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Pro-veganism on Instagram Pro-veganism

on Instagram
Effects of user-generated content (UGC) types
and content generator types in Instagram-based
health marketing communication about 685
veganism
Received 27 June 2019
Joe Phua Revised 6 December 2019
Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, University of Georgia, Accepted 7 February 2020

Athens, Georgia, USA

S. Venus Jin
NU-Q Communication Program, Northwestern University, Evanston,
Illinois, USA, and
School of Business, Sejong University, Seoul, South Korea, and
Jihoon (Jay) Kim
Department of Advertising and Public Relations, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa,
Alabama, USA

Abstract
Purpose – Through two experiments, this study assessed source and message effects of Instagram-based pro-
veganism messages.
Design/methodology/approach – Experiment 1 (N 5 294) examined effects of organization (brand vs
nonprofit) and message types (egoistic vs altruistic) on consumer responses to Instagram-based pro-veganism
content. Experiment 2 (N 5 288) examined effects of source type (celebrity vs noncelebrity) and message
valence (positive vs negative) on consumer responses to Instagram-based pro-veganism content.
Findings – Results demonstrated significant main effects of organization type, with consumers indicating
more positive attitudes and higher credibility toward the brand. Significant main effects of message type were
also found, with altruistic messages eliciting higher perceived information value than egoistic messages.
Subjective norms had moderating effects on attitude toward the organization, while attitude toward veganism
had moderating effects on perceived information value. Results also indicated significant main effects of
message valence on perceived information value of pro-veganism Instagram posts and significant interaction
effects of the two manipulated factors on intention to spread electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) about pro-
veganism.
Originality/value – Implications for use of Instagram-based health marketing communication about
veganism were discussed. Specifically, organizations looking to use social media to influence attitudes and
behavioral intentions toward health issues should seek to reach their target audiences through selecting
endorsers and messages that will optimally present the health issue in a relatable and engaging way.
Keywords Instagram, Veganism, For-profit vs nonprofit organizations, Egoistic vs altruistic values,
Celebrity, Message valence
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Veganism is “a way of living which seeks to exclude, as far as possible and practicable, all
forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose”
(Bedin et al., 2018, p. 1). Social media is a major driver of the vegan lifestyle, which partially
accounts for the prevalence of veganism among millennials who gravitate toward social Online Information Review
media (Meager, 2016). As of December 2019, more than 95 million Instagram posts have been Vol. 44 No. 3, 2020
pp. 685-704
hashtagged with #vegan or #veganism, according to Instagram statistics (Instagram, 2019). © Emerald Publishing Limited
1468-4527
In light of the prevalence of veganism among millennials and influx of #vegan posts on DOI 10.1108/OIR-06-2019-0213
OIR Instagram, and drawing on tenets of the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), source
44,3 credibility model (McCroskey and Teven, 1999), and the match-up hypothesis (Kahle and
Homer, 1985), the current study examined the effects of Instagram profile sources
(Experiment 1: brand vs nonprofit; Experiment 2: celebrity vs noncelebrity) and message
types (Experiment 1: egoistic vs altruistic; Experiment 2: positively valenced vs negatively
valenced) on consumers’ attitude toward pro-veganism advertising on Instagram.
Specifically, Experiment 1 examined the joint effects of organization type (brand vs
686 nonprofit organization) and message type (egoistic vs altruistic) of Instagram-based
pro-veganism messages on (a) perceived information value, (b) attitude toward the
organization, and (c) perceived credibility of the organization. Experiment 2, meanwhile,
examined the joint effects of individual endorser type (celebrity vs noncelebrity influencer)
and message valence (positive vs negative) of Instagram-based pro-veganism messages on (1)
a) perceived information value, (b) electronic word-of-mouth (eWOM) intention, and (c)
behavioral intention toward veganism. Together, the two experiments offer a more complete
overview of pro-veganism messages on Instagram and their effects on consumers’ attitudes
and behavioral intentions toward veganism.

