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Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782

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Nusselt–Rayleigh correlations for design of industrial

elements: Experimental and numerical investigation of
natural convection in tilted square air filled enclosures
A. Baı̈ri *

University of Paris 10, Thermal and Energetical Engineering Department, GTE-TIE, 50, rue de Sèvres, F-92410 Ville d’Avray, France

Received 2 December 2006; accepted 16 July 2007

Available online 14 September 2007

Abstract

Natural convection in air filled 2D tilted square cavities is experimentally and numerically studied. The hot and cold walls of the cav-
ity are maintained isothermal at temperatures Th and Tc, respectively, and the channel of the cavity is adiabatic. Measurements and sim-
ulations are performed for various geometrical and thermal configurations. Different values of the Rayleigh number Ra and the tilt angle
a of the cavity are considered. The range of Ra covered in our work extends from 10 to 1010 while a varies from 0 to 360. This permits
the analysis of several significant situations corresponding to vertical active walls (a = 0), hot wall at the bottom (a = 90; Rayleigh–
Bénard convection) and hot wall at the top, pure conductive mode (a = 270). A computational 2D model based on the finite volume
method is used for solving the mass, momentum and energy transfer governing equations. The simulation provides thermal and dynamic
maps of the fluid for all configurations treated. The influence of Ra and a on the flow pattern and on the convective heat transfer are
analysed and discussed. The thermal boundary distribution and the convective heat transfer calculated are, for most treated cases, close
to those obtained experimentally by means of a simple bench specifically designed for this purpose. The maximum discrepancy between
the simulations and measurements is relatively small, corresponding to the expected uncertainty of the model and measurements. The
convective heat transfer is determined while calculating the radiative and conductive contributions to the global exchange. Radiation
is determined by the radiosity method associated with the measured field of temperatures as well as to the global IR emissivities of
all the internal elements of the cavity. The average Nusselt number Nu is used to quantify the calculated convective contribution of
the heat exchange within the cavity, and is compared with the measured value Num . We propose Nu–Ra type correlations that are useful
for sizing structures based on this type of cavities. In those aspects that are comparable, the results presented here are congruent with the
numerous analyses found in the literature on this matter.
The experimental results of this work complement the relatively small amount of values available in the literature since most of the
studies are numerical. Covering a wide range of Rayleigh numbers, the good correlation between the experimental and computational
results constitute an interesting tool for sizing systems in several industrial sectors.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: 2D natural convection; Tilted square enclosures; Experimental measurements; CFD; High Rayleigh numbers

1. Introduction different aspects of this problem, which is a proof of its

Natural convection in closed cavities has been exten-
sively studied for the last decades. We find in the litera-
ture more than a hundred relevant articles treating
*
Tel.: +33 0 1 47 09 70 30; fax: +33 0 1 47 09 30 67.
E-mail addresses: abairi@u-paris10.fr, bairi.a@gmail.com.
interest. This spontaneous mode of heat transfer is very
valued by engineers and the field of applications is very
wide. The industry of electronics, for example, takes profit
of natural convection for assemblies that are often con-
fined. They have to be thermally controlled to assure their
correct operation according to the environment for which
they are intended: aeronautics, automotive and other

