a.y.

2021/2022

Prof. Stefano Bifaretti

Department of Industrial Engineering
 Introduction

• An automatic control system is able to impose the desired

waveforms, applied to the system inputs, to one or more
controlled variables (outputs) in a physical process on the
basis of a suitable control law, without human
involvement.

• the controlled variables are referred to a physical process:

position, speed, voltage, current, temperature….

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 2/27

 Introduction
Problem: define the input command profile able to achieve
the desired profile of the controlled variable

desired
Controlled
reference
signal Command command Physical Variable
generation Actuator
Process

I solution – Open loop control

The command profile can be achieved on the base of the mathematical model of the
plant (actuator and physical process)

In case of a constant value for the desired reference such a method can assure satisfactory
results while, when a time-varying profile is needed, is usually quite difficult to achieve
the right command profile.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 3/27

 Example: DC variable speed drive w

Reference command vu
Command DC-DC
DC Motor
vi Generator Converter
vc
PWM
vi vc
+
-
vg

The dc motor furnishes a rotational speed w = k·vu proportional to the applied voltage.
The reference speed can be generated by an electrical voltage signal, obtained thorough a
potentiometer, proportional to the desired speed. is used to generate the input command of a DC-DC
converter supplying the motor.
An open-loop control is a low-cost solution and quite simple to implement; however, it is strongly
affected by external disturbances (i.e. the hand pressure over the disc used as a load) that, varying
the load torque, can reduce the rotor speed making the control action ineffective.
Such a type of control is affected by parametric variations in the command chain as well.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 4/27

 Introduction

Reference Controlled
Signal error command Physical variable
 Regulator Actuator
Process

Measure
Trasnsducer

II solution – Closed-loop Control

The difference among the desired reference signal and the measured value of the
controlled variable furnishes the error signal. On the basis of the error a specific
function, denoted as Regulator, provides the command signal to the actuator.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 5/27

 Closed-loop Control
• A closed-loop control is a process that permits to the system input to be modified by its
output
• Such a system determines the control action starting from the error signal
• The regulator (or controller) goal is to track the reference signal, bringing the error
signal towards zero
Benefits
• Faster tracking of the desired reference and with smaller steady-state errors than open-
loop systems
• higher robustness, i.e. the controlled output is kept nearer to the desired value even in
case of external disturbances action (disturbances rejection) and/or in presence of
parametric variation (low sensitivity)
• Non-linearity reduction

Drawbacks
• Higher system complexity
• Higher costs both for hardware (transducers and controllers, analog or digital) and for
software, (control algorithm development)

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 6/27

 Example: variable speed drive
Plant

wrif v vc va Motor
w
 Regulator Converter +
Load

Tachimeter

The control law is implemented into the Regulator, whose implementation

affects the static and dynamic system performance.
In order to define the control law it is necessary to determine the plant
mathematical model, composed of the actuator and the physical process.
Usually the systems are non-linear but, under suitable hypothesis, it is possible
to consider a linear behavior in defined operating intervals.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 7/27

 Linear Systems
The dynamic model of a linear system is described by a linear differential equation
with constant coefficients. The Laplace’s Transformation method permits to
represent differential equations into algebraic equations thus, achieving a
functional model in the Laplace variable s which describes the system’s dynamic
behavior. Such a representation is denoted as Transfer Function (TF).

U(S) Y(S) 𝑌(𝑠)

F(S) 𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑈(𝑠)

The TF is always expressed as a ratio among two polynomial functions in the

variable s
𝑁(𝑠) 𝑠 − 𝑧1 𝑠 − 𝑧2 ⋯ (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 ) ς𝑚
1 (𝑠 − 𝑧𝑚 )
𝐹 𝑠 = =𝑘 =𝑘 𝑛
𝐷(𝑠) (𝑠 − 𝑝1 )(𝑠 − 𝑝2 ) ⋯ (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 ) ς1 (𝑠 − 𝑝𝑛 )
k is the static gain, zi are the zeros, pi are the poles of F(s)

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 8/27

 Linear Systems
The system response Y(s) to a given input U(s) can be achieved as:
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠 𝐹(𝑠)
The system transient behavior is usually characterized by the impulse response
( U(s)=1 ) and from the step response ( U(s)=1/s ).