2. Experiment 1: effects of organization (brand vs nonprofit) and message types

(egoistic vs altruistic)
2.1 Theoretical frameworks and hypotheses
2.1.1 Pro-veganism sources on Instagram. Source credibility refers to the perceived
trustworthiness, expertise, and goodwill of a particular message source (McCroskey and
Teven, 1999). When consumers perceive a source to have greater credibility, they are also
more likely to be persuaded by messages from the source (McCracken, 1989). In previous
studies, greater source credibility was found to significantly increase consumers’ positive
brand perceptions and identification (e.g. Jin and Phua, 2014; Shan, 2016). A wide variety of
pro-veganism sources coexist on Instagram, including commercial brands selling vegan
products, nonprofit organizations supporting animal rights, consumers following a vegan
diet, celebrities showcasing vegan lifestyles, and more. Among various types of Instagram
sources of pro-veganism messages, Experiment 1 focused on differences between for-profit
commercial brands and nonprofit organizations.
Consumers develop stereotypes of organizations simply based on the knowledge that the
entity is a for-profit or non-for-profit (Aaker et al., 2010). Consumers differentiate
organizations on the basis of warmth-related traits such as kindness and generosity and
competence-related traits such as efficiency and effectiveness (Aaker et al., 2010). A number
of nonprofit organizations such as PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 2016),
Vegan Society, and Mercy for Animals boost their Instagram presence to disseminate
pro-veganism and anti-animal-cruelty messages. Nonprofit organizations play an important
role in the provision of health and social care (Jones et al., 2017). At the same time, many
for-profit commercial brands such as Beyond Meat, Tofurky, Yves Veggie Cuisine, and Sweet
Earth also leverage their Instagram presence to promote vegan products and vegan lifestyles
as well as communicate with consumers. Since for-profits are perceived as competent,
whereas nonprofits are perceived as warm (Aaker et al., 2010), it can be hypothesized that
consumers may perceive commercial brands to be more credible than nonprofit organizations
when they are identified as the source of pro-veganism messages on Instagram.
H1. Pro-veganism messages posted by different Instagram sources (organization type:
commercial brand vs nonprofit organization) will exert a significant effect on
consumers’ (a) perceived information value, (b) attitude toward the organization, and
(c) perceived credibility of the organization.
2.1.2 Pro-veganism messages on Instagram. Among various aspects of pro-veganism Pro-veganism
messages, Experiment 1 examined messages framed using opposing values. A value refers to on Instagram
“a desirable trans-situational goal varying in importance, which serves as a guiding principle
in the life of a person or other social entity” (Schwartz, 1992, p. 21). Pro-veganism messages
with a specific value reflect a belief about the desirability of the behavior and serve as a
guiding principle for selecting or evaluating veganism.
Experiment 1 examined the effects of pro-veganism messages with two different values:
altruistic values and egoistic values. Applying the differences between egoistic values and 687
altruistic values (De Groot and Steg, 2008) to veganism, people with an egoistic value
orientation will consider costs and benefits of veganism for them personally and show
positive attitude toward pro-veganism messages when perceived benefits exceed perceived
costs. In contrast, people with an altruistic value orientation will base their decision to become
vegan on perceived costs and benefits for other people and the society.
Individuals’ health concerns for self or family (pro-self) are egoistic in nature,
whereas environmental concerns are altruistic in nature (Yadav, 2016). Health-related
pro-self-motivations include notions that a vegan diet is better for one’s health than an
omnivorous diet, helps prevents illnesses, and is beneficial to personal fitness and well-being
(Beardsworth and Keil, 1991). Thus, pro-veganism messages framed with regard to health
benefits for individual consumers represent egoistic values. In contrast, pro-veganism
messages framed with regard to animal rights, cruelty of factory farming, and environmental
sustainability represent altruistic values. Health-related motives are guided by immediate
self-interest to a greater extent than environmental motives (Beardsworth and Keil, 1991).
Pro-veganism messages framed with regard to egoistic values and motivations for self-
interest (pro-self) vs altruistic values and motivations for doing wider good (concerns for
others) (Birch et al., 2018) may therefore have different persuasive effects on consumers.
H2. Pro-veganism messages with different values (value orientation: altruistic vs
egoistic) on Instagram will exert a significant effect on consumers’ (a) information
value, (b) attitude, and (c) credibility.
2.1.3 Subjective norms and attitude toward veganism. An individual makes reasoned
decisions to engage in specific behaviors by evaluating the information available to them
(Ajzen, 1991). The theory of reasoned action in turn posits that behavior is a function of
behavioral intention, which is influenced by subjective norm and attitude (Fishbein and
Ajzen, 1975). Subjective norms refer to an individual’s perceived influence by significant
others or reference groups (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) and “perceived social pressure to
perform or not to perform the behavior” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188). Pro-veganism Instagram profile
sources (nonprofit organization and commercial brands) to which consumers are exposed
may serve as reference groups that influence consumers’ veganism-related attitude,
perception, and intention.
Attitude is determined by an individual’s beliefs about the consequences of engaging in a
particular behavior and his or her evaluation of the consequences of this behavior (Fishbein
and Ajzen, 1975). Consumers’ attitude toward the pro-veganism Instagram sources can be
determined by their beliefs about consequence of engaging in vegan diet and adopting a
vegan lifestyle as well as their evaluation of positive vs negative consequences of going
vegan. On the other hand, subjective norms are shaped by the individual’s normative beliefs
(what significant others think about the behavior) and motivation to comply with significant
others or reference groups (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Consumers’ subjective norms may be
shaped by what Instagram sources think about veganism and motivation to comply with
those sources endorsing pro-veganism messages.
The extant literature demonstrates the moderating effect of subjective norm and attitude
on behavioral intention (Wan et al., 2017). Subjective norms play an important role in forming
OIR consumers’ intention to purchase green food (Ham et al., 2015). Subjective norms and attitude
44,3 have significant moderating effects on consumers’ intention to engage in recycling practices
(Wan et al., 2017). Subjective norms also significantly moderate the influence of attitude on
buying intention in the context of organic food consumption (Al-Swidi et al., 2014). These
theoretical foundations and empirical findings guided the formation of the following
moderation hypotheses.
688 H3. Subjective norms will moderate the effects of Instagram source type and message
motivation on consumers’ (a) information value, (b) attitude, and (c) credibility.
H4. Attitude toward veganism will moderate the effects of organization type and
message motivation on consumers’ (a) information value, (b) attitude, and (c)
credibility.

2.2 Method
2.2.1 Participants. The institutional review board of our institution approved the study
protocol. We posted a recruitment message on the research participation website.
Participants voluntarily signed up and then received an invitation email with a Qualtrics
link to the online experiment and survey questionnaire. All study participants (N 5 300)
received extra credit in exchange for completing the experiment.
Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions and asked to view the
manipulation stimulus (see Plate 1) in an online questionnaire. After carefully reviewing the
stimulus, they answered questions based on their responses to the stimulus. Six participants
who did not have an Instagram account were excluded from analysis. The final sample size
was 294; most of the participants were female (78.2 percent; N 5 230), and the majority
participants were Caucasian (78.6 percent), followed by Asian (8.2 percent), African American
(7.5 percent), Hispanic (3.1 percent), and other (2.7 percent). The average age of the
participants was 20.73 years.
2.2.2 Experimental design and manipulation stimuli. We conducted a 2 (Instagram source
type: brand vs nonprofit) 3 2 (pro-veganism message motivation: altruistic vs egoistic)
between-subjects, full-factorial design experiment, assessing the effects of organization type
and message motivation on perceived information value, attitude toward the brand/
organization, and credibility of the brand/organization.
Manipulation stimuli resembled pro-veganism posts typically viewed on social media.
Using Adobe Photoshop, we digitally manipulated four Instagram screenshots (see Plate 1),
one for each of four experimental conditions (brand/altruistic, brand/egoistic, nonprofit/
altruistic, and nonprofit/egoistic). We created visual stimuli based on a well-known vegan
brand (i.e. Sweet Earth) and nonprofit organization (i.e. PETA). The egoistic and altruistic
messages were based on two online sources (i.e. www.vegansociety.com and www.peta.org).
Thus, we clearly identified the experimental stimuli as having come from a brand (or
nonprofit) and an altruistic (or egoistic) message.
2.2.3 Measures. To measure perceived information value, we asked participants to rate
how they would evaluate the value of the given information (i.e. Instagram post for heath
message about veganism) on three seven-point bipolar scales from Sohn (2009) (e.g.
uninformative/informative Cronbach’s alpha 5 0.81).
To measure brand/organization (Sweet Earth/PETA) attitude, we asked participants to
rate how they felt about the brand/organization in the Instagram post on six seven-point
bipolar scales from Bruner and Kumar (2000) (e.g. unpleasant/pleasant, alpha 5 0.93).
We measured credibility of the brand/organization (i.e. Sweet Earth/PETA) using seven
seven-point Likert scales (“strongly disagree” 5 1, “strongly agree” 5 7) from Erdem and
Swait (1998) (e.g. “The brand/organization on the Instagram page delivers what is promised”,
alpha 5 0.73).
 Note(s): Upper (Experiment 1) From top left: Casey Affleck with positive vegan message; Casey
Affleck with negative vegan message; Ellen Page with positive vegan message; and Ellen Page with
negative vegan message; from bottom left: Edgar with positive vegan message; Edgar with negative
vegan message; Jane with positive vegan message; and Jane with negative vegan message
Note(s): Lower (Experiment 2) From top left: Casey Affleck with positive vegan message; Casey
Affleck with negative vegan message; Ellen Page with positive vegan message; and Ellen Page with
negative vegan message; from bottom left: Edgar with positive vegan message; Edgar with negative
vegan message; Jane with positive vegan message; and Jane with negative vegan message
Pro-veganism