0196-8904/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.07.030
772 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782
Nomenclature
a thermal diffusivity of air (m2 s1)
c specific heat (J kg1 K1)
g acceleration of gravity (m s2)
h average convection coefficient (Wm2 K1)
H height of cavity and distance between hot and
cold walls (m)
Nui calculated local Nusselt number for the i ele-
ment (–)
Nu calculated average Nusselt number (–)
Num measured average Nusselt number (–)
p pressure (Pa)
p* dimensionless pressure (–)
pm motion pressure (Pa)
pm dimensionless motion pressure (–)
Prad power exchanged by radiation at hot wall (W)
Pconv power exchanged by convection at hot wall (W)
Pr Prandtl number (–)
Ra Rayleigh number based on distance H(–)
Si elementary surface on hot wall (m2)
Sh total surface of hot wall (m2)
T local temperature of fluid (K)
Th temperature of hot wall (K)
Tc temperature of cold wall (K)
T* dimensionless temperature of air as defined by
Eq. (6) (–)
industrial systems in various sectors. Let us quote also the
cooling of nuclear reactors, the passive insulation of ships
and other frequent applications in the field of renewable
energies as thermal conversion of solar energy, geother-
mics, thermal control of aerogenerator shafts and helio-
metric instrumentation like pyranometers, pyrheliometers
and pyrgeometers.
Several geometric configurations, more or less complex,
have been examined under theoretical, numerical or exper-
imental approaches. However, taking into account the dif-
ficulties to develop the assemblies and the human and
material resources that it requires, the experimental
approach is only used when it absolutely necessary, and
it is being relegated to the background more and more by
CFD calculations.
After being validated by some standard experiments,
numerical modelling is a simpler, faster and lower cost
alternative to simulate the convective heat exchange and
the dynamic aspects occurring in closed cavities. The easy
modification of certain input data such as the geometry
of the enclosure, the thermophysical properties of the fluid
or the initial and boundary conditions make it possible to
know their respective influences on the developed flow.
Numerical simulation supposes the resolution of a com-
plex system of differential equations coupling the dynamic
and thermal aspects of the flow, to which it is necessary to
apply the particular boundary conditions of the treated
u, v flow velocity components in x and y directions,
respectively (m s1)
u*, v * dimensionless flow velocity components in x and
y directions, respectively (–)ffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V flow velocity ; V ¼ u2 þ v2 ; (m s1)
Vmax maximum flow velocity (m s1)
V* reduced velocity V* = V/Vmax (–)
x, y Cartesian coordinates (m)
x*, y* dimensionless Cartesian coordinates (–)
Greek symbols
a angle of inclination of cavity (degrees)
b expansion coefficient of air (K1)
d deviation between calculated and measured
Nusselt number; d ¼ ½ðNum  NuÞ=Nu  100ð%Þ
DT difference of temperatures between hot and cold
walls, DT = Th-Tc (K)
u heat flux density dissipated at hot wall (W m2)
kI thermal conductivity of passive walls
(W m1 K1)
k thermal conductivity of air (Wm1 K1)
l dynamic viscosity of air (Pa s)
h reduced temperature of fluid h = (T  Tc)/
(Th  Tc) (–)
q density of air (kg m3)
problem. Calculations often require a great computing
power and adequate methods. Among the works treating
this aspect through different methods, we refer those of
Patankar [1] and Lewis et al. [2]. In the past, researchers
were often confronted with a variety of difficulties, of
which some have been surmounted in the last years, thanks
to the increase in the capacities of computers and their pop-
ularisation, and also thanks to the development of new
techniques and numerical algorithms. As a matter of fact,
the results obtained by numerical simulation are more
and more trustworthy and their agreement with experimen-
tal data is better and better. We find in the literature an
abundant scientific production examining different issues.
There are also bibliographical reviews treating this aspect,
like Ostrach [3,4], Catton [5], Bejan [6], Baı̈ri [7] and Kha-
lifa [8,9].
In this paper, we treat cubical closed cavities filled with
air that are largely used in practice given their simple form
and easy realization. Four walls of the enclosure are adia-
batic and suffer the flow generated by the two other active,
opposite walls that are kept isothermal and differentially
heated. They can be vertical or tilted with respect to the
gravity direction. This fact completely modifies the
dynamic and thermal characteristics of the flow as it is
shown below. Such a simple configuration has been the
subject of many theoretical, numerical and experimental
studies. Several aspects are treated by de Vahl Davis
 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782
[10,11] and Catton [12], putting emphasis on the parame-
ters that influence the flow. In addition to the dimensions
of the enclosure, let us quote the thermal and dynamic
boundary conditions, the thermal qualities of its walls,
the inclination of the cavity with respect to the gravity
direction and the initial conditions. The thermophysical
characteristics of the convective fluid, which play a major
role in natural convection, vary with temperature and pres-
sure and, therefore, with its place in the cavity and with
time. In this connection, one will distinguish works treating
permanent convection and those dealing with non-station-
ary convection. For example, Skouta et al. [13] treated 2D
unsteady convection in a cavity of square cross section
heated on two opposite faces. Very lengthened along the
third horizontal axis, the cavity is tilted so that one of its
diagonal plans becomes vertical and the other horizontal.
Rayleigh–Bénard (RB) type convection occurs when the
hot wall is horizontal and located below the cold one. It
has been studied for different applications, particularly in
electronics. RB convection is governed by coupled non-lin-
ear partial differential equations for mass, momentum and
energy whose resolution becomes unstable when the Ray-
leigh number exceeds a critical value. Many detailed studies
on RB convection, as well as reviews on this matter like
those of Gelfgat [14], Yang [15] and Koschmieder [16] are
available in the open literature. Steady natural convection
in enclosures heated from below and symmetrically cooled
from the sides has been studied by Ganzorolli and Milanez
[17]. They put in evidence the influence of the Rayleigh and
Prandtl numbers on the motion and on the energy trans-
port. The evolution of RB convection from stable bi-modal
convection to unstable convection is examined by Mukut-
moni and Yang [18] in a cavity with isothermal hot and
cold walls. Particular attention has been paid to cavities
of square section [19–22]. Studying natural convection in
a vertical square cavity heated from the bottom and cooled
from one side, Anderson and Lauriat [23] have observed a
single cell flow pattern and the absence of Bénard type
instabilities. Several researchers have examined the influ-
ence of the cavity inclination on the nature of the flow
and on the convection transfers. Cianfrini et al. [24] per-
formed a study on natural convection in air filled, tilted
square enclosures with two adjacent walls heated and the
two opposite walls cooled. The considered Rayleigh num-
ber varies between 104 and 106 and the tilt angle of the cav-
ity between 0 and 360. They analysed the influence of
these parameters on the flow pattern and the heat transfer
rates across the enclosure. Some studies draw attention to
the complexity of the numerical resolution of flows in tilted
cavities. Among other parameters, the initial conditions
play a major role on the numerical solution that could
not be unique. Soong et al. [25] showed that two different
solutions exist for some configurations. Leong et al. [26]
and Mamun et al. [27] have treated the particular case of
an air filled cubical cavity with two opposing isothermal
faces and the remaining four sides having a linear temper-
ature rise from the cold face temperature to the hot face
773
temperature. They propose measured values of the average
Nusselt number for a wide range of Rayleigh numbers
(104–3.108). The flow becomes increasingly unstable when
the Rayleigh number increases, driving to turbulence and
to a particularly complex flow as shown by Gollub and
Benson [28], Libchaber et al. [29] and Mukutmoni et al.
[18,30,31]. In certain situations, it is convenient to consider
non-isothermal active hot walls in order to comply with a
more realistic design of the treated problem. It is the case
of electronics where the flux dissipated by the components
is neither homogeneous nor steady. Fusegi et al. [32] and
Janssen et al. [33] have shown that the transition from
the conductive mode to the convective one takes place at
higher Rayleigh numbers than those for cavities with iso-
thermal hot walls, and the flow in the central part of the
cavity is more complex and non-permanent. Gatheri
et al. [34] simulated the 3D turbulent natural convection
in a room with a heater and a window on the same wall.
Models in 3D, which often require enormous computer
capacities, are reserved for the study of local phenomena
that can be of a great utility in certain physical installa-
tions. It is again the case of electronics when certain parts
of the assembly are located in zones of reduced circulation
and, thus, are badly controlled thermally. When the edge
effects in the cavity do not have a great influence on the
nature of the flow, as is the case treated here, the 3D prob-
lem is brought back to a 2D problem. The bi-dimensional
approach both simplifies the numerical solution and pro-
vides a satisfactory precision, at least for quantification
of the heat transfer, as long as some precautions are taken
when solving the system of equations. Janssen et al. [35]
and Lee and Lin [36] have examined the flow structures,
thermal fields and stability conditions in vertical and
inclined cubical enclosures with heating and cooling
sidewalls.
Radiation heat transfer can play an important role in
the cavity. According to the dimensions of the walls, the
