roman female hair style and garments. The artistic technique is far
different from traditional Egyptian's, and rather similar to the mosaics found in the
ruins of Pompeii; the gradual change of shadow and the realistic depiction of
countenance make out the third-dimensional expression of the object. However, in
this textile fragment, it is impossible to find any remnants of the Pharaonic Era. 

III.3.2 Christian Symbolism; Persian Design 

            After the fourth century, the symbolism of Christianity became more
typical (55) and the pagan motifs were "christianized" rather than being depicted its
original form. The examples of Christian symbolism are: harvesting of grape, which
represents God's calling soul to heaven; the episode of Joseph (Jacob's twelfth son);
equestrian saints fighting against the evil; cross etc. (56) In case of some pagan
symbolism, though most subsided, some survived: ankh, which represents faith in
resurrection; the tree of life; the fish (Greek abbreviation referring to
Christ); (57) Daphne's transformation into the laurel tree, which represents the soul's
leaving the body. (58) 
            Probably, there are several reasons for such drastic alteration between the
fourth and the fifth century. First, Christianity was declared the state religion of the
empire by Theodosius in 395, which resulted in iconoclastic movement against
paganism. Just as can be seen from the fire of the library in Alexandria, the religious
persecution was thorough and rigid; hence, in order for mythical elements to survive
through the persecution, it had to transform itself to fit in the new circumstances.
Second, the traditional method of burial became obsolete and new way was needed,
partly because of the predominance of Christianity; (59) hence, the Coptic textiles
substituted previous burial accessories. (See chapter III.4.) 
            At the same time, the Persian patterns, which was imported via silk imported
from the Sassanid Persia, became popular. Eastern motifs such as double palms, floral
backgrounds, winged animals, griffins, human heads were arranged in staggered rows
all decorate wool tapestries. (60) 
            There is a significant change in design technique during this period; designs
became symbolic rather than realistic, and the use of color became flatter and rather
monotonic. Not only that, textiles began to show rather coarse texture and
disportionate figures. (61) 
Figure 6. A Part of Tapestry, the fourth or fifth century; (62) 
Figure 7. A Part of Tapestry, the seventh century (63) 

            The change is conspicuous between the these fragments of tapestry. Actually,
the left one is bigger than the right one in the real size, which means the left one could
be more detailed than the other one. However, despite such condition, the way the
objects in the right one is depicted seems "degenerated" than that of the left one; in the
right one, there is almost no change of shadow, and the colorfulness is rather meager
than the left one. Also, the equestrian of the right one is very disportionate, while the
female of the left one is detailed, proportionate and realistic. 
            To this phenomenon, some authors say there was a degeneration in weaving
technique, while others say it is the adaptation of a new technique to design by
distorting the angle of the weft, using embroidery and outlining, and employing vivid
colors to emphasize abstraction. (64) (In reality, the left one has no outline and is used
rather pastel-toned color, while the right one is applied with a distinctive black outline
and primary colors such as red in the background) Probably, it could be the result of
that the monasteries which had been the center of the Coptic tapestry went through
decay after the Muslim rule from 640; the folk art (65) would have replaced the role
of specialized monastery craftsmanship and developed its own techniques. 

III.4 Various Usages of the Coptic Textiles 

            The most significant usage of the Coptic textiles is that it was used for
wrapping corpses substituting conventional method of embalming and preserving
mummies. Mummification was abandoned and the corpses were put everyday clothes
in the late third century. Instead, these bodies were tied to a board and wrapped in
mantles, hangings and curtains, which are the Coptic textiles. (66) Considering that
many Coptic textiles included depictions of certain biblical episodes with funerary
and symbolic meaning and often carried the pharaonic symbol of ankh, (67) the usage
of Coptic textiles in burial reflects the change of Egyptian concept of afterlife
especially after Christianity. This shows that the Coptic textiles marks the important
change of the burial culture in Egypt. 
            Not only at burial, the Coptic textiles were used for various purposes, at public
places and for everyday needs. In churches, they were used for hangings and curtains,
mostly including icons of saints and biblical themes. In homes, they were used for
fashion garment, tunic, curtain, bad sheets, covers, towels, napkins, table clothes,
sacks etc. (68) 

IV. The Islamic Textiles 

IV.1 Political and Religious Background 

            Politically, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs during the Islamic reign of the
second Caliph Umar in 639. Since then, Egypt was under the continuous rule of the
Islamic dynasties until 1805, except for a few cases when it was occupied Napoleon's
French army in 1799. That is, Egypt has been under the strong, consistent influence of
Islam for more than eleven centuries, with the close contact to its neighboring Islamic
political entities. For this reason, the Muslim traditions and culture profoundly rooted
in here, which indeed have made great impact on the textile industry. (Technically,
Egypt has Islam as its state religion and at least eighty percent of its population is
Muslim.) Also, some Muslim dynasties imposed various measures on textile industry
as can be seen from Tiraz or prohibition of silk for most populace. 
            As a result of Islamic occupation, the Quran and the Sharia (God's law)
regulated everyday life of the Muslim world, including clothing and artistic activities.
In case of dress code, the Quran says "Tell the believing men to... protect their private
parts. That is purer for them." (24:30) Especially in case of women, it demands "not
to show off their adornments [except for the close male family], to draw their veils all
over Juyubihinna(their bodies, faces, necks and bosoms)." (24:31) (69) Not only were
women restricted in their fashion; men were also forbidden wearing gold and silk on
their body. (70) However, it did not mean that the demand for silk was diminished, as
can be seen from that "many other cities began to weave in response to the
tremendous demand" (71) This was due to that silk was consumed not only for
dressing but also for cushions, curtains, tapestry, prayer rugs, and myriad of other
purposes. 
            Also, since depicting human figure especially in religious places was regarded
sacrilage because of possibility of being idol; thus, unlike the Coptic textiles, Islamic
textiles rarely exhibit human figure. Instead, the pattern called Arabesque, or
depiction of natural figures and geometrical. abstract design, is often applied. For
example: curved, veined leaves, rosettes, tendrils and blossoms. (72) 

IV.2 Governmental Institution : Tiraz 

            It is not sure if there was a strict governmental interference on textile industry
in the Islamic Egypt. However, there was a certain institution which was reserved for
meeting the demand of the royal and the privileged, which is called tiraz. 
            Originally, tiraz means an inscribed silk (or a mixture with other type of fiber)
arm band on which embroideries are placed as a badge of honor, favor and distinction.
It often contains a single-line Arabic inscription in foliated kufic script extending
blessings to the Prophet and the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Muizz li-Din Allah (ruled
953-975 CE). (73) 
Figure 8. Tiraz Tapestry Fragment, Nubia, Fatimid Egypt, 11-12C (74) 