689
on Instagram

Plate 1.
Examples of
experimental stimuli
OIR We measured subjective norms using 10 seven-point Likert scales from Povey et al.
44,3 (2001) (e.g. “My friends think I should eat a vegan diet”) and five questions (e.g. “With
regard to your diet, how much do you want to do what your friends think you should do?”
alpha 5 0.86).
We used 33 items in five dimensions from Chin et al. (2002)—behaviors (e.g. “Vegans
preach too much about their beliefs and eating habits”), beliefs (e.g. “Vegans are unconcerned
about animal rights”), health and mental characteristics (e.g. “Vegans are overly concerned
690 about gaining weight”), and appropriate treatment (e.g. “It is not okay to tease someone for
being vegan”)—to assess attitude toward veganism on seven-point Likert scales
(alpha 5 0.79).

2.3 Results
2.3.1 Main effect of organization type. We conducted a one-way MANOVA to test the main
effect of organization type. Results revealed a significant multivariate main effect for
organization type (Wilks’ λ 5 0.961, F (3, 288) 5 3.854, p < 0.05, partial η2 5 0.039, observed
power 5 0.819) on the dependent variables. Given the significance of the overall test, we
examined the univariate ANOVA results with the p-value set at <0.017 to control for Type I
errors. Significant univariate main effects by organization type emerged for attitude toward
the brand/organization [F (1, 290) 5 6.045, p < 0.017, partial η2 5 0.020, observed
power 5 0.688] and credibility of the brand/organization [F (1, 290) 5 7.583, p < 0.01, partial
η2 5 0.025, observed power 5 0.784). The mean score for attitude toward the brand/
organization was significantly higher for participants viewing the brand page (Sweet Earth;
MBrand 5 5.10, SDBrand 5 1.17) than those viewing the nonprofit organization page (PETA;
MNon-profit 5 4.75, SDNon-profit 5 1.38). The mean score for credibility of the brand/
organization was significantly higher for participants viewing the brand page (Sweet Earth;
MBrand 5 4.80, SDBrand 5 0.83) than those viewing the nonprofit organization page (PETA;
MNon-profit 5 4.53, SDNon-profit 5 0.91), thus supporting H1b and H1c.
2.3.2 Main effect of veganism message motivation. To test H2, we conducted a one-way
MANOVA to examine the effect of message motivation. Results indicate a significant
multivariate main effect (Wilks’ λ 5 0.962, F (3, 288) 3.786, p < 0.05, partial η2 5 0.038,
observed power 5 0.812) on the dependent variables. Given the significance of the overall
test, we examined the univariate ANOVA results with the p-value set at <0.017 to control for
Type I errors. A significant univariate main effect by veganism message motivation emerged
for perceived information value [F (1,290) 5 9.300, p < 0.01, partial η2 5 0.031, observed
power 5 0.860]. The mean score for perceived information value was significantly higher for
participants viewing the altruistic message appeal (MAltruistic 5 5.31, SDAltruistic 5 1.24) than
those viewing the egoistic message appeal (MEgoistic 5 4.85, SDEgoistic 5 1.31). Thus, H2a was
supported.
2.3.3 Moderating effects. We tested subjective norms (H3) and attitude toward veganism
(H4) as potential moderators affecting the relationship between source type and
pro-veganism message motivation on (1) information value, (2) attitude, and (3) credibility.
We used the SPSS moderation macro (Model 1), across 5,000 bootstrap samples, to test
whether subjective norms and attitude moderated between Instagram source type/pro-
veganism message motivation and the dependent variables (Hayes, 2017). We recoded the
experimental conditions as dummy variables, one for each classification: brand-altruistic,
brand-egoistic, nonprofit-altruistic, and nonprofit-egoistic.
Results (see Figure 1) reveal that the joint effects of organization type and message
motivation on attitude [F (3, 286) 5 3.03, p < 0.05] were moderated by subjective norms,
supporting H3c. In addition, attitude interacted with organization type and message
motivation to influence information value [F (3, 286) 5 3.11, p < 0.05]. Thus, H4a was
supported.
 Negative Subjective Norms
Positive Subjective Norms
Negative Attitude toward veganism
Positive Attitude toward veganism
Pro-veganism
7 on Instagram
ATTITUDE TOWARD ORGANIZATION

PERCEIVED INFORMATION VALUE

6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
691
2 2 Figure 1.
1 1 Moderating effects of
subjective norms and
0 0 attitude toward
BRAND- BRAND- NONPROFIT- NONPROFIT- BRAND- BRAND- NONPROFIT- NONPROFIT-
ALTRUISTIC EGOISTIC ALTRUISTIC EGOISTIC ALTRUISTIC EGOISTIC ALTRUISTIC EGOISTIC veganism
(Experiment 1)
Note(s): Left (H3); Right (H4)