level of temperature and the radiative properties of the
walls, the radiation exchange must be evaluated in order
to subtract it from the total exchanges so as to obtain sep-
arately the heat transfer due to natural convection. That is
applicable for square cavities as much as for those with
parallelogram section as shown by Baı̈ri [37] and Baı̈ri
et al. [38]. This aspect was also treated by Hinojosa et al.
[39] for open square cavities. The authors put in evidence
the strong influence of the temperatures on the flow. The
Nusselt number is, thus, modified according to the Ray-
leigh number considered and the inclination of the cavity.
These results agree with those by Chan and Tien [40].
The experimental results of this work complement the
relatively small amount of values available in the literature
since most of the studies are numerical. We both confirm
certain aspects quoted previously and propose simple cor-
relations for all the studied inclinations of the cavity, cov-
ering a broad range of Ra numbers and being valid for
diverse applications in engineering. The thermal studies
of buildings as well as the field of electronics are particu-
774 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782
larly concerned taking into account the dimensions of the
cavities and the variations in temperature considered. The
error analysis that has been performed takes into account
all the uncertainties of the instrumentation used as well
as the statistical method of evaluation adopted. This anal-
ysis make it possible to know the margin of uncertainty
associated with our measurements, to compare them with
calculations and finally to asses the concordance between
our results and those obtained by other authors. In most
of the treated cases, the dispersion attained remains small,
which confirms the validity of the 2D model used. In addi-
tion, the boundary condition of adiabaticity of the passive
walls used in this work was confronted against other con-
ditions like the linear temperature profile (LTP) at walls.
Though not presented here, the results obtained using this
last condition are in good agreement with those relevant to
the present work.
2. Treated problem
The treated 2D square cavity whose side is equal toH is
represented in Fig. 1a. Only two walls are active, generat-
ing the flow in the cavity: the hot one (x = 0) and the cold
one (x = H), opposite and maintained isothermal at tem-
peratures Th and Tc, respectively. These temperatures are
adjusted so that the difference of temperatures
DT = Th  Tc, associated to the distance H and the flow
characteristics lead to particular values of the Rayleigh
number Ra. The channel of the cavity consists of four pas-
sive adiabatic walls (z = +H/2; z = H/2; y = 0; y = H). In
this work, we examine the 2D flows generated in the cavity.
We, thus, work in the median plane z = 0 and consider the
cavity represented in Fig. 1, either vertical (Fig. 1b) or
rotated an angle a about its centre (Fig. 1c). Steady state
measurements are performed on an experimental set up
focused only on the thermal aspects for a variety of combi-
nations of Ra and a. The range of Ra covered in our work
extends from 10 to 1010, while a varies from 0 to 360. This
permits the analysis of several significant situations corre-
sponding to vertical active walls (a = 0), hot wall at the
bottom (a = 90; RB convection) and hot wall at the top
(a = 270, pure conductive mode). The numerical study is
done by means of a solver based on the finite volumes
g
H
y v
Tc w
z g
H Th z=+H/2
H x
u
0
x 0
H
z=-H/2
Fig. 1. Treated square cavity.
method adapted to our geometry and thermal boundary
conditions.
3. Proving bench and experimental procedure
A simple proving bench is designed to test all the config-
urations. The hot wall (Fig. 2a) consists of independent
resistances manufactured over a classic single face printed
circuit board (epoxy–copper 35 lm). The central zone con-
stitutes the useful zone on which measurements are taken.
It is made of overlapped resistances whose number varies
between 10 (numbered from 1 to 10 for the minimal config-
uration presented in Fig. 2) and 20 for the largest cavity
(corresponding to the study of high Rayleigh numbers).
A second zone is a guard resistance located all around
the useful zone of the plate. All the resistances are heated
independently by means of a multi-channel stabilized
power supply allowing measurement of the powers dissi-
pated by each resistance. A PID (proportional-integral-
derivative) type regulator with independent ways is
installed to ensure a uniform and constant temperature of
the plate, a major condition of this work. This thermal reg-
ulator uses a series of K-type thermocouples of 0.1 mm in
diameter: 3 on each useful resistance and 4 on the safe-
guard resistances indicated by stars in Fig. 2a.
The thermocouples are disposed on the rear face of the
hot plate in order not to disturb the flow in the vicinity of
the wall. Measurements in the steady state regime are taken
when the fluctuations in temperature are lower than 0.1%.
The back face of the plate is well insulated with slabs of
extruded polyurethane of 3 · 40 mm in thickness (thermal
conductivity ki = 0.028 ± 0.001 W m1 K1) plus a plank
of 20 mm.
The cold wall (b3 in Fig. 2b) is a copper plate of 3 mm
thickness with a copper coil welded onto its back face.
The flow rate of the coolant driven inside the coil is con-
trolled by a circulation system. The temperature of the
fluid, and hence that of the cold plate, can be imposed with
a precision of 0.1 C in the range from 50 C to +80 C
by means of a controlled bath (b5 in Fig. 2b) using a cryo-
stat and a heating electrical resistance. The powers dissi-
pated at the hot plate are adjusted to obtain the
temperature Th, ensuring the desired difference of tempera-
y v
v
y H Tc
g u
Th x
Tc
H Th
u
0
x α
H
 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782
Fig. 2. (a) Hot plate with thermocouples locations, (b) the proving bench (b1 hot plate, b2 cavity, b3 cold plate, b4 fast data acquisition system, b5
controlled bath, b6 computer) with the cavity mounted on the rotating framework b7 and (c) the channel.
tures DT with respect to the fixed temperature Tc. The tests
are done for different values of DT: 10 K to 70 K in steps of
10 K. The four other walls are plates of extruded polyure-
thane with a thickness of 80 mm. The elements of the cavity
are assembled by means of a wooden rigid case of 20 mm
thickness that is laid on a frame. The angle of inclination
a can be varied from 0 to 360 by rotating the framework
(b7 in Fig. 2b) around the horizontal axis. In the channel
(b2 in Fig. 2b), the temperature is measured in the inner
face over the central lines of the four walls shown in
Fig. 2c. The total number of thermocouples for the passive
walls varies between 12 and 32 depending on the cavity
size. The air temperature of the environment outside the
cavity is also measured in 3 points. All the thermocouples
are connected to a fast data acquisition system (b4 in
Fig. 2b) controlled by a computer (b6 in Fig. 2b). Measure-
ments of the thermal state of the cavity as well as the global
heat flux densities dissipated in the hot wall are done in the
steady state regime.
The total heat flux generated at the hot plate is trans-
ferred by natural convection and also by radiation and
conduction. To examine the convection part, the first step
of the experimental work is to determine the respective
amounts of radiation and conduction. The radiative con-
tribution within the cavity cannot be neglected even if
the temperatures considered in our work are relatively
low. This part is determined by the radiosity method
(see Ref. [38] for details), considering the air as a transpar-
ent medium and all the internal surfaces as grey. The cal-
culations are associated with the measured field of
temperatures as well as with the global infrared (IR) emis-
sivities of all the internal elements of the cavity measured
in our laboratory using a special installation. The conduc-
tive losses occur in two zones: at the back of the hot plate
and through the four walls of the channel. Losses at the
back of the hot plate are determined using a symmetrical
assembly made of two identical channels located on both
sides of a double faced hot plate. Both cavities are bunged
with cold plates maintained at temperature Tc. In this
assembly, the three active plates are maintained vertical
(a = 0) to establish an identical flow in the two symmetri-
cal cavities. When steady state is reached, the power nec-
essary to maintain the hot plate at temperature Th is
775
measured. Another experiment is performed with a single
channel cavity where the back of the hot plate remains
insulated. The power lost at the back of the hot plate is
then determined by a simple heat balance between the
two measured powers. The greatest value of this loss is
about 1.5% of the total heat generated at the hot plate
(obtained for an adverse configuration with
Th = 85.6 C, Tc = 15.1 C and a = 0), but nevertheless,
we don’t neglect it. Other series of measurements on a
prototype cavity using channels with different thickness
confirm that the conductive losses through the four walls
of the duct are small. They represent less than 0.3% of
the total exchanges in the most adverse case, which corre-
sponds to the larger difference of temperatures DT and les-
ser insulator thickness (40 mm). Its associated uncertainty
remains within the margin of error allotted to the Nusselt
number. The experimental results will be used to validate
the model set up in the numerical part of this work. Now-
adays, this type of experimental approach still remains
particularly complex to realize except for some aspects
and with certain fluids. It requires the use of important
equipment that goes beyond the purpose of the present
study, intentionally limited to the quantification of the
convective heat transfer. Finally, we ensure that the
dimensions of the cubic cavities, in particular the ratio
between the depth and the height H, make the edge effects
negligible, and thus, the 3D effects lead to a 2D flow.
4. 2D governing equations; boundary and initial conditions;
computational procedure
The considered continuity equation is