            Tiraz was principally a prerogative of the caliph, but some distinguished
people were given tiraz under the special favor and permission of the (Fatimid,
Abbasid and other dynasty's) caliph. (75) Thus, manufacture and distribution of tiraz
were carefully controlled through a complicated institution. (76) According to Muslim
historian Ibn Khaldun, "It[tiraz] is part of royal and government pomp and dynastic
custom to have the names of rulers or their peculiar marks embroidered on the
brocade, or pure silk garments that are prepared for their weaving." (The
Muqaddimah) (77) 
            On the contrary, tiraz simultaneously meant a palace factory which
manufactured works for ritual adornment and royal consumption. Thus, some scholars
say that tiraz was an administrative department responsible for satisfying the textile
demands of sultanates and emirates (78). According to Foisier and Sondheimer, the
tradition of tiraz was especially eminent and long-lasting in Egypt, and tiraz was
divided into two agencies : tiraz al kassa, which concerned with product exclusively
reserved for the caliph; tiraz al amma, of which products were in wider circulation and
were distributed to officials, servants of the caliph, the military and perhaps even for
mundane trade. (79) 

IV.3 Characteristics of Islamic Egyptian Textile Industry 

            In the Arab world, the parts of which shared a market with easy accessibility
to each other, could respectively specialize themselves; each region became a center
of industry of a certain type of textile, according to their major raw material. Such
diversification was extensive; for example, raw silk from Khurasan and the
Ahwaz. (80) In case of Egypt, its delta produced the largest amount of flax in the Arab
world. Also, along with Syria, Egypt specialized in producing wool (the silk-like wool
of Egypt was highly appreciated). As a result, Egypt satisfied most of the demand of
flax gauze, and continued to produce its distinctive wool textiles of which the tradition
dates back to the Coptic tapestry. 
            Until about 1820, Egyptian textile industry was characterized by small
workshops, guild organization of craftsmen, and a extensive diversification of labor.
Workers in each production process of the textile industry were respectively
organized into separate guilds. (81) Also, in this period, Cairo was the most important
textile production and distribution center specializing in the weaving of silk, cotton,
and linen. Dyeing was a semi-industrial specialty of Cairo. Workshops with an
average of twenty workers were concentrated in three main areas of the city. After
coffee and spices, textiles were the most important product sold in Cairo's
markets. (82) 

V. Modernization of Textile Industry 

V.1 European Influence; Development of Cotton Production 
            At first, Egypt exported a fair amount of woolen textiles and linen to Europe;
for example, 30 percent of Egyptian export to France was textiles. However, after
1840s, as the Industrial Revolution, along with import of fiber resources from colonies
such as India, brought a significant development of textile production in European
countries. This seemed to have brought new competition among Egyptian textile
industry and that of Europe. Handcraft such as embroidery and dressmaking remained
prevalent by local housewives who did not expect profit out of it, but the number of
traditional textile artisans show diminishing trend through the late nineteenth
century, (83) 
            After Muhammad Ali seized power of Egypt in 1805 as the governor who
became an independent viceroy of the Ottoman empire, Egypt went through drastic
modernization in every field of economy, under the leadership of the government. Ali
especially encouraged cultivation of commercial crops, and this policy led to
installment of modern infrastructure such as road, railway and irrigation, (84) which
then again contributed in increasing the production of cotton. (85). International
Historic Statistics shows that the export of cotton was only 1,600 metric tons in 1821,
and the amount increases to 10 in 1823, which is the significant improvement of
productivity in just three years (86). This proves that Ali's irrigation policy actually
brought dramatic increase of cotton production in a short period of time. 
            Because the indigenous Egyptian cotton called baladi was not good enough to
satisfy European demand, an Ethiopean species called maho was used, which had
better quality. (87) (later, it was substituted by long-staple cotton or Gossypium
hirsutum, which is from the South of the US) Production of raw cotton emerged as
one of the most crucial industry in Egypt in the nineteenth century. The wealth
derived from cotton production was invested in raising modern army etc. 
            The other important moment of Egyptian raw cotton production industry was
the American Civil War (1861-1865). This war resulted in expansion of cotton
production. During the war, the South (Confederacy) which produced great amount of
cotton was blocked from trade, which resulted in a lack of supply for British fabric
manufacturing industry. In this situation, Egypt was regarded as the best alternative
because Egyptian cotton was of high quality. British companies began investing
heavily in cotton production in Egypt, and this resulted in great expansion. 

Figure 9. Export of Raw Cotton, 1850-1878 (88) 

            As can be see from the graph above, the export of cotton is stagnant until
about 1862, which is just before the American Civil War, and it reaches the highest
point in 1864, which is the starting year of the war. Even after the war ended, the
export of Egyptian cotton increases up to 140 in 1876, which at least four times as
much as the average export before the war. 
Figure 10. Comparison of Output and Export of (Raw) Cotton, 1865-1953 (89) 

            Since there is no available statistical data which shows the cotton production
before 1865, it is difficult to know whether the dramatic augmentation of export
actually influenced cotton production in Egypt. 
            However, since most of the cotton produced in Egypt was for export until
1953, it is deducible that the cotton export almost equals to the cotton production
before 1953. (Before the Independence of Egypt in 1952, almost all raw cotton
imported by developed countries, mainly for Britain, Egypt's colonial motherland)
The graph above shows that output of cotton draws the line which follows the trend of
export of cotton; because the primary aim of cultivation of raw cotton was to make
revenue through international trade, such deduction is very plausible. Thus, with high
probability, it can be concluded that the American Civil War definitely had grand
impact on the cotton production in Egypt. 
            However, at the end, the boom subsided. The foreign investment imposed
heavy debt on Egypt, which could not be paid until the British Empire established a
protectorate over Egypt (90). Even worse, after the American Civil War ended and the
trade of cotton from the South resumed, demand for Egyptian cotton deducted in
consequence, which made cotton production less lucrative. 

V.2 Modern Attempts to Nationalize Textile Industry 

V.2.1 State Monopoly by Muhammad Ali 

            The first attempt to nationalize textile industry was by Muhammad Ali in the
nineteenth century. Ali wanted to centralize all power of Egypt and establish the
hereditary rule by his lineage, so he implemented a government monopoly over all
manufacturing and foreign trade. Textile industry, of course, was one of the major
objects of this policy; Khurunfish quarter in Cairo city was the center of the state
monopoly. First it mainly produced silk, but when cotton became more profitable, it
concentrated more on cultivating and weaving of cotton. In this process, many
Europeans were hired with priority treatment, but mechanization was very limited.
Thus, most of Egyptian handcraftsman were needed forced to engage by the state
program. Hence, the traditional guild system was incorporated into the state
monopoly. 
Figure 11. Export of (Raw) Cotton, 1822-1852 (91) 

            At last, nevertheless, owing to the international recession of 1836, failure of

administration, lack of fuel and British opposition against monopoly finally ended up
the state monopoly of textile industry. (92) The graph above shows that there has been
the most severe fluctuation of export of cotton between 1822 and 1843. Also, in this
period, cotton export keeps stagnant, its maximum being 14. Since the state monopoly
lasted from around 1818 to around 1840, it can be said that the state monopoly turned
out to be a failure compared to the increase of export since 1840s. 