2.4 Brief discussion

Experiment 1 examined the joint effects of organization and message type on consumers’
perceptions of source credibility, information value, and attitude toward the organization.
Results indicated that organization type (H1) and message type (H2) both exerted significant
effects on the dependent measures. Consumers who saw the pro-veganism messages on the
Instagram page of the brand rated the organization as more credible (H1c) and also developed
more positive attitudes (H1b), compared to consumers who saw the pro-veganism messages
on the Instagram page of the nonprofit (PETA). However, they did not perceive a significant
difference in information value (H1a) by organization type.
The findings from Experiment 1 suggest that when brands pass along pro-veganism
messages on social media sites, consumers come to see these brands as helping to propagate
more positive and healthy eating habits for consumers, while offering helpful, relevant
content, traits typically associated with nonprofit organizations. As the source credibility
literature states, consumers are more likely to be persuaded by message sources they deem
more trustworthy, have expertise on a particular topic, and care about them (McCroskey and
Teven, 1999). In the current experiment, consumers both developed more positive attitudes
toward the brand and saw the brand as being more credible. For nonprofits, on the other
hand, passing along social media messages espousing a particular stance on social issues or
causes is already typically accepted by consumers, and therefore, the pro-veganism
Instagram messages passed along by PETA did not result in a significantly more positive
attitude toward the organization nor perceived credibility of the organization. Based on
Aaker et al. (2010), brands that are seen by consumers as being both “competent” but also
“warm” can thus reap more positive rewards through their social-media-based advertising
content by offering helpful, relevant content that espouses positive social values.
Another interesting finding is that social-media-based pro-veganism messages utilizing
the altruistic message appeal were rated significantly higher in perceived information value
(H2a), compared to messages utilizing the egoistic message appeal. As previous research has
articulated, altruistic pro-veganism messages are framed with regard to animal rights,
cruelty of factory farming, and environmental sustainability (De Groot and Steg, 2008).
Egoistic pro-veganism messages, on the other hand, weigh personal benefits resulting from
veganism, including health-related motivations such as benefits to personal fitness and
well-being (Yadav, 2016). In Experiment 1, consumers who saw pro-veganism advertising
messages on Instagram rated the altruistic messages as being higher in information value
than egoistic messages. For brands and nonprofits looking to propagate pro-veganism
messages through social media, altruistic messages that advocate particular social causes
OIR (such as environmental preservation, saving natural resources) may be more effective than
44,3 egoistic messages (those for personal gain) at influencing consumers.
A third finding of Experiment 1 is that subjective norms significantly moderated the
relationship between organization type and veganism message motivation on consumers’
attitude toward the organization (H3b). When subjective norms were more negative,
participants exposed to the altruistic message posted by the brand developed significantly
more positive attitudes toward the organization, compared to participants in the other three
692 conditions. Conversely, when subjective norms were more positive, participants in the
altruistic-brand condition developed significantly more negative attitudes, compared to the
other three conditions. This effect was, however, not found for information value (H3a) and
credibility (H3c). In previous research, subjective norms were found to moderate intention to
purchase green food (Ham et al., 2015), attitudes toward organic food consumption (Al-Swidi
et al., 2014), and intention to engage in recycling practices (Wan et al., 2017). In Experiment 1,
subjective norms played a significant role shaping attitudes toward the organization
propagating the pro-veganism content, through moderating between organization and
message types.
Finally, attitudes toward veganism also significantly moderated between organization
type and veganism message motivation on information value (H4a). Participants who saw the
altruistic message posted by the brand perceived significantly higher information value
when they have a more positive attitude toward veganism, compared to the other three
conditions. Conversely, when participants in the altruistic-brand condition had negative
attitudes toward veganism, they perceived significantly less information value from the
Instagram post. This effect, however, was not found for attitude toward the organization
(H4b) and organization credibility (H4c). As such, prior attitudes toward veganism play an
important role in consumers’ perceptions of information value of pro-veganism social media
posts. Those with more positive attitudes toward veganism saw the post as significantly
more informative when brands posted altruistic messages, while the other conditions did not
yield a significant effect. Thus, it may be more beneficial for brands to post altruistic
messages that consumers find useful and relevant and that also help them to evaluate
important social issues and causes.

3. Experiment 2: interaction effects of source type (celebrity vs noncelebrity)

and message valence (positive vs negative)
3.1 Theoretical frameworks and hypotheses
An increasing number of celebrities are embracing vegan diets, advocating veganism on
social media (Van Amburg, 2018). For instance, Miley Cyrus is recognized as a “super vegan”
and the “veganest vegan to ever vegan” by PETA, and her Instagram feed is filled with posts
about vegan meals and pro-veganism messages (Ballard, 2018). The increasing popularity of
veganism among young consumers can also be partially attributed to the exponential growth
of pro-vegan social media influencers (Meager, 2016). Searches for “veganism” have been
rising steadily in a similar trajectory to “Instagram” according to Google Trends (Petter,
2018). In light of the prevalence of a variety of pro-veganism messages shared by multiple
sources on Instagram, Experiment 2 further examined the effects of various attributes (source
and content) of pro-veganism posts on Instagram. Experiment 2 is distinct from Experiment 1
in that for source, we focused on individual Instagram users (i.e. celebrity endorsers vs
influencers) rather than organization type (i.e. brand vs nonprofit organization). Additionally,
Experiment 2 also focused on message valence (positive vs negative) rather than message
type (egoistic vs altruistic). Hence, Experiment 2 supplements the findings of Experiment 1
by helping to develop a more complete, holistic picture of pro-veganism messages on
Instagram and their source (individuals vs organizations) and content (valence vs message
type) effects on consumers.
 The first factor examined in Experiment 2 is message source, specifically celebrity vs Pro-veganism
noncelebrity endorsers. A celebrity endorser is defined as “any individual who enjoys public on Instagram
recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it
in an advertisement” (McCracken, 1989, p. 310). According to the match-up hypothesis (Kahle
and Homer, 1985), when there is a strong “fit” between a message endorser (e.g. celebrity) and
a brand, consumers are more likely to have more positive evaluations of brand
advertisements. Previous research has found strong evidence for differential effects of
celebrity endorsers vs peer consumers on persuasion outcomes in social-media-based 693
marketing communication (Jin, 2018a). Research also demonstrates differential effects of
celebrity endorsers vs noncelebrity endorsers on consumer perception in health campaigns
(Biswas et al., 2006). Based on the match-up hypothesis, we propose a main effect of message
endorser type (celebrity vs noncelebrity) of Instagram-based pro-veganism messages on
perceived information value, intention to spread eWOM about veganism, and behavioral
intention to adopt veganism.
H5. There will be a significant main effect of endorser type (celebrity vs noncelebrity) on
(a) perceived information value, (b) eWOM intention, and (c) behavioral intention
toward veganism.
The second factor examined is message valence. Positively valenced pro-veganism messages
focus on positive consequences of becoming vegan and health benefits of vegan diet. In
contrast, negatively valenced pro-veganism messages focus on negative consequences of not
becoming vegan and cruelty of animal killing. The most recent research shows differential
effects of positive vs negative messages on consumers’ healthier dietary decision-making
(Rosenblatt et al., 2018). Meta-analysis also reports stronger effects of positive message
framing on a wide range of health behaviors including skin cancer prevention, smoking
cessation, and physical activity (Gallagher and Updegraff, 2011). Therefore, we propose a
main effect of message valence on the dependent variables in the context of Instagram-based
pro-veganism posts.
H6. There will be a significant main effect of message valence (positive vs negative) on (a)
information value, (b) eWOM intention, and (c) behavioral intention toward
veganism.
Prior research also found significant interaction effects between celebrity endorsers’
popularity level and message valence on consumers’ attitude, perception, and eWOM
intention in Twitter-based brand communication (Jin and Phua, 2014). More specifically, the
valence of persuasive messages may not exert a significant effect on consumer attitude and
behavior when the source is unpopular, whereas positively valenced messages result in more
positive attitude and greater behavioral intention when the source is popular (Jin and Phua,
2014). Therefore, it can be predicted that positively valenced messages would induce more
positive consumer response when the source is a celebrity endorser than when the source is a
noncelebrity.
H7. There will be a significant interaction effect between endorser type (celebrity vs
noncelebrity) and message valence (positive vs negative) on (a) information value, (b)
eWOM intention, and (c) behavioral intention.
Previous research also reports a significant interaction between endorser type (prosocial vs
antisocial) and source popularity (high number of followers vs low number of followers) on
consumers’ attitude, perception, and intention to spread eWOM about brands in
social-media-based brand communication (Jin and Phua, 2014), such that the higher the
popularity of the endorser, the more positive consumer response to brand tweets, when an
endorser is prosocial, whereas popularity did not have any effect when an endorser is
OIR antisocial. However, there has been limited research on interaction effects of endorser type
44,3 (prosocial vs antisocial) and message valence (positive vs negative). To address this research
gap, Experiment 2 tested moderating effects of perceived prosocial characteristics of the
vegan endorser on the relationship between the manipulated factors on the dependent
variables.
H8. Prosocial endorser characteristics will moderate the interaction effect between
694 endorser type (celebrity vs noncelebrity) and message valence (positive vs negative)
on (a) perceived information value, (b) eWOM intention, and (c) behavioral intention
toward veganism.
Intention to build online friendship via social media has been identified as an important
aspect of consumer engagement in a wide range of social media marketing including brand
communication on Twitter (Jin and Phua, 2014), social networking advertising on Facebook
(Jin, 2018a), and health marketing on Instagram (Jin, 2018b). Recent research shows the
moderating effect of parasocial interaction through online friendship building on consumers’
attitudes, eWOM intention, and intentions to use e-cigarette (Phua et al., 2018). Experiment 2
tested the moderating effect of intention to build online friendship on the relationship
between Instagram post attributes and the dependent variables.
H9. Intention to build online friendship will moderate the interaction effect between
endorser type and message valence on (a) information value, (b) eWOM intention,
and (c) behavioral intention.