ou ov
þ ¼0 ð1Þ
ox oy 
where x*, y*, u* and v* are the dimensionless Cartesian
coordinates and the dimensionless velocity components de-
fined as
x y u v
x  ¼ ; y  ¼ ; u ¼ ; v ¼ ð2Þ
H H a=H a=H
with a being the thermal diffusivity. The momentum equa-
tions can be expressed as
776 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782
8 2 
>   ou op o u o2 u between the precision of the results and the computing
>
> x direction : u ou þ v oy  ¼  ox þ Pr ox2 þ oy 2
>
>
ox
time. Furthermore, the adopted grid is not regular. We
<
þRaPrT  cos a obviously privileged the neighbourhood of the active
2  ð3Þ
> ov
> y direction : u ox  ov opm o v o2 v walls in order to take into account better the viscous
>  þ v oy  ¼  oy  þ Pr ox2 þ oy 2
>
>
: effects and the thermal transfer at the boundary layer.
RaPrT  sin a
The grid has to be adapted to each treated case, knowing
and the energy equation is the great influence of the cavity inclination a and of the
 2   difference of temperatures DT on the flow. We pay spe-
oT  oT  oT o2 T  cial attention at the beginning of the iterative process,
u  þ v   ¼ þ ð4Þ
ox oy ox2 oy 2 which is the most delicate stage. To speed up the conver-
gence, the calculation parameters are adjusted, bearing in
The relation between the motion pressure pm and the pres- mind the nature of the flow that settles in the cavity. The
sure p is radiative exchanges and the conductive losses are
pm ¼ p þ qgx cos a  qgy sin a ð5Þ calculated simultaneously. The iterative process continues
until the relative differences between the results of two
and the other parameters are defined as successive iterations are lower than 105 for the speed
8    components and 106 for the energy. The numerical con-
op H 3 g op
>
>  ¼ a2  þ cos a vergence of the equations system is very frail, taking into
>
> ox