V.2.2 Nationalization by the Nasser Government 

            Another notable attempt to nationalize textile industry was by Gamal Abdel
Nasser in 1960s. When the new regime based on military power persecuted
demonstrations of trade unions of textile industry, many textile unions changed their
mind to become a good cooperator of the Nasser regime. At the end, leftist trade
unions were almost ousted, trade unions being apparatus of state-planned economy,
and finally the entire textile industry was nationalized under direct control of Egyptian
government. According to Beinin, textile workers benefitted from the system, because
the whole workload lessened after nationalization. 
            The nationalization have resolved throughout recent decades; by the 1970s the
state encouraged private enterprises, and in the 1990s the governmental control over
textile unions became lenient. For now, the recent textile industry of Egypt is going
through the impact of neo-liberalist economic policy. (93) 

V.3 Recent History of Egyptian Textile Industry 

            While Egypt focused on producing and trading raw cotton before 1950, the
focus of Egyptian textile industry moved to production of woven cotton fabric and
other types of textiles after 1950. The two graphs below shows this eminent tendency. 
Figure 12. Comparison of Output and Export of (Raw) Cotton, 1941-1999 (94) 

Figure 13. Output of (Woven) Cotton Fabric, 1941-1997 (95) 

            The first graph shows that the disparity between output and export has been getting wider
right after 1950. Moreover, while raw cotton production shows slow increase until mid-1970s,
export of raw cotton shows decrease between 1940 and 1997. This might indicate that domestic
demand for raw cotton has drastically increased and the international demand diminished after
1950. Eminently, raw cotton production was no longer a major industry after 1950; the majority
of cotton production became to be consumed by domestic industry. 
            Meanwhile, the second graph shows that the output of woven cotton shows steep increase
after 1950, and the production thereof continues to increase until 1980. Especially, the period
when output and export of raw cotton shows the widest disparity coincides with the period when
the production of woven cotton fabric reaches its maximum in the late 1970s and the early
1980s. This information implies that the surplus raw cotton which came from disparity of output
and export had been consumed for domestic weaving industry; this might be the result of spurred
modernization and mechanization of Egyptian textile industry after independence and
nationalization of economy by Nasser regime. 
            Nevertheless, both raw cotton production and cotton fabric production shows drastic fall
after mid-1980s. The possible assumption is that the beginning of neo-liberalist policy has
removed protectionist policy and the competition among newly emerging industrialized countries
such as China has become fiercer after 1980s. (In 1999, 20 percent of total export of China was
from textiles; other developing countries participate in World textile market, because it is easy to
access.) Another possible conjecture is that the land which was originally used for cotton
production is used for other purposes, as Egypt has modernized and industrialized itself in the
late twentieth century. 

VI. Conclusion 

            The textile industry of Egypt has a complicated, long history, as it has benefitted from
fertile environment for growing certain types of fiber and developed sophisticated technology
based on its own tradition and the influence of foreign civilizations. 
           Egypt has usually played an important role in its neighboring scope, the Mediterranean.
The ancient history proves that Egyptians were one of the pioneering figures in the earliest
textile industry in human history, especially specializing themselves in production of linen. They
also improved its distinctive style based on its ancient tradition and Greco-Roman artistic style;
the Coptic textile was the combination of Egyptian tradition of linen weaving and artistic realism
and new material (wool and silk) imported from the Greco-Roman world. In the Islamic times,
Egypt was the major supplier of flax and produced other types of textile demanded by the
consumers in the Arab world and some parts of Europe. Still in the modern times, Egypt
converted itself into a centerpiece of cotton production, as well as one of the major producers of
high-quality silk and wool in the world. Reaching its maximum productivity between 1950 and
1980, Egyptian textile industry seems economically less significant than it had been before. 
            In the aspect of politics, Egyptian textile industry was regarded probably the most
important industry of all Egypt, and the governmental interference has persisted throughout
history. In the ancient times, Ptolemaic pharaohs requested textile artisans to weave of the state,
and also did Romans. In the Islamic times, it is not palpable whether the Muslim rulers had direct
control over entire textile industry, but it is true that Egyptian tiraz system, which satisfied the
demands of the royal and the nobility, showed the most palpable example in the Arab world. In
the mordern times, textile industry was more susceptible to governmental control; Both Ali and
Nasser coveted strong, centralized power and the state temporarily nationalized (or monopolize)
textile industry, although at last it failed. It was not more than recent three decades since textile
industry was least controlled by the government. 
            In the social aspect, the stratification of textile consumption was mainly defined by
economic wealth; while linen has been universally consumed by all walks of people, silk or
certain types of wool products were available for the rich and the nobility. In a few cases,
political status defined eligibility to certain types of textile works; for instance, tiraz in the
Islamic period. On the other hand, religions (major ones being Christianity and Islam) have had a
degree of impact on production and consumption of textiles. 
            In summary, the textile industry of Egypt has developed in various aspects, throughout its
restless history of five thousand years. 

The effect of French Revolution on Costume

French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval in the history of
France. The lower and middle classes were cornered to such an extent that they
could not help but push back vehemently. This resulted in a major change from
absolute monarchy to nationalism, citizenship and inalienable rights. The country
saw the rise of people against the house of Bourbon. Historians have discussed
in detail the 14th of July 1789 open display of demands and the Storming of the
Bastille. The Successive Phases of French Revolution: The Monarchical
phase ( 1789 to 1792) The republican phase ( 1792 to 1795) Imperial phase
(1795 to 1799) Consulate and empire (1799 to 1815) Revolution in
Costume : Age of strictest simplicity. Everybody wanted to look like a
commoner. Upheaval against the aristocracy. Poor financial conditions led to
shift in fabric. Cottons preferred over silk , velvets , lace and ribbons. Darker
colours. No extravagance. Slight changes within different phases.

Women's clothes became simpler, flamboyance was done away with for a little
while. It became a subject of satire. Men's costume became more practical.
Clean simple cuts of jackets and trousers came into fashion. Pantaloons worn by
commen men became the fashion statement of the day.

The changes in public feelings and thought processes were based on the political
events of the period. It was a time of unrest and the promotion of liberty. The
men and women now expressed this change through their costume, the costume
moved from being bound to being free. It is really interesting to see the political
effects on fashion

French National Clothing

Because France is divided into many different regions

there is actually no national dress. Each French region has their own traditional
dress and they are very different from each other; it seems, that the only thing
they have in common is that men wear pants, women skirts and both wear hats
of different styles. Nowadays, traditional regional costumes are just worn at
festivals and celebrations. In Alsace, women may be seen in white, lace-trimmed
blouses and aprons decorated with colorful flowers. Women's costumes in
Normandy include white, flared bonnets and dresses with wide, elbow-length
sleeves.