3.2 Method
3.2.1 Experimental design and manipulation stimuli. We used a 2 (endorser type: celebrity vs
peer influencer) 3 2 (message valence: positive vs negative) between-subjects design to test
the effect of Instagram endorser type and message valence on perceived information value,
eWOM intention, and behavioral intention to engage in veganism. We used male and female
endorsers for each celebrity and peer influencer. Accordingly, we digitally created eight
stimuli using Adobe Photoshop (see Plate 1).
We developed experiment stimuli based on typical Instagram-based pro-veganism
messages. Specifically, we used Instagram as for stimuli development due to the popularity of
this platform among young adults (Phua et al., 2017). We conducted a pretest (N 5 101) to
select the celebrity endorsers. Using a seven-point Likert scale, pretest participants rated
their “liking” and “positive/negative attitudes” toward 32 vegan celebrities (Krantz, 2016). We
chose Casey Affleck and Ellen Page as the target vegan celebrity endorsers because they had
the median scores for male (Casey Affleck: 4.37) and female (Ellen Page: 4.31) celebrities. We
selected two vegan peer influencers from 15 popular vegan Instagram users (Contreras, 2017):
Edgar (male influencer) and Jane (female influencer).
The positive and negative messages were based on two online sources (www.veganstreet.
com and www.vegansociety.com). The positive message included several photos showing
vegan food ingredients, while the negative message included pictures presenting abuse of
farm animals (see Plate 1).
3.2.2 Participants and procedure. We recruited 300 college students from a major
university in the United States to participate in the study in exchange for extra credit. Twelve
participants who did not have Instagram accounts or did not complete the experiment were
excluded from data analysis. The final sample size was 288 (59 men, 229 women, Mage 5 20.73
years, age range 18–24 years). The majority of the participants were Caucasian (78.5 percent),
followed by Asian (8 percent), African American (8 percent), Hispanic (2.8 percent), and other
(2.7 percent). The average number of Instagram friends of respondents was 1,039, and they
spent 1.6 h per day actively using Instagram.
 We posted a recruitment message to the college research participation pool. Participants Pro-veganism
were randomly assigned to one of the eight experimental conditions. Participants first viewed on Instagram
the manipulation stimulus and then answered questions based on their responses to the
stimulus.
3.2.3 Dependent measures. Based on Sohn (2009), we measured perceived information
value using seven-point bipolar scales (e.g. uninformative/informative, Cronbach’s
alpha 5 0.92).
We assessed intention to spread eWOM with the four-item scale developed by Jin and 695
Phua (2014). Participants rated their agreement with four statements on a seven-point Likert
scale (“strongly disagree” 5 1, “strongly agree” 5 7, e.g. “I’m interested in sharing this
Instagram page with my friends,” alpha 5 0.95).
To measure behavioral intention toward veganism, we asked participants to rate their
agreement with each of the following four statements from Povey et al. (2001) on a seven-point
Likert scale (e.g. “I intend to consume less meat products in the near future,” alpha 5 0.82).
We measured intention to build an online friendship with the endorser using eight
seven-point Likert scales from Jin and Phua (2014). Items included eight statements (e.g. “I
think (celebrity or influencer) could be my friend on Instagram,” alpha 5 0.94).
Based on Jin and Phua (2014), we measured prosocial (vs antisocial) characteristics of the
endorser using seven-point bipolar scales (e.g. antisocial/prosocial, alpha 5 0.96).