ox

>
>  account the small values of the speed components.
>
< op m
¼ H 3 g op
 sin a
oy  a2 oy  Whenever anyone of the parameters a or Ra is changed,
p ð6Þ
>
> p ¼ qgH we use the velocity and temperature fields obtained for a
>
>
>
> 3 close configuration in order to reduce the iterative pro-
> p
: pm ¼ am 2 ¼ Ha2g ðp þ x cos a  y  sin aÞ
qðH Þ cess and to optimise the computing time. Air is modelled
8 4q
through the equation of incompressible perfect gases, and
>
> Ra ¼ gbH u we consider the dependence of its principal thermophys-
>
>
lka
>
> lC ical characteristics with temperature. The density, viscos-
< Pr ¼ k
ðT T c Þx¼0
ity and thermal conductivity are evaluated at every step
>
> u¼ ¼ kðT hHT c Þ of the calculations by means of the Sutherland relations.
>
>
H
k
>
> For slopes involving strong turbulence intensity, we asso-
: T  ¼ T T
u
c
k=H

In the treated problem, the thermal and dynamic boundary

conditions are
8  
>
> isothermal hot wall : oT ox x ¼0
¼ 1
>
>
>
> 
isothermal cold wall : ðT Þx ¼1 ¼ 0
>
>
<    
 oT 
adiabatic walls : oT  ¼ 0 and oy 
¼0 ð7Þ
>
>
oy
y  ¼0 y  ¼1
>
>
>
> at x ¼ 0; x ¼ 1; y  ¼ 0 and y  ¼ 1 :
>
>
: 
u ¼ 0 and v ¼ 0

In the calculations, the initial field of velocity is considered

null, and the initial temperature distribution between the
hot and cold walls is linear. The simulations complement
the experimental results, providing the thermal and dy-
namic maps of the fluid for all the geometrical configura-
tions treated as well as the convective heat transfer.
The preceding system of equations is resolved by
means of the finite volume method described by Patankar
[1]. Each geometrical configuration is discretised by
means of a structured grid of cells non-uniformly distrib-
uted in the domain. The number of cells is, on average,
256 · 256, while a maximum of 512 · 512 has been used
for certain critical combinations of a and Ra. A coarse
grid of 128 · 128 nodes is enough for some configura-
Fig. 3. (a)Velocity and temperature maps, (b) Dimensionless values of the
tions with small Ra. These numbers of cells result from velocity V* and the temperature h = (T  Tc)/(Th  Tc) for different angles
specific research that consists of optimizing the ratio of inclination a. DT = 70 C.
 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782 777

160
1 2
Nu 140
10
140 Ra=10
Ra=1010
100

120
Nu 109
60
108
100
20
107
80 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 α 360
109 10 3

60 Ra=106
Nu
40
108 5 105

20 104
106 1 103
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 α 360 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 α 360

Fig. 4. Evolution of the calculated Nusselt number Nu as a function of Ra for different inclinations (2 and 3 are the details of 1).