Regional costumes are based on late 19th century rural clothing. It is difficult to
describe a traditional national dress because as we told you later there is no such
thing, however the majority of them include the following garments:
 Men: It is believed that their clothes were similar to those
of the Indians.

Chemise: A knee length cotton or linen shirt, considered to be an undergarment

Culottes or Breech cloth: A pair of knee length pants, usually wool or linen, which
button around the knees, or a cloth worn over the loins.

Hose:  A pair of cotton or wool socks, knee high

Mitasses: A pair of protective garters worn over the lower legs, made of leather or
wool, which button to the breeches or tie to a belt.

Guillette: Small short vest usually without sleeves, worn over the Chemise.Capote
or Justacorp: Heavy coat with large cuffs worn over all else, kind of like a suit coat.

Chinese Clothing
As a vital part of Chinese civilization, traditional costumes play an
important role in the country’s history and culture. Their basic features
are cross-collar, wrapping the right lapel over the left, tying with sash
and a form of blouse plus skirt or long gown. These features have
been preserved for thousands of years till the time of the Republic of
China (1912 – 1949AD), when Chinese Tunic Suit (Mao Suit) and
cheongsam prevailed. Nowadays, however, most Chinese wear modern
clothes in their daily lives, not much difference from their western
counterparts. Traditional attires are only worn during certain festivals,
ceremonies or religious occasions. However, they are often seen in
Chinese television serials and movies. Many of the country’s ethnic
minorities also wear their traditional costumes in their daily lives and
they played an important role in the traditional Chinese clothing. 

 History
Based on historical discoveries, Chinese clothes dates back to the later
era of Paleolithic Times (1.7 million years ago - the 21st century BC).
Materials used were of animal skins and decorations were of small
stones and animal teeth. The “real” clothes were not invented until
about 5,000 years ago by the Yellow Emperor. By the Shang
Dynasty (17th century BC - 1046 BC), the
basic features of traditional Chinese attire
were created, as well as the general
pattern of blouse plus skirt. Later, the long
gown appeared during the Zhou
Dynasty (1046 - 256 BC) and it co-existed
with the blouse-skirt combinations for
thousands of years, improving further as
time passed. Then a great change occurred
with the formation of the Republic of
China, when Mao Suit became popular
among the males and cheongsam among
the females. In the early period of the
People’s Republic of China, Mao Suit stayed
Traditional Chinese Suit
popular among not only males, but also
females. Later in the 1970’s, when the country implemented reform
and opening policy, the masses gradually turned to western-style
attire. 

 Features
In addition to the basic features and patterns, traditional Chinese
attires have many other features like appearance, cutting, decoration,
color and design, etc, all of which changed over the various dynasties.
For example, black is the most dignified color in the Xia Dynasty (21st
- 17th century BC), white in the Shang Dynasty and red in the Zhou
Dynasty. They also vary based on one’s political position, social status,
occupation and gender, etc. For instance, dragon embroideries and
bright yellow can only be used by emperors most of the time; in the
Tang Dynasty (618 - 907 AD), purple official costumes are for the fifth
or higher rank officials; in the Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911 AD), the
higher a person’s social rank or the richer one was, the more
embroideries and borders there were on his attires.

 Well-known Fashion
Although the fashion trend changes over time, there are several types
that are popular till today both at home and abroad.
 Traditional Han Chinese Clothing (Han Fu): It refers to the attire
worn by the Han people from the
enthronement of the Yellow Emperor
(about 2698 BC) till the late Ming Dynasty
(1368 - 1644 AD). It became known as the
Han Fu (“fu” means “clothes” in Chinese)
because the fashion was improved and
popularized during the Han Dynasty. It is
usually in the form of long gown, cross
collar, wrapping the right lapel over the
left, loose wide sleeves and no buttons but
a sash. Although simple in design, it gives
different feelings to different wearers.  
 Chinese Suit (Tang Zhuang): It is a
combination of the Manchu male jacket of
Cheongsam
the Qing Dynasty and the western style
suit. It is usually straight collared, with coiled buttons down the front.
Its color and design are in traditional Chinese style but tailoring is
western.
  Cheongsam (Qi Pao): Originated from the Manchu female clothes, it
evolved by merging with western patterns that show off the beauty of
a female body. Its features are straight collar, strain on the waist,
coiled buttons and slits on both sides of the dress. Materials used are
usually silk, cotton and linen. Cheongsam is the most popular Chinese
attire in the world today. 
 Chinese Tunic Suit (Zhongshan Zhuang): Also called the Yat-sen
Suit, it is designed by Dr. Sun Yat-sen by combining the western-style
suit and Chinese attire. It has a turn-down collar and four pockets with
flaps. As Chairman Mao Zedong worn it quite frequently, it is also
called the Mao Suit by westerners. It is the main attire from the
founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 till 1980’s. The
country’s leaders still wear it today when attending important
occasions, such as military parades.

 Other Types
 Traditional Manchu Clothing: It is the traditional dress of
the Manchu ethnic nationality, usually in the form of long gown and
sometimes with a jacket or waistcoat outside. Since Manchu is the
leading class of the Qing Dynasty and their dresses were strongly
promoted, this kind of clothes was very popular in that period. The
characteristics are round or straight collar, fasten with buttons from
the right collar and a sash on the waist, two or four slits, and tight
sleeves with cuffs shaped like horse hoofs.
 Traditional Clothing of the Other Ethnic Minorities: In addition to
Manchu, the country has 54 ethnic minorities and each of them has
their own unique costumes. Unlike the traditional Han Chinese
costumes, these costumes are still widely worn today. Basically, they
can be divided into two types: long gown and short coat with pants or
skirt. They usually wear long gowns with hats and boots; others prefer
short coat and generally wrap their head with cloth and wear shoes. 
People wearing the same type of clothes can be further distinguished
by the costume details like the structure, craft and style, etc. Take the
long gown for instance.  The Mongolian and Tu nationalities prefer high
collared gown with buttons down the front; theTibet and Monba groups
wear collarless gown with buttons on one side and the Uygur love those
with buttons on the right.

Clothing of Miao Ethnic Minority Clothing of Uygur People

    
 Dragon Robe: It is so named because of the embroidered dragons on
it.  It can only be worn by the emperor, who was considered a dragon
from heaven in the ancient times. Other characteristics of a dragon
robe are round collar, buttons on the right and most of the time in
bright yellow. 
 Officials’ Uniform: Unlike modern China, almost all kinds of officials
in ancient times had uniforms. They are strictly distinguished by
colors, embroidered patterns and hats, etc. For instance, in the Ming
Dynasty, the embroidered pattern on a first rank civil officer’s uniform
was a crane, second rank a golden pheasant, third rank a peacock,
fourth rank a wild goose, fifth rank a silver pheasant, sixth rank an
egret, seventh rank a “purple mandarin duck”, eighth rank an oriole
and ninth rank a quail. 
 Traditional Wedding Costumes: Chinese traditional wedding
costumes vary in different dynasties and time periods. However, they
are red most of the time as red is considered lucky, happy and
auspicious in the country’s culture. The most well-known are red
chaplet and official robes, which are still widely worn today by newly
wed in traditional style wedding ceremonies or for taking wedding
photos.
 Women:  Without exception they all wear caps, while
their skirts are scarcely down the middle of their legs. Their shoes are often like
those of the Finnish women, but are sometimes provided with heels.  They have a
silver cross hanging down the breast

Jupon: A garment very similar to a skirt, only shorter. Many of these could be
worn at once to show wealth and status.