𝑌 𝑠 ≡ 𝐹(𝑠) Impulse response transformation

1
𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠) Step response transformation
𝑠
To obtain the response in the time domain y(t) the inverse Laplace transformation has to
be used:

𝑦 𝑡 = L−1 𝑌 𝑠

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 9/27

 Linear Systems
Knowing the TF F(s) poles it is possible to express Y(s) as a sum of fractions, using
the residue theorem. In case of unitary multiplicity poles:
𝑘 𝑙
𝑅 𝑅𝑖 𝑅𝑖𝑐 w2𝑛𝑖 (1 + 𝜃𝑖 𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 = +෍ +෍ 2
𝑠 𝑠 − 𝑝𝑖 𝑠 + 2zw𝑛𝑖 𝑠 + w2𝑛𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

y(t) is achieved by a linear combination of the following terms:

𝑅
L−1 =𝑅
𝑠

−1
𝑅𝑖
L = 𝑅𝑒 𝑝𝑖 𝑡
𝑠 − 𝑝𝑖

𝑅𝑖𝑐 w2𝑛𝑖 (1 + 𝜃𝑖 𝑠)
L−1 = 𝑅𝑒 σ𝑖 𝑡
sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑠 + 2zw𝑛𝑖 𝑠 + w𝑛𝑖
2 2

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 10/27

 Linear Systems
Stability definition
A stationary linear system is stable if its response is limited in amplitude when a
limited input is applied (Bounded Input Bounded output, BIBO).

A system with only real negative poles and/or real negative parts (in case of complex
poles) is denoted as asymptotically stable as every contributions of the poles to the
impulse response y(t) tends toward zero. In presence of a poles in the origin, the
impulse response tends to a constant value, thus the system is denoted as stable.
In conclusion:

If lim 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ≠ 0 the system is stable

𝑡→∞

If lim 𝑦 𝑡 = 0 the system is asymptotically stable

𝑡→∞

If lim 𝑦 𝑡 = ∞ the system is unstable

𝑡→∞

The stability is an intrinsic property of the system, thus it is independent from the initial
conditions and from the applied input.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 11/27

 BLOCK DIAGRAMS
To schematically represent a mathematical model of a linear system, a schematic
block diagram can be used in order to simply highlight the input-to-output
information flow.

Ideal block characteristics:

• Unidirectional (the signal is flowing in only one direction, indicated by the
arrow)
• The signal can be propagated on more functional blocks without any
modifications

U(S) Y(S)
F(S)

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 12/27

 BLOCK DIAGRAMS

• Summing node

I1 Y
Y=I1 ± I2
±
I2
• Propagation node

I
I

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 13/27

 BLOCK DIAGRAMS

• Cascaded Blocks

U Y
G1 G2

is equivalent to

U Y
G=G1*G2

Y = G* U where G= G1*G2

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 14/27

 Feedback Control Systems
Block Diagram

U(S) + E(S) Y(S)

G(S)
-
F(S)
H(S)

G(s) includes the TF of the Regulator and the TF of the process

W(s) is the closed-loop system TF
• F = HY ; E = U – F ; Y = GE
Y (s) G(s)
• Y = GU – GF = GU – GHY W (s) = =
• Y + GHY=GU U (s) 1  G (s) H (s)

U(s) Y(s)
W(s)

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 15/27

 Feedback Control Systems
Feedback control systems have a reduced sensitivity to
external disturbances and to parameters variations.
G
Supposing G and H as constants Y (s) = U (s)
1  GH

1
If, as practically verified, GH>>1 Y (s)  U (s)
H
i.e. the system response depends only from H

Example: a linear amplifier with constant gain G=10000 and instantaneous

feedback gain H=0.1
10000
Y (s) = U ( s)  9.99U ( s)
1  10000*0.1
9000
If G expects a 10% Y (s) = U ( s)  9.989U ( s)
variation (G=9000) 1  9000*0.1

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 16/27

 Feedback Control Systems - Stability
U(S) + E(S)
G(S)
Y(S)
G(s) = K
 (1  s )
i zi

- s  (1  s )
h
i pi

F(S) N H (s)
H(S) H (s) =
DH ( s )
Closed-loop TF

G (s) K  i (1  s zi )
W (s) = = h
1  G ( s ) H ( s ) s  i (1  s pi )DH ( s )  K  N H ( s ) i (1  s zi )

The stability of the closed-loop TF depends on the interaction on the G(s) and H(s) as well
as the gain K that moves the poles of the open-loop plant G(s) in other positions.
Thus, even if G(s) was stable, it is not assured that the W(s) is stable as well.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 17/27

 Error Transfer Function
Considering an instantaneous feedback with fixed gain 0<Kh≤1

+

U(S) E(S) Y(S)
G(S) (1  s )
G(s) = K i zi
- s  (1  s )
h
i pi

Kh where h is the poles number positioned in

the origin included in G(s) which identifies
the system type

E ( s ) = U ( s )  K h E ( s )G ( s )
E ( s) 1
We ( s ) = = 1  W ( s) =
U (s) 1  K hG ( s)

s h  i (1  s pi )
We ( s ) = Closed-loop error TF
s h
 (1  s
i pi )  K  K h  i (1  s zi )