ciate the RNG-ke model to the Navier-Stokes equations

Ra=3.45.109
for a best determination of the temperature gradients 100
and, consequently, of the thermal transfer at the walls.
Nu
The two layer wall model is implemented to calculate Ra=7.66.107
the terms of turbulence in zones close to the active walls.
Nu m
Meticulous modelling of these areas is essential for a cor-
rect study of the convection transfer. For some configu- 10
rations, the transition from laminar to turbulent flow is Ra=4.85.105
not evident, which brings us to a particularly complex
schema with suitable models of turbulence applied to Ra=2.64.104
the quasi-totality of the fluid domain. The convection
transfer is calculated for each element of the hot plate : Nu m
through the local thermal gradient. The dimensionless 1
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 α 360
temperature of the air, as defined by Eq. (6), allows us
to derive the calculated local Nusselt number Nui for Fig. 5. Comparison between the calculated Nu and measured Num Nusselt
each surface element i (i = 1 to 10) of the hot wall numbers for different Ra and angles of inclination a.

Nui ¼ ð1=T i Þx ¼0 ð8Þ

In our work, we do not analyse directly the local values, the
objective being knowledge of the average convective ex-
changes on the hot wall. We, thus, determine numerically
the calculated average Nusselt number Nu by integrating
the local values, corresponding to Si surfaces (i = 1 to
10), over the total surface Sh of the hot plate
Z Z
1
Nu ¼ Nui dS i ð9Þ
Sh Sh
This computed value is then faced with the average exper-
imental value Num ¼ hH =k. The average convection coeffi-
cient h is determined via measurement of the power
exchanged by convection Pconv and the difference of tem-
peratures DT = Th  Tc, and therefore, using Newton’s
law P conv ¼ hS h DT . The results for Nu have been compared
with those found in the bibliography, taking as a reference
the particular angles a = 0 (vertical active walls), 90 (RB
convection) and 270 (stratification). The comparison is
presented in detail in Section 6 below.
5. Numerical and experimental results
We present in this section the results concerning the
thermal and dynamic aspects of the treated problem. Tak-
ing into account the large number of cases studied, we only
examine here the more representative ones. Some of them
are simultaneously studied through simulations and exper-
imental test, which make it possible, on the one hand, to
complement the thermal measurements with the computed
velocity fields and, on the other hand, to check the congru-
ence of both the numerical and experimental approaches.
The range of Rayleigh number Ra varies between 103
and 1010, while the inclination angle a varies from 0 to
360 with individual values corresponding to interesting
cases from the convective point of view.
The dynamic and thermal maps in the cavity are pre-
sented in Fig. 3 for a particular value of the difference of
temperatures DT = 70 C. The reduced velocity V* and
the dimensionless temperature of the fluid h = (T  Tc)/
778 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782

Table 1
Comparison between the calculated Nu and measured Num Nusselt numbers for different Ra and angles of inclination a
a Ra=26 454 Ra=485 476 Ra=76 654 326 Ra=3 454 343 256 Mean deviation
Nu Num d Nu Num d Nu Num d Nu Num d
0 2.878 3.200 11.2 6.685 6.491 2.9 29.014 26.820 7.6 87.542 92.589 5.8 1.6
45 3.070 3.020 1.6 7.130 7.522 5.5 30.948 30.546 1.3 93.378 90.150 3.5 0.2
90 2.974 2.870 3.5 7.112 6.457 9.2 32.471 34.269 5.5 101.774 91.245 10.3 4.4
225 2.298 2.213 3.7 4.751 5.155 8.5 16.843 18.152 7.8 43.638 48.675 11.5 6.0
270 1.198 1.104 7.8 1.426 1.403 1.6 1.932 1.979 2.5 2.428 2.174 10.5 4.4
Mean deviation (%): 1.1 0.1 1.4 1.4 0.3
Numbers in italics are the deviations d (in %).

(Th  Tc) are presented in the same Fig. 3 for various incli-
nation angles a.
In general terms, we observe that the flow affects more
particularly the zones close to the active heat and cold
walls. Our results confirm the results of former works such
as those quoted in the introduction, but we provide, in
addition, complementary results of the dynamic and ther-
mal fields for several configurations. When the hot wall is
underneath the cold one (angles a > 0), the increase in
the Rayleigh number Ra produces an increase of the max-
imum flow velocity. For small or moderate inclination
angles (0 6 a 6 45), the fluid in the central part of the cav-
ity is almost stagnant. The influence of Ra starts to be per-
ceptible only when the inclination angle goes up to 60 or
Table 2
Correlations Nu  Ra for different angles of inclination a 103 6 Ra 6 1010
a()
0, 30, 180, 360
45, 135, 315
225
60, 90
270
more. In this case, the isotherms are deformed and the cen-
tral stagnant zone becomes smaller but without important
modification of the isovelocity lines. For these configura-
tions, the passive walls undergo a more intense flow that
involves conductive exchanges with the outside higher than
in other cases. As a consequence, deviations between the
computed (adiabatic walls assumed) and measured values
of the Nusselt number are expected. For large values of
Ra, the flow extends to the quasi-totality of the volume,
and a symmetry is observed for a = 90 (corresponding
to RB convection) whatever is the value of Ra. We note
also the classical stratification of the fluid and a quasi-lin-
ear vertical temperature distribution for low inclinations
(a < 45). We finally notice that the temperature and veloc-
ity fields as well as the maximum velocity values are con-
gruent with natural convective transfer.
In this work, we are interested in the average convective
exchanges on the hot plate, represented by the average
Correlation
Nu ¼ 0:15Ra0:29 Nusselt number. Therefore, we do not describe in this
Nu ¼ 0:16Ra0:29 chapter the influence of the physical parameters on the
Nu ¼ 0:18Ra0:25 Nusselt number. This aspect is conveniently treated in
Nu ¼ 0:14Ra0:30 many papers included those in the references. In Fig. 4,
Nu ¼ 0:65Ra0:06
we present the evolution of the computed Nusselt number