Chemise: An underskirt or shift worn under all of the outer petticoats and the
jupon.

Mantelet: A short women's waistcoat, worn with the jupon and chemise.

Fichu: A square or oblong piece of cloth used by women as a modesty scarf worn
about the neck and shoulders
Unit 4: World Traditional Textiles-Mesopotamian

The Sumerian civilization was established before 4000 BCE and reached a high

level of culture between 2700 and 2350 BCE. In early times both sexes
wore sheepskin skirts with the skin turned inside and the wool combed into
decorative tufts. These wraparound skirts were pinned in place and extended
from the waist to the knees or, for more important persons, to the ankles. The
upper part of the torso was bare or clothed by another sheepskin cloaking the
shoulders. From about 2500 BCE a woven woolen fabric replaced the sheepskin,
but the tufted effect was retained, either by sewing tufts onto the garment or by
weaving loops into the fabric. Named kaunakes by the Greeks, this tufted fabric
is shown in all the sculptures and mosaics of the period, as, for example, in the
art from the excavations at Ur exhibited in the British Museum in London. At this
time, also, long cloaks were worn, and materials for garments and head
coverings included felted wool and leather.
Both sexes seem to have often worn large wigs, as in ancient Egypt.
Metalworking was of a high standard, as may be seen in the elaborate golden
jewelry, which was encrusted with semiprecious stones and worn by both
sexes. Brooches, earrings, hair ornaments, and neck chains have all been found.
A different style of dress is evident in Mesopotamian sculptures dating after
about 2370 BCE. Both men and women were clothed in a large piece of material
—most commonly of wool, though later also of linen—draped around the body
over a skirt. This garment, similar to a shawl, was characteristically edged with
tassels or fringe. The draping varied, but, for men at least, the fabric was
arranged so that the fullness was at the rear, leaving the right, or sword, arm
free. This newer form of dress had originated from farther north and east and
was adopted by the Semitic people ofAkkad under Sargon (the dynasty founded
by Sargon lasted from c. 2334 to c. 2193 BCE) and by the revitalized Sumerian
culture in the years 2110–2010 BCE.
The dress worn in Mesopotamia by the Babylonians (2105–1240 BCE) and
the Assyrians (1200–540 BCE) evolved into a more sophisticated version of
Sumerian and Akkadian styles. Ample evidence of this more elaborate draped
costume can be seen in the large relief sculptures of the age. There were two
basic garments for both sexes: the tunic and the shawl, each cut from one piece
of material. The knee- or ankle-length tunic had short sleeves and a round
neckline. Over it were draped one or more shawls of differing proportions and
sizes but all generally fringed or tasseled. Broad belts held the shawls in position.
Wool was the most frequently used material, in bright or strong colours.
Decoration was rich, in allover patterns or in borders, carried out in embroidery or
by printing. Motifs were chiefly geometric. Women wore a short skirt
.as underwear, men a loincloth. Footwear for both sexes was made from fabric or
soft leather in the form of sandals or boots.
Care of the coiffure was very important for men and women among both the
Assyrians and the Babylonians. The hair was grown long and carefully curled
and ringleted, with false hair added if needed. Perfumes, oils, and black dye were
used on the hair. Men grew long, carefully tended curled beards. A band of metal
or fabric encircled the brow, or a woolen, felt, or leather cap shaped like a fez
was worn. The royal headdress resembled a pleated crown or a mitre and had
dependent lappets at the rear. Jeweled ornamentation to the costume was rich
and heavy and of high quality.

Japan

Silk may be the best known Japanese textile because of its contribution and value for
fashioning luxurious kimonos, but in pre-industrial Japan only the nobility and upper
classes were permitted to wear silk clothing. In contrast to courtly silk garments,
commoners dressed in humble clothing made from homespun coarse hemp and cotton
fabrics. These same unrefined, handmade textiles were also employed to create
utilitarian articles for the home.
This narrative sets aside the examination of refined Japanese aristocratic silk. Rather, it
will focus attention on natural early homespun cotton and hemp indigo textiles of the
mid-1800s to the mid-1900s. Often called Japanese folk art textiles, or arts and crafts
textiles, these fabrics are associated with the once impoverished Japanese rural
population. Such utilitarian fabrics became Japanese peasant clothing and common
household textiles. As in the manner of other Japanese folk crafts ( mingei e.g., pottery,
lacquerwork etc.) what was considered a basic necessity by the Japanese who created
and made use of these textiles, subsequently became collectable textile art for modern-
day Japanophiles.
- See more at: http://www.kimonoboy.com/short_history.html#sthash.2Iv9lKty.dpuf

The historical importance of hemp and cotton

From very ancient times until the 1600s, Japanese peasants wore clothing
made from common hemp, a locally grown and processed bast fiber. Rural
Japanese craftswomen spun the hemp and handloomed the fiber threads
into usable fabric which was turned into everyday farm field clothing and
household articles. The Japanese did not distinguish between linen and
hemp, the two have similar fibers and appearance and are referred to by
the same Japanese word, asa. Hemp fabric was the only material available
for general use in Japan until the introduction of cotton.
The Japanese imported raw cotton
and finished cotton goods from
China from the 15th century and
also from India somewhat later. This
situation lasted until 16th century
when the Japanese adopted
Chinese cotton cultivation methods
and began to produce cotton
domestically. Cotton farming quickly
became established in the warmer
western regions of the Japanese
archipelago where the moderate
climate and fertile land were well-
suited for growing cotton plants. 

Spurred on by the ruling classes,

spinning became a fast-growing cottage
industry for Japanese peasants with
central production hubs developing
initially in rural Kyushu Island, then
spreading to other warmer regions.
These home industries sold expensive
and limited amounts of homemade
cotton fabric throughout the country. 

Gradually production increased with the

introduction of more efficient home-
based spinning wheels and weaving
looms. Cotton fabric manufacturing
became geographically more
widespread which resulted in a
significantly reduced cost for cotton
cloth. Domestic cotton fabrication
produced comfortable cotton cloth as a replacement for the ubiquitous
coarse hemp fabric. 