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 18/27

 Steady-state Error
• 1 i=0 -> Step
Canonical Input waveform U(s) U (s) =
s i 1 i=1 -> Ramp
• Final value Theorem

1
er = lim e(t ) = lim sWe ( s)U ( s) = lim sWe ( s)
t  s 0 s 0 s i 1
s h i
Steady-state error er = lim h
s 0 s  K K
h

System Type (h)

0 1 2
Step 1
1  Kh K 0 0
I (1/s, i=0)
N Ramp 1
P ∞ 0
(1/s2, i=1) Kh K
U
Parabolic 1
T ∞ ∞
(1/s3, i=2) Kh K
 Harmonic (or Frequency) Response

𝑢 𝑡 = Asin 𝜔𝑡 U(S) Y(S)

F(S)
𝐴𝜔 𝐴𝜔
𝑈 𝑠 =L 𝑢 𝑡 = 2 𝑌 𝑠 = F(s) 2
𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝑠 + 𝜔2

𝑦 𝑡 = A 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠=𝑗𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑(𝜔))

𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠=𝑗𝜔 and 𝜑 𝜔 are, respectively, the system harmonic response in

amplitude and phase. They describe the system behavior for sinusoidal inputs as
a function of the angular frequency w.

The harmonic response can be graphically represented by Bode diagrams of the

amplitude and phase.

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 20/27

 Harmonic (or Frequency) Response
Bode Diagram
Gm = Inf dB (at Inf rad/s) , Pm = 90 deg (at 2e+003 rad/s)
20

10

-10
Magnitude (dB)

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

-70

-80
0

-45
Phase (deg)

-90

-135

-180
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/s)

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 21/27

 Harmonic (or Frequency) Response
Gain Crossover wgc: The frequency value in which 𝐹(𝑗wgc) = 1 (0 db)
Phase Crossover wpc: The frequency value in which 𝜑 wpc = -180

Bode Stability Criterion

The system is stable if, for the open-loop TF G(s), the following conditions are
verified:
1. 𝜑 wgc > -180°
2. 𝐹(𝑗wpc) < 0
The criterion is valid only for minimum phase functions (i.e. with no positive zeros)

Gain Margin (GM): - 𝐹(𝑗wpc) 𝑑𝑏

Phase Margin (PM): 180°- 𝜑 wgc

Typical GM values: 3÷8 db
Typical PM values: 30÷60°

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 22/27

 PID Regulators

u(t)

The PID Regulator PID is widely employed in the control of many industrial processes
Benefit:
• Good performances if the tuning is accurate
• Can be employed independently from the process type (mechanical, hydraulic,
thermal, electric)
• Does not require detailed knowledge of mathematical model
• Tuning of 1, 2 or 3 parameters are needed depending on the required control
actions (P, P+I or P+I+D)
• Simple implementation in either analog or digital environment

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 23/27

 PID Regulators
Proportional Action P

u (t ) = K P  e(t )

Furnishes an action proportional to the instantaneous error value, thus able to perform a
fast error correction.
A large Kp value implies a significant reaction even on low error variations. Moreover:
• increases the control bandwidth, thus the system is able to track faster reference
variations, including the noise (undesired signal)
• reduces the steady-state error tracking for type 0 systems (no poles in the origin)

A low Kp value implies a weak reaction on the control variable even in presence of
significant error values

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 24/27

 PID Regulators
Integral Action I
t
u (t ) = K I   e( )d
0

Benefits:
• Accounts for the history of the error, acting as a mechanical inertia
• Introduces a pole in the origin which permits to obtain a zero steady-state error
for a step reference input if the plant model does not include any poles in the
origin

Drawbacks:
• Increases the phase delay in the direct chain and determines a reduction of both
gain and phase stability margins

Notice: If the plant model includes any poles in the origin the integral action has not
to be used to avoid the above mentioned drawback
Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 25/27
 PID Regulators
Derivative Action D

de(t )
u (t ) = K D
dt
Benefits:
• Produce very fast response on rapid error variations, thus a step reference change
generates a large correction that has to be limited imposing a saturation
• Phase leading action which improves the gain and phase stability margins

Drawbacks:
• Amplifies high frequencies signals including noise
• Rarely used in power converters controllers

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 26/27

 PI Regulators
U(s)  E(s)  Y(s)
Kp G(s)


Ki / s

R(s)

Kh

Ki
s
Ki Kp 1  s i 1
R( s) = ( K p  ) = K p = Kp i =
s s s i Ki
• Introduces a pole in the origin which permits to obtain a zero steady-state error
for a step
• Introduces a zero which permits to increase the phase stability margin

Power Electronics – Introduction to automatic control systems 27/27