10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 Ra 10 10 10 a
10 3 g
Nu 1 h
i
d 3
α=0 j
10 2 Nu e
k Present study
f α=0

10
Ra
1
1 103 104 105 106
10 3
160 a g
2 a 4
b h g
120 c i Nu
j b
d
Nu h Present study
e k α=0
80 f l 102 c
d
l
40
α=0
20 Ra Ra
10
10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10 10 7 10 8 10 9 10 10

Fig. 6. Calculated Nusselt number Nu for a = 0: Comparison with other works. a our study; b Ref. [5]; c Ref. [49]; d Ref. [45]; e Ref. [42]; f Ref. [47]; g
Ref. [44]; h Ref. [32] and [48]; i Ref. [10]; j Ref. [41]; k Ref. [46]; l Ref. [50]. Details in Table 3. 3 and 4 are the details of 1 and 2 for two ranges of Ra.
 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782 779

31.6
16.9
Nu for different angles of inclination and for the whole

2.3
–
–
–
–
–
range of Ra treated, going from 103 to 1010. The tendency

Ref. [50]

156.850
follows a similar pattern in all cases as shown in Fig. 4 for

32.045
two different ranges of Ra. The convection exchanges

–
–
–
–
–

–
increase for inclination angles between 0 (vertical active

1.5
6.4
9.2

5.7
– walls) and a critical value discernible at 45 for Ra 6 105

–
–
Ref. [47]

2.200 and at 60 for Ra P 106. This fact confirms what has been
4.500
9.000
stated in most previous works that partially treated this
–

–
–
–
–
aspect. The exchanges decrease then monotonously to
0.5
3.5
6.9
6.8

4.4
reach a minimum at a = 270, corresponding to the hot
–
–
–
–
Ref. [46]

wall located up and a stratified fluid, with a Nusselt num-

1.118
2.243
4.519
8.800

ber close to unity. For low values of the Ra number, Nu

–
–
–
–
is also close to unity for almost all the inclinations of the
3.5
3.9

11.8
5.3

2.4

Numbers in italics are the deviations with respect to the values of the present work. Evolution in Fig. 6. The references are the same of those of Fig. 6.
cavity, proving that heat transfer occurs quasi-exclusively
–
–
–
–
Ref. [42]

by pure conduction through the adjacent fluid layers,

1.073
2.083
4.452
9.215

which are almost at rest. High values of Ra have a more

–
–
–
–

evident influence on Nu, and this influence is definitely

5.4

noticeable for certain values of a.

0.9
6.7
7.3

2.4
–
–
–
–
Ref. [41]

The inclination of the cavity plays a major role in the

1.052
2.187
4.512
8.846

convective exchanges. Our results confirm an obvious dif-

–
–
–
–

ference in the exchanges according to the relative position

0.6

of the hot wall with respect to the cold one (more or less
3.5
6.9
6.8
3.5
0.6

3.4
–

elevated). That remains valid for all the Ra values treated

Ref. [45]

16.629
31.520
60.728

in this work. When the hot wall is at the top, convection

2.245
4.521
8.800

is moderate due to the stratification affecting most of the

–

cavity. The numerical values of Nu have been compared

0.5
3.5
6.9
6.8

4.4

with the experimental ones Num obtained through the mea-

–
–
–
–
Ref. [10]

surement, among others, of the convection heat transfer

1.118
2.243
4.519
8.800

coefficient. Long and tough experiments were made for

–
–
–
–

20 individual geometrical and thermal configurations cov-

13.7
19.5
0.9
7.5

7.1

ering the extent of the present work: 5 inclinations (a = 0,

6.2
–
–
–

45, 90, 225 and 270), each one associated with four differ-
Ref. [49]

15.923
28.975
52.725
95.944

ent values of Ra (2.65 · 104, 4.85 · 105, 7.67 · 107,

8.750

3.45 · 109). CFD calculations have been made for all these
–
–
–

cases, and the comparison between the calculated Nu and

2.4
3.1

2.7
4.5
6.2
7.9
9.6
Ref. [32]& [48]

3.2

4.2

the measured Num Nusselt numbers is presented in Fig. 5.