Japanese rural females assumed most of the cotton spinning and weaving
duties in their homes. This work was done for personal consumption and as
a means of earning a primary or secondary income for their families.
By the 1870s, the Japanese had imported modern cotton milling equipment
from Europe. This was done rather late when compared to the West where
factory style milling was already well estabished. A few large commercial
cotton spinning and weaving mills operated near Osaka. The initial
production of milled cotton fabric was priced at a premium. This was due to
the material's excellent quality and high manufacturing expense. The price
of cotton fabric was too costly for most ordinary Japanese who depened
upon less costly homespun fabric. As a result, the large Japanese textile
mills did not turn out the bulk of the cotton threads and fabric for the
gerneral marketplace of the period. That task remained firmly in the hands
of the rural Japanese textile cottage industry, in the homes of the rural
peasants.
- See more at:
http://www.kimonoboy.com/short_history.html#sthash.2Iv9lKty.dpuf

SASHIKO

is a traditional form of Japanese hand sewing that uses a simple running

stitch sewn in repeating or interlocking patterns, usually
through several layers of fabric.
From the 17th century onward, creative rural Japanese
seamstresses discovered an important feature of
sashiko stitching. If the layers of fabric were held
together with sashiko stitching, home made hemp and
cotton clothing provided much better protection from
the elements, lasted longer and even added a creative
and individual flare to the textile. As a result, sashiko grew into a widely
favored sewing technique and quickly became established throughout
Japan for use as a utilitarian and dramatic embroidery.
Thrifty Japanese farm women also employed the sashiko stitch to boro
repair common household items like futon covers, garments and pillows.
Sashiko stitching is commonly found on boro futon covers, noragi clothing
(jackets and vests), aprons, zokin dusting cloths and other Japanese folk
textiles. Sashiko thread colors range from white to a deep blue-black. White
sashiko thread was used most often with contrasting indigo-dyed cotton
fabric. Kogin sashiko is the extreme esthetic example of sashiko white
thread stitching.
 - See more at:
http://www.kimonoboy.com/short_history.html#sthash.2Iv9lKty.dpuf

weaving is a method of looming together strips of old cloth. Sakiori comes

from the words "saki," which means to tear or rip up, and "ori," which
means weave. "Saki" relates to preparing the fabric by striping it into pieces
and "ori" refers to weaving it together. The process is similar to American
rag weaving but different in a single respect: rag weaving uses only fabric
to make the woven pieces. Japanese sakiori employs pieces of cloth along
with threads to weave the sakiori. With sakiori, the torn cloth pieces are
rolled into 13 to 16 inch lengths and loomed together in weft (width) rows
with cotton or hemp as the warp threads (length). Sakiori weavings were
often used to make casual kimono obi, but sometimes they were also used
to make other useful textiles, such as jackets, vests, and rugs. From time to
time, we carry several very unusual, difficult to find Japanese fishermen
and field workers' sakiori with sashiko stitching jackets and vests (see
Tattered Treasures under Shopping to the left). - See more at:
http://www.kimonoboy.com/short_history.html#sthash.2Iv9lKty.dpuf

1. Spanish Women
o Women's clothing from the southern provinces of Spain was bright, bold
and very feminine. Vibrant colored dresses (trajes de faraleas) with layers of ruffles are
characteristic of dresses and skirts in this region. Floral patterns and polka dots were
favorite patterns for Spanish women. Bodices were tight and sleeves usually consisted of
layers of ruffles. Flamenco dancers wore a stylized version of these dresses as early as
the 16th century.
Most women would also wear a delicate shawl (mantoncillo) or a more substantial shawl
(manton)---both embroidered with colorful threads. To complete the outfit, Spanish
women wore high decorative combs, often draping lace over the comb to act as a veil
(mantilla). Even today, modern Spanish women may don a mantilla to attend a religious
service.

2. Spanish Men
o The traditional men's dress of Spain reflects the style of the bandoleros
(outlaws) and vaqueros, (cowboys). The high waisted pants compliment a short jacket
(traje corto), sometimes embroidered. These were linked together by a wide colored
scarf at the waist. Men would generally wear a white ruffled shirt underneath the jacket.
 The bandoleros wore a red bandanna around the head, while vaqueros wore wide hats
(sombrero de alanche).
The look was embellished by bullfighters in the 17th century to include heavy
embroidery and rich embellishments on the jacket and pants. Bullfighters typically wore
red and gold, to symbolize blood and sand. Today, many people identify the stylish short
jacket of traditional Spanish dress as a "bolero jacket." Footwear for men was leather
boots and Spanish leather goods were considered to be some of the finest in Europe in
the 18th and 19th centuries.

Spanish Children
o Children wore clothing that was the miniature versions of their parents.
Girl's dresses were also brightly colored and formal occasions, especially religious
ceremonies, called for tiny mantillas. Boys in Andalusia wore the short jackets, but the
material was usually black or brown and featured less embroidery. Footwear would have
been leather slippers or shoes for girls and boots for boys.
PERSIAN

Paisley or Paisley pattern is a term in English for a design using the boteh or buta, a droplet-

shaped vegetable motif of Persian origin. Such designs became very popular in the West in the
18th and 19th centuries, following imports of post-Mughal versions of the design from British
India, especially in the form of Kashmir shawls, and were then imitated locally. The pattern is
sometimes called "Persian pickles" by American traditionalists, especially quilt-makers, [1] or
"Welsh pears" in Welsh textiles as far back as 1888.[2]

Mexico- folk

Traditional Mexican Costumes

A wonderful blend of Native American and European styles, these costumes are
distinct and attractive. There is also evidence of a strong influence of Mayan and
Spanish elements. Traditional Mexican clothing is available in many attractive
varieties, where major items of Mexican clothes and costumes are quechquémitl,
huipil, rebozo, sombrero, including folklore dresses.

These costumes are made from a variety of fabric, including cotton, agave, wool,
silk, and bark. Cotton, agave, and bark were specifically used by the pre-Hispanic
civilizations. Later on, the Spanish introduced silk and wool. Native Mexicans
usually prefer earthy colors such as dark red or brown. However, they also like vivid
green or bright yellow in their clothes. In the past, Mexicans dyed clothes with
natural components present in local plants. With the discovery of aniline dyes in
Europe, the Mexicans have adopted their dyeing technique, likewise.
Other Traditional Costumes
✦ Mexico comprising 31 states, clothing style changes as per region and climatic
conditions. Customs and traditions are exclusive to each state. For instance: (i)
Escaramuza dress from Jalisco (wide skirt with stripes and high-collared blouse);
(ii) Traditional dress of Chiapas (wide-necked blouses and wide black skirts with
vividly embroidered flowers and stripes); (iii) Michoacán's dress (patterned skirt,
blouse with embroidery at neck and at bottom with belt, apron, and ribozo).
✦ Blouse patterns differ slightly as per regions. E.g. Jalapa blouses, puebla blouses,
etc.
✦ Elderly people stick to fully traditional traje in spite of the younger generations
resorting to modern, contemporary clothing.
✦ Outfits like the huipil and serape are common. Embroidery and patterns change
from region to region. Wool is used for huipils in the hilly regions, whereas capes
like Capisayos (made from palm leaves) or those made from organic cotton are
used in the plains.
✦ Embroidery is a characteristic of most costumes. E.g. Yucatan embroidery.
Clothing is especially heavily embroidered for celebrations.
✦ There are different costumes for the traditional dances like Danza de los Arcos
(white costumes with colorful sashes across the chest), Matlachines (brightly
colored skirts, long tunics, and feathered headdresses), etc.
✦ Prominent Aztec influence is seen in the use of sun symbols, mythological
depictions in embroidery, and beaded jewelry.