3.3 Results
3.3.1 Main effect of endorser type and message valence. We conducted a one-way MANOVA to
test the main effect of endorser type (celebrity vs peer influencer) on (1) perceived information
value, (2) eWOM intention, and (3) behavioral intention to engage in veganism. However, no
significant multivariate main effect for endorser type emerged (Wilks’ λ 5 1.000,
F (3, 284) 5 0.022, p > 0.05, partial η2 5 0.000, observed power 5 0.054) on the dependent
variables. Thus, H5 was not supported.
3.3.2 Main effect of message valence. To test H2, we conducted a one-way MANOVA to
examine the effect of veganism message valence. Results indicate a significant multivariate
main effect for veganism message valence (Wilks’ λ 5 0.937, F (3, 284) 5 6.418, p < 0.001,
partial η2 5 0.063, observed power 5 0.968) on the dependent variables. Given the
significance of the overall test, we examined the univariate ANOVA results with the p-value
set at <0.017 to control for Type I errors. A significant univariate main effect by veganism
message valence emerged only for perceived information value (F (1, 286) 5 16.176, p < 0.001,
partial η2 5 0.054, observed power 5 0.980). The mean score for perceived information value
was significantly higher for participants exposed to a positive message appeal
(MPositive 5 4.41, SDPositive 5 1.60) than those exposed to a negative message appeal
(MNegative 5 3.61, SDNegative 5 1.74). Thus, H2a was supported.
3.3.3 Interaction effect of endorser type and message valence. We performed a two-way
MANOVA to test the interaction effect. The analysis treated endorser type and message
valence as the independent variables, and perceived information value, eWOM intention, and
behavioral intention to engage in veganism as the dependent variables. The results show a
significant interaction between endorser type and message valence (Wilks’ λ 5 0.969, F (3,
282) 5 2.981, p < 0.05, partial η2 5 0.031, observed power 5 0.701). Given the significance of
the overall test, we examined the univariate ANOVA results with the p-value set at <0.017 to
control for Type I errors. A significant univariate interaction effect by endorser type and
message valence emerged only for eWOM intention (F (1, 284) 5 7.142, p < 0.01, partial
η2 5 0.025, observed power 5 0.759). Participants exposed to a positively valenced message
posted by a celebrity endorser showed significantly higher eWOM intention (MPositive-
Celebrity 5 2.78), compared to those who were exposed to a negatively valenced message
posted by a noncelebrity endorser (MNegative-Celebrity 5 2.49), a positively valenced message
OIR posted by a noncelebrity endorser (MPositive-Influencer 5 2.30), and a negatively valenced
44,3 message posted by a celebrity endorser (MNegative-Influencer 5 2.07). Thus, H3a was supported.
3.3.4 Moderating effects. We used prosocial endorser characteristics (H8) and intention to
build an online friendship (H9) as moderators that might affect the relationship between
endorser type and veganism message valence. We used the SPSS moderation macro (Model 1)
with 5,000 bootstrap samples (Hayes, 2017). We recoded the experimental conditions as
dummy variables, one for each classification: celebrity-positive message, celebrity-negative
696 message, peer influencer-positive message, and peer influencer-negative message.
The results show that the joint effects of endorser type and veganism message valence on
perceived information value (F (3, 280) 5 2.917, p < 0.05) and eWOM intention
(F (3, 280) 5 2.705, p < 0.05) were moderated by prosocial endorser characteristics,
supporting H8a and H8b (see Figure 2). Intention to build an online friendship interacted with
endorser type and message valence to influence eWOM intention (F (3,280) 5 2.829, p < 0.05),
thus supporting H9b.

3.4 Brief discussion

Experiment 2 examined the main and joint effects of source type (celebrity vs noncelebrity)
and message valence (positive vs negative) in Instagram-based veganism posts, on perceived
information value, eWOM intention, and behavioral intention to engage in veganism. Results
indicated that source type (H5) did not exert a main effect on the dependent measures.
Consumers who saw pro-veganism messages posted by celebrities on Instagram did
not show a significant difference in perceived information value, eWOM intention, and
behavioral intention to engage in veganism, compared to consumers who saw pro-veganism
messages posted by regular, noncelebrity, influencers. While previous research found
differential effects of celebrity endorsers vs peer consumers on persuasion outcomes in social-
media-based marketing communication (Biswas et al., 2006; Jin, 2018a), results of Experiment
2 suggest that celebrity vs noncelebrity sources may not be an important factor for the
transmission of persuasive messages regarding veganism on social media sites. It is
important to note that in Experiment 2 we used peer influencers who were popular vegan
Instagram users whose number of followers matched those of the celebrity endorsers. As
such, consumers exposed to messages posted by the peer influencers may have not perceived
them to be less credible than celebrity endorsers, thereby leading to the insignificant main
effect for source type.
Another interesting finding of Experiment 2 is that message valence exerted a significant
main effect on perceived information value (H6a), but not for eWOM intention (H6b) and
behavioral intention toward veganism (H6c). Specifically, consumers who were exposed to
positively valenced messages about veganism on Instagram reported significantly higher
perceived information value, compared to those exposed to negatively valenced messages. As
previous research has found, positive message framing resulted in stronger effects for
health-related decision-making (Gallagher and Updegraff, 2011). In Experiment 2, consumers
who saw Instagram messages explaining positive benefits of veganism, such as vegan iron
sources, vegan protein sources, and the raw food pyramid, rated them significantly higher in
perceived information value than consumers who saw Instagram messages explaining
negative effects of meat consumption on animals and abuse of farm animals. This result
suggests that it may be more effective for pro-vegan organizations and individuals to post
positively valenced messages about veganism on social media sites.
Experiment 2 also found an interaction effect between source type (celebrity vs
noncelebrity) and message valence (positive vs negative) on eWOM intention (H7b), but not
perceived information value (H7a) or behavioral intention toward veganism (H7c). The results
revealed that consumers who were exposed to an Instagram post by a celebrity endorser
using a positively valenced message appeal reported significantly highest intention to pass
 7
Pro-veganism
6 on Instagram
PERCEIVED INFORMATION VALUE