Calculated Nusselt number Nu for a = 0: comparison with other works

Quantitative details of such comparison are given in Table

107.693
15.353
29.389
56.258
1.085
2.100
4.361
8.020

1. The numerical computations are in good agreement with

the measurements, confirmed by the small values of the
deviation d ¼ ½ðNum  NuÞ=Nu  100 given in italics in
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
9.8
107.473
Ref. [5]

14.498
28.268
55.119
1.003
1.956
3.813
7.435

103
a d
Nu
13.0

b e
2.7
6.1

c f
0.8
5.4
7.5
5.0
4.5

0.2

102
Ref. [44]

103.663
present

Present study
16.790
30.506
57.350
1.121
2.286
4.546
8.652

10
Mean deviation with the

α =90
Present work

1
119.149
16.073
31.339
61.107

103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010

1.112
2.168
4.228
8.243

work (%):

Ra
Table 3

Fig. 7. Calculated Nusselt number Nu for a = 90: Comparison with other

works. a Ref. [43]; b Ref. [22]; c Ref. [26]; d Ref. [10]; e Ref. [6]; f present
1010
3

104
105
106
107
108
109
Ra
10

study. Details in Table 4.

780 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782

Table 4
Calculated Nusselt numberNu for a = 90: comparison with others works
Ra Present work Ref. [43] Ref. [10] Ref. [22] Ref. [26] Ref. [6]
3
10 1.112 1.116 0.4 1.118 0.5 1.113 0.1 – – 1.000 10.1
104 2.219 2.254 1.6 2.243 1.1 2.244 1.1 1.251 43.6 1.235 44.3
105 4.427 4.506 1.8 4.519 2.1 4.521 2.1 3.514 20.6 3.235 26.9
106 8.833 8.879 0.5 8.800 0.4 8.825 0.1 7.755 12.2 7.548 14.5
107 17.625 – – – – – – 15.549 11.8 16.790 4.7
108 35.166 – – – – – – 31.175 11.4 36.684 4.3
109 70.166 – – – – – – – – 79.537 13.4
1010 140.000 – – – – – – – – 171.852 22.8
Mean deviation with the present work (%): 1.1 0.8 0.8 19.9 16.1
Values in italics are the deviations with the values of the present work. Evolution in Fig. 7. The references are the same of those of Fig. 7.

Table 1. The maximum deviation is about 12% for high
Rayleigh numbers, being on average less than 2% for a
given Ra. Note that the maximum mean deviation is
obtained for angles a P 90. Deviations obtained for
a = 225 and a = 270 can partly be imputed to stratifica-
tion, which favours conductive losses through the upper
wall of the channel, contrary to the condition of adiabatic-
ity adopted in the mathematical model.
We have carried out an error analysis in order to assess
the experimental uncertainties associated with the instru-
mentation used. These calculations lead us to a maximum
experimental relative uncertainty of the measured Nusselt
number of about 7%, i.e. DNum =Num ¼ 0:07. Considering,
in addition, the uncertainty associated with CFD calcula-
tions, the preceding results show good agreement between
the measurements and the calculations, which permits
us to rely on the numerical model for examination of
complementary cases within the limits of the specified
assumptions.
The numerical results were treated and analysed so as to
propose the most reliable correlations (square fitting coef-
ficients better than 0.96) but also the simplest in order to
facilitate their exploitation in engineering. These empirical
correlations are given in Table 2.
6. Comparison with other studies
Our calculated results of Nu have been compared with
results from previous studies. We present in Fig. 6 this
comparison for a cavity whose active walls are vertical
(a = 0). The details of this figure are presented in Table
3, where again, the values in italics are the deviations with
respect to our results.
The same work has been made for a = 90 (hot plate at
the bottom, RB convection). We present the comparison in
Fig. 7 and Table 4.
Divergences remain relatively limited for the large
majority of the quoted cases, but we note, nevertheless, sig-
nificant differences with some of the cited works:
• primarily with Refs. [6] and [26] for a = 90. The results
given in Ref. [26] present substantial departures with
respect to several other works as pointed out by the
authors themselves, so that we will not hold account
of it. Divergences with Ref. [6] are due to the relations
used that are in the limit conditions of our study.
• in general, for high values of Ra and a = 0, as proven in
former comparisons with square and rectangular cavi-
ties. That is due to the numerical difficulties for resolving
the flows that are often turbulent and non-stationary;
different authors solved them by means of very different
numerical approaches.
Taking into account the experimental and numerical
uncertainties quoted before and also the uncertainties of
the quoted studies, there is a good overall agreement, and
we, thus, consider it as a validation of the numerical model
adopted in the present study.
7. Conclusion
The thermal measurements taken on the experimental
bench confirm the results of CFD calculations concern-
ing several geometrical and thermal configurations
obtained while varying the inclination of the cavity and
the Rayleigh number. The results attained numerically
by means of the finite volume method are concordant
with former studies restricted to certain aspects and cer-
tain treated configurations. They are also coherent with
the work previously performed with the same code,
treating tilted parallelepipedic cavities. The 2D adopted
model makes it possible to establish Nusselt–Rayleigh
type correlations useful to size the systems correctly.
Though laws of this type obtained by different ways –
experimental, numerical or both- are available in the lit-
erature, this work comes to complement these studies, in
particular for the range of high Rayleigh numbers, which
is of great interest for several engineering applications.
Actually, when the temperature difference between the
active walls is large and the dimensions of the cavity
are considerable, the Rayleigh number acquires high val-
ues of about a 1010, the upper limit considered in this
study. The proposed correlations cover all the possible
cavity inclinations, allowing us to select the most appro-
priate for the application actually considered, whatever
the sector concerned.
 A. Baı̈ri / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 771–782 781

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