Traditional Attire for Women

Mexican clothes are known for their use of bright colors and intricate craftsmanship.
Traditional women's clothing includes the huipil, rebozo, and quechquémitl. Let's
take a look at the clothes and costumes that you'll find on a Mexican woman.

Huipil is the most common form of women's traditional attire. It can be described
as a sleeveless tunic, made from cotton or wool. A huipil is made in distinctive
designs, which convey the wearer's marital status, personal beliefs, or the
community she belongs to. This garment has a religious significance as well.

Quechquémitl is another traditional Mexican clothing item worn in Mexico. It looks

like a stylish poncho and is worn for parties or special occasions. It is made from
handwoven cloth and is beautifully embroidered with graphic designs and floral
prints.

Rebozo is a type of shawl or scarf, typically made from wool, cotton, or silk. It is a
popular item of a woman's attire used in indigenous and non-indigenous
communities. It is a multi-functional garment, also used to carry market goods,
fruits, and even babies. Different colors of stripes are woven into the Robozo to
represent the different communities in Mexico.

Mexican skirts are identified by different names such as chincuete, enredo,

posahuanco, enagua, or refajo, depending on the area of origin. Some women
prefer to wear ankle-length skirts, while others favor knee-length ones. The skirts
are generally made from wool and cotton. Nowadays, silk and lace are also used to
make skirts for women.

Blouses are an integral part of the wardrobe of a Mexican woman. Some Mexican
women prefer to wear a blouse rather than a huipil. Blouses are heavily
embroidered using beautiful lace, beads, and colorful patterns. They are available in
a wide variety of styles, in terms of length, width, and design.

Traditional Attire for Men

In tropical regions of Mexico, many men prefer a light, comfortable button-up shirt
called the Guayabera. It is the perfect attire for casual or formal occasions. These
shirts are available in a variety of colors and styles and are decorated with beautiful
embroidery. However, the most traditional pieces of clothing for men in Mexico are
the following:

Sarape is the only native addition to a man's wardrobe. It is a vibrantly colored

garment with a fringe. It represents a combination of Mayan elements and the
Mexican poncho. It is usually made in the Mexican state of Coahuila.

Charro Suit is a traditional piece of Mexican clothing that is generally worn on the
Day of the Dead, a Mexican holiday celebrated to remember the death of loved
ones. A Charro suit is often paired with a sombrero.

Sombrero is a wide brimmed hat that made from straw and worn traditionally by
men all over Mexico. This accessory is one of the most significant denotations of the
culture and customs of Mexico.

Traditional Accessories
Most Mexicans like to use elaborate accessories with garments. The choice of
accessories is distinct to every region. Women like to wear ribbons as a necklace
around their necks, including bracelets and beaded rings too. Other Mexicans like to
use unusual material like fishbones or seashells as accessories. These kinds of
ornaments are believed to act as amulets or medallions to ward off evil. They are
also seen wearing tehuana headdress and tzutes (cloth).

Men in the northern states of Mexico, like Chihuahua, use cowboy hats and boots.
Most Mexicans use straw and palm hats to cope with the extreme heat. Sombreros
are popular Mexican round hats, made from straw, felt, or other material. Other
accessories include caites (leather sandals) and morral (typical bag with shoulder
strap). Pants and capixay (pullover) are held on by the characteristic faja (sash),
which functions like a belt.

Mexicans consider their clothes as the mirror of their culture, social status, and

ethnic group. When I was in Mexico, I couldn't stop myself from purchasing a
magnificent rebozo and handcrafted skirts. Theirs is truly a clothing splendor to lay
one's eyes on, even if proportionately billowy.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/traditional-mexican-clothes-
and-costumes.html

Traditional Italian Clothing

You couldn't miss a performance by Italian folk musicians or dancers if you tried -- their
colorful costumes will definitely catch your eye. The women wear colorful embroidered
skirts and bodices over light-weight chemises or blouses, with elaborate hats decorated
with flowers or fruit. Men's traditional clothing tends to be simpler, but doesn't lack from
attention to detail, with embroidery and metal buttons and pins. These costumes
evolved from simpler peasant dress in the Middle Ages.

Italian peasants wore practical clothing for their daily activities, with simple pants and
shirts for the men and blouses and skirts for the women, sometimes with a bodice. Most
items were made from simple fabrics, wool being very common. Color selection was
limited to inexpensive gray and black dyes. One notable traditional Italian fabric is a
waterproof type of wool called orbace. Even the uniforms of Mussolini's infamous Black
Shirts were made from orbace.
 Peasant women wore hats that covered the head with a square, flat section that curved
or angled down to cover the back of the head and the neck. The flat top helped the
women carry baskets to market. This style eventually evolved into hats with artificial
flowers or fruits worn by upper class women, mimicking a peasant carrying a basket on
her head.

The clothes worn by wealthy Italian women looked like peasant garb, but they used
richer fabrics like silk and velvet. The rich also had access to colorful dyes, so the color
palette varied more widely. Upper-class Italian women also tended to wear more jewelry
than peasants.

However, for special festivals even peasant women had beautiful dresses and bodices.
These were dyed in bright colors, hand-crafted with detailed embroidery and sometimes
used better fabrics. The dresses were passed from mothers to daughters for
generations. Because many of the special events the dresses were worn for were
harvest festivals, food and nature themes are prevalent in the design. Later, the
Catholic Church co-opted these celebrations and turned them into saints' days, so
Christian themes appear often as well.

MALAYISIA

 MALAY ATTIRE Traditional malay attire is the “baju melayu”,a loose tunic
which is worn over trousers and usually accompanied with a “sampin”,which is a
sarong which is wrapped around a man’s hips.It is also often accompanied with a
songkok or cap on their head.Traditional clothing for men in Malaysia consist of a
silk or cotton skirt and shirt with a scarf like piece of cloth tied around his
waist.This scarf is sewn together at the ends and is traditionally called a sarong
or kain.Most of the clothing is made up of bright and bold colors.The man also
wears a religious hat. women wear the “baju kurung”,a knee-length blouse worn
over a long skirt.Usually a scarf or shawl is worn with this.Prior to the wide
embrace of Islam,Malay women wore “kemban” which were sarongs which were
tied just above the chest. 3

