Lecture 2

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

(cont.)
 Transconductance, gm
• The transconductance (gm) of a transistor is a measure of how well it
converts a voltage signal into a current signal.
• It will be shown later that gm is one of the most important parameters in
integrated circuit design.

dI C d  VBE 
gm    I S exp 
dVBE dVBE  VT 
1 VBE
g m = I S exp
VT VT
IC
gm =
VT
Visualization of Transconductance
• gm can be visualized as the slope of the IC vs. VBE curve.
• The slope (hence gm) increases with IC.
 Transconductance and IC
• For a given VBE swing (DV), the resulting current
swing about IC2 is larger than it is about IC1.
– This is because gm is larger when VBE = VB2.
 Transconductance and Emitter Area
• When the BJT emitter area is increased by a factor n, IS increases by the
factor n.
→ For a fixed value of VBE, IC and hence gm increase by a factor of n.
 Derivation of Small-Signal Model
• The BJT small-signal model is derived by perturbing the voltage difference
between two terminals while fixing the voltage on the third terminal, and
analyzing the resultant changes in terminal currents.
– This is done for each of the three terminals as the one with fixed voltage.
– We model the current change by a controlled source or resistor.
Small-Signal Model: VBE Change
 Small-Signal Model: VCE Change
• Ideally, VCE has no effect on the collector current. Thus, it will not
contribute to the small-signal model.
• It can be shown that VCB ideally has no effect on the small-signal model,
either.
 Small-Signal Model: Example 1
• The small-signal model parameters are calculated for the DC operating point,
and are used to determine the change in IC due to a change in VBE.
IS = 3 × 10^(-16)A, β = 100, and Q1 operates in the active mode.
If the microphone generates a 1-mV signal, how much change is observed in the collector and base
currents? IC 1
gm = =
VT 3.75

r = = 375
gm
 Small-Signal Model: Example 2
• In this example, a resistor is placed between the power supply and collector,
to obtain an output voltage signal.
• Since the power supply voltage does not vary with time, it is regarded as
ground (reference potential) in small-signal analysis.
 Early Effect: Impact on BJT I-V
• Due to the Early effect, collector current increases
with increasing VCE, for a fixed value of VBE.
Early Effect Representation

The quantity VA is called the

“Early voltage.”
Early Effect and Large-Signal Model
• The Early effect can be accounted for, by simply
multiplying the collector current by a correction factor.
• The base current does not change significantly.
Early Effect and Small-Signal Model

DVCE VA VA
ro  = 
DI C I S exp
VBE I C
VT
Summary of BJT Concepts
 BJT Output Characteristics
• The operating speed of the BJT also drops in saturation.
 Example: Acceptable VCC Range
• In order to prevent the BJT from entering very deeply into saturation, the
collector voltage must not fall below the base voltage by more than 400 mV.

VCC  I C RC + (VBE − 400mV )

 PNP Transistor
• The operating principle of a PNP BJT is the same as that of an NPN BJT. Note that
the bias-voltage polarities are reversed for the PNP device, compared to an NPN
device.
– The emitter is biased at a higher potential than the base.
– The collector is biased at a lower potential than the base.
 NPN vs. PNP BJTs
• The directions of current flow and operation modes
for NPN and PNP BJTs are shown below:
PNP BJT Terminal Currents
 VEB  VEC 
I C = I S  exp 1 + 
 VT  VA 
IS  VEB 
I B =  exp 
  VT 
  0 + 1 VEC   VEB 
I E =  +  I S  exp 
 0 VA   VT 
DB N EWE
0 =
DE N BWB
Large-Signal Model for PNP BJT
 PNP BJT Biasing
• Note that the emitter is biased at a higher potential than the base and
the collector.
 PNP BJT Biasing Techniques
• The same principles that apply to NPN BJT biasing also apply to PNP BJT
biasing, with only voltage and current polarity modifications.
Small-Signal Analysis
 PNP BJT Small-Signal Model
• The small-signal model for a PNP transistor is identical to that of an NPN
transistor.
– Note that the polarity of the small-signal currents and voltages are defined to be in the
opposite direction with respect to the large-signal model.
– This is OK, because the small-signal model is used only to determine changes in currents
and voltages.
Small-Signal Model Example 1
 Small-Signal Model Example 2

• Note that the small-signal model is identical to that

in the previous example.
 Small-Signal Model Example 3

• Note that the small-signal model is identical to that

in the previous examples.
Small-Signal Model Example 4