5
Antisocial Characteristics
4
Prosocial Characteristics
3
697
2

0
CELEB- CELEB- NON CELEB- NON CELEB-
POSITIVE NEGATIVE POSITIVE NEGATIVE

Endorser Type
7

Antisocial Characteristics
4
EWOM

Prosocial Characteristics
3

0
CELEB- CELEB- NON CELEB- NON CELEB-
POSITIVE NEGATIVE POSITIVE NEGATIVE

Endorser Type
7

5 Low Intention to Build Online Friendship

High Intention to Build Online Friendship

4
EWOM

1
Figure 2.
0 Moderating effects of
CELEB- CELEB- NON CELEB- NON CELEB-
prosocial endorser
POSITIVE NEGATIVE POSITIVE NEGATIVE
characteristics and
Endorser Type intention to build an
online friendship
(Experiment 2)
Note(s): Top (H4a); middle (H4b); bottom (H5b)
OIR along the Instagram post, followed by those exposed to a negatively valenced message posted
44,3 by a noncelebrity endorser, a positively valenced message posted by a noncelebrity, and a
negatively valenced message posted by a celebrity endorser. As such, veganism messages
with celebrities were most likely to be passed along by consumers when they are positively
valenced and least likely to be passed along when they are negatively valenced. In contrast,
veganism messages with noncelebrity endorsers were more likely to be passed along when
they are negatively valenced, than when they are positively valenced. In a previous study, Jin
698 and Phua (2014) found that positively valenced messages resulted in significantly more
positive attitude and behavioral intentions when the message source is popular. Celebrities
passing along positively valenced messages about veganism resulted in the greatest eWOM
intention.
Experiment 2 also found that prosocial (vs antisocial) endorser characteristics, or the
degree to which the Instagram endorser is seen by consumers as being socially acceptable,
desirable, and ethical, significantly moderated between source type (celebrity vs
noncelebrity) and message valence (positive vs negative) to influence perceived
information value (H8a) and eWOM intention (H8b). For all four experimental conditions,
when consumers perceived the Instagram veganism endorser as being more prosocial, they
also reported significantly higher information value for the Instagram veganism post and
had significantly greater intention to pass along eWOM regarding the veganism message.
Thus, this finding suggests that perceived prosocial characteristics of an veganism message
endorser on Instagram are highly important for consumers, since they are more likely to think
the information is valuable and want to pass along the message if the endorser is seen as
prosocial, regardless of whether the endorser is a celebrity or noncelebrity, and whether the
message is positively valenced or negatively valenced.
Further, Experiment 2 also found that consumers’ intention to build an online friendship
with the endorser significantly moderated between source type and message valence to affect
eWOM intention (H9b). For all four experimental conditions, when consumers had a greater
intention to build an online friendship with the Instagram veganism endorser, they were more
likely to also have greater intention to pass along the message, regardless of whether the
endorser is a celebrity or noncelebrity, and whether the message is positively valenced or
negatively valenced. As such, parasocial interaction with Instagram influencers, in the form
of online friendship building, as suggested in previous research (Jin, 2018a; Jin and Phua,
2014), can exert a significant effect on consumers’ interaction with social-media-based
marketing communication, through evoking their feelings of friendship and camaraderie
with influencers on social media sites. This finding suggests that veganism influencers who
can more successfully be relatable and “friend-like” to consumers can be more effective
message endorsers.