 5. Baju Melayu – worn by Malay men, it does not have any buttons but has
a special kind of button called a butang. The fabric used to make a baju melayu
is made from either nylon, satin, or silk. Along with this is a songkok or kopiah,
worn on the head. Songkok are generally a dark natural color, and the kopiah is
a white color and represents purity. Baju Kurung – a baju kurung is worn by
women for occasions such as school (as a uniform) or to a wedding. It too is
 brightly colored and can come in a variety of different printed designs. It is a knee
length dress with a full length sleeves. Baju Kebarung – is a combination of the
baju kebaya and the baju kurung. It is loose and almost reaches the ankles it is
not one of the traditional clothes of the Malay, but an adaptation. 4

 6. Baju Kurung Kedah – worn only by Malay women as a daily dress for
married women. it is a shorter dress with three-quarter sleeves, so the wearer
can move around easily. Baju Batik – worn by men and women on a formal
occasion. Usually colorful cotton printed in the batik or wax resist method of
dyeing. 5

 7. The Peranakan retained most of their ethnic and religious origins (such
as ancestor worship), but assimilated the language and culture of the Malays.
The Nyonya's clothing, Baju Panjang (Long Dress) was adapted from the native
Malay's Baju Kurung. It is worn with a batik sarong (batik wrap-around skirt) and
3 kerosang (brooches). Beaded slippers called Kasot Manek were a hand-made
with much skill and patience: strung, beaded and sewn onto canvas with tiny
faceted glass beads from Bohemia (present-day Czech Republic). BABA AND
NYONYA 6

 8. In modern times, glass beads from Japan are preferred. Traditional

kasot manek design often have European floral subjects, with colors influenced
by Peranakan porcelain and batik sarongs. They were made onto flats or
bedroom slippers. But from the 1930s, modern shapes became popular and
heels were added. 7

 9. Clothing in India varies from region to region depending on the ethnicity,

geography, climate and cultural traditions of the people of that region.
Historically, men and women's clothing has evolved from simple Langotas and
loincloths to cover the body to elaborate costumes not only used in daily wear but
also on festive occasions as well as rituals and dance performances. In urban
areas, western clothing is common and uniformly worn by people of all strata.
India also has a great diversity in terms of weaves, fibres, colours and material of
clothing. Colour codes are followed in clothing based on the religion and ritual
concerned. For instance, Hindu ladies wear white clothes to indicate mourning,
while Parsis and Christians wear white to weddings. 8 INDIA TRADITIONAL
CLOTHING

 10. Sari A saree or sari is a female garment in the Indian subcontinent. A

sari is a strip of unstitched cloth, ranging from four to nine meters in length, that
is draped over the body in various styles. There are various traditional styles of
saree: SambalpuriSaree from East, Kanchipuram from South, Paithani from West
and Banarasi from North among others.The most common style is for the sari to
 be wrapped around the waist, with one end then draped over the shoulder baring
the midriff.The sari is usually worn over a petticoat. Blouse may be "backless" or
of a halter neck style. These are usually more dressy with a lot of embellishments
such as mirrors or embroidery and may be worn on special occasions. Women in
the armed forces, when wearing a sari uniform, don a half-sleeve shirt tucked in
at the waist. Teenage girls wear half-sarees, a three piece set consisting of a
langa, a choli and a stole wrapped over it like a saree. Women usually wear full
sarees. Saris are usually known with different names in different places. In
Kerala, white saris with golden border, are known as kavanis and are worn on
special occasions. A simple white sari, worn as a daily wear, is called a mundu.
Saris are called pudavai in Tamil Nadu. In Karnataka, saris are called kupsas. 9

 11. Panche or Lungi A Lungi, also known as sarong, is a traditional

garment of India. A Mundu is a lungi except that, it is always white.It is either
tucked in, over the waist, up to knee-length or is allowed to lay over and reach up
to the ankle. It is usually tucked in when the person is working, in fields or
workshops, and left open usually as a mark of respect, in worship places or when
the person is around dignitaries. Lungis, generally, are of two types: the open
lungi and the stitched lungi. The open lungi is a plain sheet of cotton or silk,
whereas, the stitched one has both of its open ends stitched together to form a
tube like structure. Though mostly worn by men, elderly women also prefer lungi
to other garments owing to its good aeration. It is mostly popular in south India,
though people of Bangladesh, Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar and
Somalia also can be seen in lungis, because of the heat and humidity, which
create an unpleasant climate for trousers, though trousers have now become
common outside the house. 10

 12. The people of Sabah comprises several ethnic groups. Among them
are the Kadazandusun, Bajau, Murut, Kedaya, Bisaya, Irranun, Rungus,
Kimarang, Kwijau, Lundayeh, Ubian, Binadan, Orang Sungai, Tatana, Tagaas,
Brunei, Suluk and others. The most notable difference among the various ethnic
groups are their dialects, religions, customs, and way of life which includes their
traditional costumes. The use of traditional costumes can be seen from two
periods of time, that is the classical and modern periods. In the classical period,
traditional costumes were worn during rituals, weddings as well as daily wear. In
modern times, traditional costumes are only worn at special occasions like
weddings and traditional functions. SABAH TRADITIONAL CLOTHING 11

 13. Most ethnic groups in Sabah use black as the dominant colour of their
traditional costumes. The use of black stems from the belief that black is a godly
colour and represents power that will protect the user from the bad spirits. Other
beliefs state that the use of black is synonymous with the way of life and natural
conditions at that particular time. In the past, red gemstones, coloured glass
beads, cowry shells, white buttons or disks made from shells and bronze were
used to adorn the men and women’s clothes. Today most of these ornaments
have been replaced with plastic beads and other more modern materials like gold
and silver threads, sequins and coloured threads. As of old, these ornaments are
still worn with belts made from various materials like shells, silver glass coins,
bronze or other types of alloys. A waist cloth made of coloured rattan is used to
tighten up the robe, pants, or vest. Necklace made from various materials are
used as decoration around the neck and chest. 

INDONATIA

In general, the people wear clothes that are similar to western style.
They wear traditional dress on special occasions.

Men: Indonesian men generally wore sarongs (usually with a

checkered pattern) in the home. In public, the sarong is worn only
when attending Friday prayers at the mosque. For formal national
occasions, the men wear batik shirts with trousers or teluk beskap, a
combination of the Javanese jacket and sarong.

Women: For formal occasions, Indonesian women wear the kebaya --

a beautiful, figure-hugging embroidered blouse worn with a batik
sarong that is usually dyed with flower motifs and in bright colours.
On these occasions, women often tied their hair into a bun, or
attached a false hairpiece. In addition, they may drape a long
stretch of cloth, called "selendang", over one shoulder. This cloth
can be used as a head shawl or on less formal occasions, used to
carry babies or objects.

Traditional Dress: Indonesia has 300 ethnic groups; each has their

own traditional dress variations.

 The Minangkabau ethnic group is indigenous to the highlands of

West Sumatra. Their traditional dress consists of silk robes
 with metallic thread woven into the material. Their headdress
is shaped like buffalo horns.

 The Toraja people live in the mountainous areas of South

Sulawesi (Celebes). The women's traditional costume features
elaborate beadwork and tassels.