4. General discussion
Two between-subjects experiments in this study assessed source and message effects of
social-media-based veganism messages on consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions
toward veganism. In Experiment 1, we examined the joint effects of source organization type
(brand vs nonprofit) and message type (egoistic vs altruistic) on perceived information value,
attitude toward the organization, and perceived credibility of the organization. Meanwhile, in
Experiment 2, the joint effects of source endorser type (celebrity vs noncelebrity influencer)
and message valence (positive vs negative) on perceived information value, eWOM intention,
and behavioral intention to engage in veganism were assessed.
Results of Experiment 1 indicated that organization type (brand vs nonprofit) had
a significant main effect on the dependent measures, with consumers exposed to
brand-initiated (Sweet Earth Foods) pro-veganism messages reporting significantly more
positive attitudes toward the organization (brand) and also finding the organization (brand) Pro-veganism
to be significantly more credible, compared to those exposed to the nonprofit-initiated on Instagram
(PETA) pro-veganism messages. Based on the source credibility literature (McCracken,
1989; McCroskey and Teven, 1999), persuasion is more likely to take place when consumers
perceive a message source to be more credible. Greater perceived source credibility thus has
a positive effect on brand- and advertising-related outcomes (Jin and Phua, 2014;
Shan, 2016).
Additionally, Instagram-based pro-veganism messages utilizing the altruistic message 699
appeal were also rated significantly higher in perceived information value, compared to
pro-veganism messages utilizing the egoistic message appeal. Altruistic pro-veganism
messages advocate animal rights, environmental sustainability, and denounce cruel factory
farming practices (De Groot and Steg, 2008), while egoistic pro-veganism messages tout
personal health benefits of veganism, including personal fitness and well-being (Yadav,
2016). In Experiment 1, consumers who were exposed to the altruistic message appeal were
more likely to see informational value in the pro-veganism posts, thereby becoming more
persuaded by the advertising messages, compared to those exposed to the egoistic message
appeal.
Experiment 1 also found that subjective norms significantly moderated between
organization type (brand vs nonprofit) and message type (altruistic vs egoistic) on attitude
toward the organization. Subjective norms have been found in previous research to
moderate intention to purchase green food (Ham et al., 2015), attitudes toward organic food
consumption (Al-Swidi et al., 2014), and intention to engage in recycling practices (Wan
et al., 2017). In this study, consumers whose subjective norms toward veganism were more
negative, and who were exposed to the altruistic message appeal posted by the brand
(Sweet Earth Foods), became significantly more positive toward the brand, compared to
those in the other three conditions. As previously discussed, consumers’ subjective norms
toward veganism are shaped by normative beliefs of significant others and reference
groups and motivation to comply with these norms (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In this
study, consumers’ subjective norms toward veganism may have been shaped by the
organization type (brand vs nonprofit) and message appeal (egoistic vs altruistic), leading
to a change in attitude toward the organization. Attitude toward veganism also
significantly moderated between organization type and message appeal on perceived
information value. When consumers have more positive attitudes toward veganism,
exposure to the altruistic message posted by the brand significantly increased perceived
information value, compared to the other three conditions. As such, this study suggests that
prior attitudes toward veganism may also play an important role in consumer perceptions
of Instagram-based pro-veganism posts.
Experiment 2 extended the findings of Experiment 1, through examining effects of
message endorser type and message valence on the dependent measures. Results of
Experiment 2 revealed that there was no significant difference between endorser type on
perceived information value, eWOM intention, and behavioral intention toward veganism. In
previous research, significant persuasion-related outcomes were found for celebrity
endorsers vs peer consumers (e.g. Biswas et al., 2006; Jin, 2018a). The current result
suggests that noncelebrity influencers (in the current study, vegan Instagram influencers,
Edgar and Jane, with high numbers of followers) were equally as effective at espousing pro-
veganism messages as celebrity endorsers (Casey Affleck and Ellen Page). Based on the
match-up hypothesis (Kahle and Homer, 1985), ads are more effective when there is a strong
“fit” between the endorser and the brand message. As such, noncelebrity influencers who are
matched with brands that represent a high degree of “fit” can exert an equally positive effect
on brand-related outcomes as traditional celebrity endorsers in the social media, Instagram-
based environment.
OIR Experiment 2 also found that message valence exerted a significant main effect on
44,3 perceived information value. Consumers exposed to positively valenced messages about
veganism on Instagram reported significantly higher perceived information value,
compared to those exposed to negatively valenced messages. Additionally, an
interaction effect between endorser type and message valence on eWOM intention was
also found. Consumers exposed to a positively valenced pro-veganism post by a celebrity
endorser reported significantly highest intention to pass along the pro-veganism message,
700 compared to the other three conditions. In previous research of message framing, a positive
frame resulted in stronger effects for health-related decision-making (Gallagher and
Updegraff, 2011). Accordingly, in the current study, positively valenced Instagram
messages explaining veganism health benefits, including vegan protein and iron sources
and the raw food pyramid, rated the positively valenced messages significantly higher in
information value and also resulted in the highest eWOM intention when endorsed by a
celebrity. Thus, it may be more effective for pro-vegan organizations and brands to post
positively valenced messages about veganism on social media sites, than negatively
valenced ones.
Additionally, Experiment 2 also found that prosocial (vs antisocial) endorser
characteristics significantly moderated between endorser type (celebrity vs noncelebrity)
and message valence (positive vs negative) on perceived information value and eWOM
intention. In previous studies, prosocial (vs antisocial) social media brand endorsers had a
significantly positive effect on consumer brand attitudes, perceptions, and eWOM intentions
(e.g. Jin and Phua, 2014). In the current study, when consumers perceive the pro-veganism
message endorser (celebrity vs noncelebrity) as more prosocial, they also reported
significantly higher information value for the Instagram pro-veganism post and had
significantly greater intention to pass along eWOM regarding the pro-veganism message. It
is therefore important in social-media-based marketing communications for endorsers to be
seen as prosocial by consumers, in order for the messages, regardless of their valence, to have
a greater persuasive effect. Similarly, consumers’ intention to build an online friendship with
the endorser significantly moderated between endorser type and message valence to affect
eWOM intention. When consumers had greater intention to build online friendships with
brand endorsers, they were also significantly more likely to have greater intention to pass
along eWOM, regardless of endorser type nor message valence. As suggested in previous
research (Jin, 2018a; Jin and Phua, 2014; Phua et al., 2018), intention to build online friendships
can therefore exert a significant effect on consumers’ interaction with social-media-based
marketing communication. Social media brand endorsers who are able to build camaraderie
with their followers, and be relatable and “friend-like,” would therefore be more effective for
disseminating persuasive messages.
There are some limitations to this study. First, we recruited US college students who,
despite being the largest demographic using social media, may not be representative of
the general population. Future studies should recruit a more representative sample in
order for results to be generalizable. Second, we did not distinguish between current
vegans and nonvegans in the study. Future studies should recruit equal numbers of
current vegans and nonvegans, so as to more rigorously test effects of the experimental
conditions based on current eating habits. Third, the study used digitally manipulated
Instagram stimuli for both experiments, rather than actual Instagram posts. Future
research should strive for greater ecological validity by having participants log in to
Instagram and view actual posts on their mobile devices. Fourth, the study was cross-
sectional, and participants self-reported their answers on the dependent measures.
Future studies should utilize longitudinal and alternate data collection methods,
including neurophysiological and eye-tracking approaches, to expand the scope of this
line of research.
4.1 Implications for research and practice Pro-veganism
Overall, this study offers several theoretical and practical implications for social-media-based on Instagram
marketing communication. First, brand-initiated pro-veganism messages led to greater
positive attitude toward the organization and higher perceived organization credibility,
compared to nonprofits. Therefore, brands looking to become more positively perceived by
consumers should post relevant, helpful information that establishes them as thought leaders
for particular industries (e.g. health foods, vegan foods) on social media platforms. Second,
since altruistic messages are perceived by consumers as having greater informational value, 701
organizations should also include more posts in their social media marketing efforts extolling
positive benefits of their products to the environment, society, and important social and
political causes. Third, subjective norms regarding veganism and attitudes toward veganism
moderated between organization type and message appeal type. Organizations using social
media can therefore act as sources of normative influence for consumers and may play
important roles in shaping consumer attitudes toward various health and social issues.
Fourth, noncelebrity influencers can be equally effective as celebrity endorsers in social-
media-based advertising, as long as consumers perceive a strong “fit” between an endorser
and products advertised. As such, influencers with expertise in particular topics (e.g. vegan
influencers Edgar and Jane) can be a great choice for brands and organizations to use in their
social media ads if a larger budget is not available to hire celebrities (e.g. vegan celebrities
Casey Affleck and Ellen Page). Fifth, positively valenced messages are perceived as having
greater informational value and also more likely to be passed along on social media. Hence,
organizations should consider posting more messages highlighting positive attributes of
their brands and products, in order to increase eWOM and information value for their social
media posts. Additionally, prosocial endorsers who are relevant to consumers and have a
“friend-like” image are also more effective for helping spread eWOM and increasing
information value for organizations’ social media posts. As such, brands and advertisers
should choose relevant endorsers with whom their target audience has a rapport (e.g. based
on age, gender, interests, etc.) in order to increase “virality” of their social media content.
Organizations looking to use social media to influence attitudes and behaviors should seek to
reach their target audiences through selecting endorsers and messages that will optimally
present their brands in a relatable, engaging way. Used strategically, social media platforms
can be highly effective marketing tools.
Theoretically, the two experiments in the current study draw on tenets of the theory of
planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), source credibility model (McCroskey and Teven, 1999), and
the match-up hypothesis (Kahle and Homer, 1985) to examine the joint effects of Instagram
profile sources (Experiment 1: brand vs nonprofit; Experiment 2: celebrity vs noncelebrity)
and message types (Experiment 1: egoistic vs altruistic appeal; Experiment 2: positive vs
negatively valenced) on consumers’ attitudes and behavioral intentions toward veganism.
Results of the study both support and extend findings of previous research on brand
endorsers (e.g. Biswas et al., 2006; McCracken, 1989), health message framing (e.g. Gallagher
and Updegraff, 2011), and effects of subjective norms on attitudes on behavioral intention
(Wan et al., 2017).
Together, the two experiments shed light on the psychological mechanisms behind
consumers’ perceptions of pro-veganism marketing communication messages on social
media sites, based on organization type, endorser type, message appeal type, and
message valence and help to explain both theoretical and practical implications in the
field of social-media-based marketing communications regarding veganism and vegan
lifestyles. Future studies should continue to examine how source types and message
types jointly influence consumer perceptions of brands and organizations on social
media platforms, in order to further research and establish best practices in the area of
social media marketing.
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Corresponding author
Venus Jin can be contacted at: venus@northwestern.edu; venus@sejong.ac.kr
704

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